Engineering

1. Fundamentals
Always write convention. ⟳ +𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, → +𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
Mass – the amount of matter an object displaces, in 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Force – a interaction between bodies, in a direction in 𝑁𝑁
Weight – attraction between mass and the Earth 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Action – force applied to an object from outside 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Reaction – force applied to balance another force
Friction – prevents motion between objects

Scalar – only magnitude (size)

Vector – magnitude, direction, Sense (motion of the line), point of application (start)

Simple machines
Inclined plane Makes it easier to slide something up a plane.
Pulley Reduces effort to lift something.
Lever A force acting over distance, magnifies effort.
1. Fulcrum is in between effort and load.
2. Load is in between effort and fulcrum.
3. Effort is in between fulcrum and load.

Wheel & axle Allows for a wheel to be turned by a motor.

Gears Increases or decreases mechanical action.
Chain drive Transfers rotational motion laterally.
Screw An advanced inclined plane, which magnifies effort and friction.

Engineers select materials for a range of reasons:

- Functionality
- Availability
- Cost
- Special properties
- Environmental impact
- Aesthetics
- Workability

There are a range of materials:

Metals A solid, malleable and ductile substance that can easily conduct heat and
electricity.
Non-metals A brittle material that insulates heat and electricity, which can form
compounds.
Polymer An organic substance that can be easily moulded and are a good insulator.
Natural Produced from a life cycle of flora or fauna.

Materials bond into a range of different structures: (primary)

Metal + Metallic The free electrons form a sea, which attract the (naturally-repelling)
metal nucleus together.
Non-metal + Ionic The metal gives the non-metal its free electrons.
metal
Non-metal + Covalent The non-metals share electrons.
non-metal
 Secondary bonding, when small differences in charge between atoms (called diploes) help bind them
together – van der Wall forces.

Polymorphs/Allotropes – materials that can have multiple crystalline structure.

Body Centred Cubic (BCC) Face Centred Cubic (FCC) Hexagon Close Packed (HCP)

Non-crystalline/Amorphous, materials that do not form a crystalline structure.

Ferrous materials are primarily iron. Steels are iron mixed with carbon and are classified by carbon
content.

Austenite FCC structure in steels, only exists when red hot.

Ferrite BCC structure in steels/irons at room temperature.
Cementite When austenite transforms, some is left as ferrite and the rest form
cementite which is hard and brittle.
Pearlite Pearlite is a compound of ferrite and cementite, layers of this structure.

Non-ferrous metals are those where iron is not a primary constituent. They metals do not rust as they
have an oxide coating which prevents further corrosion and flaking.
Brass = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍, Bronze = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + Tin.
Forming materials:
Casting Pouring a molten metal/polymer into a mould.
Rolling By using pressure applied by rollers, metals are compressing them – which
changes their thickness and cross section.
Extruding Molten metals are passed through a die – which creates a particular cross section.
Joining metals:
Welding either using pressure, fusion or an alloy (added metal).
Soft soldering tin alloy is used to join two metals together at 183°C.
Brazing/Silver soldering using either bronze to fill small gap or silver at high temperatures to join
dissimilar metals.
Polymers are a chain of carbon-based molecules:
Thermosetting cannot be reshaped, strong primary bonds between chains.
Thermosoftening can be reshaped after heat, weak secondary bonds between chains.

Ceramics are the products from the breakdown of rocks.

Ceramics are very resistant to heat (won’t melt), non-conductive, corrosion resistant, highly porous
and brittle.
To permanently fix their shape they need to be fired (heated to high temperatures).

Sketching
Most of our orthogonal drawings are done in 3rd angle projection.

2. Products
1. Clarify the need. 3rd angle projection
2. Conceptual design phase – ideas
3. Preliminary design phase – analysis of ideas
4. Detailed design phase – optimisation and evaluation

Don’t just have to go into Uni, can go to TAFE/trade course.

Moments:
Clockwise is positive. ⟳ +𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
perpincidular distance from pivot to action

𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 = 𝐹𝐹 × ⏞
𝑑𝑑

All metals are made from crystals, when working hardening is performed (cold working) the metal
becomes harder, but more brittle.

Dislocations are defects within the atomic structure of the metal crystals, these defects move to
the edge of the crystal when force is applied causing deformation. When they end up on the edge,
it causes plastic deformation as a new structure is now formed.
While though annealing (heating up to recrystallization temperature), new crystals are created
though if it is heated to a too extreme degree, it can cause the crystals to grow too massive and
cause irregularities.

Heat treatment can either harden (harder – more durable):

- Normalising: at critical temperature, air cooling, finer grains
- Quenching: above critical temperature, water cooling, finer grains - brittle

or soften (more ductile – easier to shape) the metal.

- Summary annealing: above critical temperature, slow cooling, new coarse grains
- Process annealing: below critical temperature, air cooling, finer grains, restore ductility
- Tempering: below critical temperature, air cooling to relieve stress – more ductile

Recycling is where materials are reprocessed to be used as new. It can reduce cost and waste for
businesses.
Metals and plastics are sorted, then melted and recast into new materials.

Alloys is a combination of two metals, which leads to more rigidity as the new atoms block
dislocations.

Composites is the combination of a matrix phase imbedded with a dispersed phase, it usually gives
better properties of a new material.
A phase is a distinct form of an element characterised by shape, structure or properties.
- Particle reinforced: either large particles or dispersion strengthened [inter-molecular].
- Fibre reinforced: fibres strengthen a matrix.
- Structural composites: either laminated/layered or honeycomb.

Electronics
Electrical current is the flow of electric charge.

Voltage is electrical pressure, measures potential difference in circuit. Measured in Volts, 𝑉𝑉

Current is the measure of charge volume/movement in a circuit. Measured in Amps, 𝐴𝐴
Resistance is the opposition to current flow, this can be caused by collisions between electrons,
between atoms of the material. Measured in Ohms, Ω

𝑉𝑉
Ohms law: 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅

Electricity can severely disturb the body and can lead to fatalities; the body has a natural resistance of
~10𝑘𝑘 Ω. Though ground wires, double insulation (with plastic) and circuit brakers still protect us.

Series circuit: current is the same for all elements, voltage is split across components.
Parallel circuit: voltage is the same for all elements, current is split across components.

Electrical energy is generated through a conductor moving in a magnetic field.

Direct current (𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷), electrical flow is one direction.

Alternating current (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴), electrical flow is in both directions, oscillating many times per second.

3. Braking
Systems

External shoe brake: block of wood against the wheel, wears out
quickly.
Band brake: band tightens around a hub, slowing it down, not weather resistant.
Drum brake: shoes pushed against the hub within a drum, tendency to heat up.
Disc brakes: brake pads (callipers) clamp a rotor, slowing it down, is weatherproof as self-cleaning
due to airflow.

Hydraulic brakes: used hydraulic pressure to actuate the brakes, more reliable and has more force.
Brake booster: uses vacuum power (from the engine) to give extra force when actuating the brakes.

Regenerative brakes: turn rotational (motor) power back into electricity.

Pascal principle is that the pressure is that same at all points in a fluid.
𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 = , 𝐹𝐹 in Newtons, 𝑃𝑃 in Pascals, 𝐴𝐴 in m2.
𝐴𝐴

force down the plane

⏞
𝑃𝑃
Angle of friction/inclination: tan 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜇𝜇, = 𝜇𝜇
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
When body is at point of moving:
- Pulled upwards 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 𝜇𝜇(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑃𝑃 sin 𝜃𝜃)
 - Pushed down 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 𝜇𝜇(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑃𝑃 sin 𝜃𝜃)
𝑃𝑃
Stress equation: 𝜎𝜎 = , with 𝜎𝜎 being stress in 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃, 𝑃𝑃 force in 𝑁𝑁. With an object with multiple cross-
𝐴𝐴
sections, you choose the small cross-section to maximise stress, vice versa.

Stress is a limiting factor of a material, both stress and strain are not directly related to length of the
material. Meaning that two blocks of the same material and cross-section with two different lengths
would experience the same strain when subject to the same force.

When there is plastic

deformation, 𝜀𝜀 ∝ 𝜎𝜎

Work is energy change due to a

𝜎𝜎

change in an object’s attributes or

location in Joules ( 𝐽𝐽).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹 ⏞𝑠𝑠
Kinetic: energy due to motion
1
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2
2
𝜀𝜀 Potential: energy due to position
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ
1
Strain: energy due to deformation: 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
2

𝑊𝑊
Power is rate to do work in Watts ( 𝑊𝑊), 𝑃𝑃 = = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝑡𝑡

Equiaxed grains: similar dimensions in 2 axes (square-like)

Equilibrium: atoms are allowed to arrange themselves into their optimal
sturcture.

Ferrite: very soft, ductile BCC iron with every low carbon content
Cementite: very hard, brittle BCC iron with 6.67% carbon content and is a
compound = Fe3 C
Type of steel Carbon content Uses
Dead mild – equiaxed ferrite and 0.05-0.15 Chain, rivets
pearlite
Mild – e. ferrite and pearlite 0.15-0.30 Structural
steels, gears,
Harder/brittle ↔ Malleable/Ductile

screws & nuts

Medium carbon – pearlite and e. 0.30-0.60 Axles,
ferrite springs,
shafts
High carbon – pearlite and 0.60-0.90 Dies, brake
cementite 0.80 cable wire
Eutectoid steel – pearlite Brake cable
wire,
Tool steel – pearlite and 0.90-1.40 Cutting tools,
cementite ball bearings
White cast iron – pearlite in 1.3-3.6 Dies and
cementite matrix wearing
plates
Grey cast iron – pearlite/ferrite 2.4-3.6 Brake master
with graphite flakes cylinders
 Spheroidal graphite cast iron – 3.0-4.0 Brake discs
pearlite/ferrite with graphite
nodules

Mechanical properties:
Benefits of CAD:
Brittleness Lack of plastic deformation, will Faster, more precise and easier to access than
fracture when affected by a load. drawings. It is in 3D, can be transformed easily
and printed out easily.

Ductility A material’s ability to be plastically Sectioning is used to expose detail of an

deformed by elongation (tensile object, by ‘removing’ material shown through a
load).
cutting plane on a 3d view. Material cut through
Hardness A material’s ability to resist changes is shown with cross hatching. (Section _ view)
to shape from external loads. Nuts, bolts, rivets, washers, pins are not
sectioned.
Malleability The ease at which a material is
deformed under compression load. Nuts & bolts:

Stiffness The resistance to deformation by an

external force.

Strength The ability to oppose deformation

from external loads.

Toughness The ability to absorb external

stresses and plastically deform
instead of fracturing.

4. Biomedical
Biomedical is using engineering to help design methods for diagnosis and treatment of injuries and
diseases.

Bio-engineering fields:
- Bio-mechanics: mechanical functioning of body parts
- Bio-materials: study of materials compatible with living tissue
- Bio-instrumentation: design of instruments to monitor and measure bio-engineered
devices
- Bio-computing: simulating biology (biophysics)
- Rehabilitation engineering: design of rehabilitation equipment (e.g., wheelchairs)
- Systems physiology: observation and measurement of biology/physiological events

All bio-engineered products have health and safety concerns as they can be incompatible because of
construction of implant and/or nature of surgery.

Engineers can sometimes manage to initiate design and coordinate experts.

Bio-engineers have to develop mechanisms to imitate the function of a human organ and be
compatible with a living tissue e.g., glasses, braces, fillings

Can use moments to calculate the balance of levers, with effort being the force being put into a
system and load being the work done because of the system.
Mechanical advantage: is the load out of a lever proportional to effort.
load 𝐿𝐿
Mechanical advantage: MA = = ,
effort 𝐸𝐸
radius of effort arm
velocity of effort displacement of effort 𝑟𝑟�
Velocity ratio: 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = = 𝐸𝐸
radius of load arm
velocity of load displacement of load
𝑟𝑟�
𝐿𝐿

For 2nd order lever: 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 & 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 > 1

For 3rd order lever: 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 & 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 < 1

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 output work

Efficiency (as a percentage): 𝜂𝜂 = × 100 = , a machine is almost never 100% efficient.
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 input work
VR is never effected by efficiency.

1
Inclined plane: 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
sin 𝜃𝜃
Block and tackle: 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = ∑ropesmax , determined by the number of ropes
supporting the load.

𝑣𝑣 of input pulley 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜

Belts: 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = = =
𝑣𝑣 of output pulley 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖
# of my gear teeth
Revolutions: 1 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
# of other gear teeth

For an 100% efficient hydraulic system:

𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑2
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑑𝑑22, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑑𝑑22 , which 𝑑𝑑 being diameter, 𝑑𝑑2 is diameter of load piston
1 1

𝑜𝑜
Material fabrication: 𝑖𝑖
Welding: Fusing together two similar metals.
Brazing: Joining together steel with brass (which flows around the
steel pieces – filling gaps), good in shear not in tension or
compression
Soldering: Joining together metals (particularly electronics) with a
lead-tin alloy, less strong then brazing
Bolting: Using fasteners to join to materials through an extra
component. ⌀ = 𝑑𝑑1
Adhesives: Using glues to fabricate polymers or woods (not metals). Effort

With welding: the heat affected zone is where the material has been ⌀ = 𝑑𝑑2
affected by weld, it is weaker than the parent material and the grains Load
become equiaxed.

Casting: pouring molten metal into hollow cavity, allowing it to solidify into
a desired shape. It is cheap, efficient, fast and flexible.

Sand casting is where pattern (shape of final product) is used to create a

sand mould (negative), then molten metal is poured in and that cools
into the final form.
Choke: controls flow rate; spruce: main feed line

Shell casting: an extra resin-based sand mould is used leading to finer

detail and greater dimensional accuracy.

Investment casting: wax mould is made which is made from a core and
the final product is snapped off the core.
 Centrifugal casting: continual centrifugal force creates hollow objects (i.e., pipes)
Die casting: a permanent metal mould is created of which molten metal is poured into.

Forging: metal is plastically deformed to achieve a desired shape.

Hot working is done above the metal’s recrystallisation temperature, which means the grains reform
into more stable structures.
Cooling working, grains become compressed/stretch when worked, leading to higher strength across
the stretch direction yet increased brittleness and lower durability.

Secondary recrystallisation the metal is held above recrystallisation temperature means that the small
equiaxed grains become enlarged.

Blacksmithing: repeated hammering by hand.

Drop forging: repeated hammering by machine.
Press forging: forged through a minimal amount of actions.
Upsetting: increases cross-sectional area of a piece.
Swaging: changes diameter of a tube.

Materials for use in bio-engineered products must be inert (not chemically react):
- Stainless steel: has a thin oxide layer protects from corrosion, hard, strong and used as surgical
pins, bionic ears and artificial hearts.
- Titanium: excellent strength to weight ratio, high yield strength and corrosion resistance. Used in hip
joints, bone screws, dental implants and pacemakers.
- Polymers: stable, inert and impact resistance. Used as prosthesis, cochlear implants.
- Ceramics: less ductile, compressive strength and high wear resistance. Used in dental implants and
hip replacements.

Power: 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

Integrated circuits are miniaturised circuits manufactured onto a single chip of silicon made up of
many resistors, capacitors, transistors and diodes.

Maths equation true if:

𝑎𝑎 & 𝑏𝑏 are logical inputs
AND Gate 2 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏

OR Gate 1 ≥ 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏

NAND Gate 2 > 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏

NOR Gate 0 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏

NOT Gate: 1 − 𝑎𝑎

XOR Gate: 1 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏