MODULE-5

Introduction:
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) also known as Thyristor is a three-
terminal and four-layer unidirectional current-controlling semiconductor device.
It is made up of silicon materials and is mainly used for controlling high
power and conversion of high ac current into dc current. Hence the named silicon-
controlled rectifier.

As like the p-n junction diode, SCR allows electric current in one direction and it
blocks electric current in another direction. A normal p-n junction diode consists
of two semiconductor layers namely p-type material and n-type material.
Whereas an SCR consists of four semiconductor layers alternating p-type and n-
type materials. In addition to Anode and Cathode terminal, there is also
a Gate terminal on SCR.

The name “silicon controlled rectifier” is General Electric’s trade name for a type
of Thyristor. SCR is mostly used member of the Thyristor family and is more
popular than other Thyristors like TRIAC, SCS, DIAC, etc. Hence the device is
often referred by Thyristor.

SCRs are widely used in different applications like rectification, regulation of

power and inversion, etc. It is an essential component in the construction of
almost all modern switching power supplies by controlling the amount
of power going into the output terminal.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Symbol:

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) consists of three terminals namely Anode
(A), Cathode (K), and Gate (G) terminal. The device can be
turned ON or OFF by controlling the gate input or biasing condition of SCR. The
schematic symbol of SCR is shown in the figure below. The arrow of
the diode represents the direction of conventional current flow.

Construction of Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR):

Basically, Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is a four-layer and three-terminal
semiconductor device. It is made up of four semiconductor layers of alternating p-
type and n- materials which form a PNPN or NPNP structure. Hence it has three
p-n junctions J1, J2, and J3. These junctions may alloyed or diffused based on the
type of construction.

The three terminals Anode (A), Cathode (K), and Gate (G) are arranged in such a
way that Gate (G) terminal is attached to the p-type layer nearer to the Cathode (K)
terminal in the PNPN structure. A typical structure of SCR with P-N-P-N
layers (PNPN form) is shown in the figure below.

Here, Anode (A) is a positively charged electrode and the conventional current
enters into the device through this terminal. Cathode (K) is a negatively charged
electrode and conventional current leaves the device through this terminal. Gate
(G) is a control terminal that controls the flow of current between Anode
(A) and Cathode (K).

In the structure of SCR with PNPN form, the Anode (A) terminal is connected to
the first P-type layer, and Cathode (K) terminal is connected to the last N-type
layer. The gate (G) terminal is connected to the second p-type layer nearer to
Cathode (K) as shown in the above figure. The outer layers (first P-type and last N-
type layer) of SCR are heavily doped whereas middle P and N- type layers are
lightly doped. In SCR, silicon is used as an intrinsic semiconductor to form P-
type and N-type layers because silicon has a very small leakage current in
comparison to germanium.

From the structure of SCR, it is seen that a single SCR is a combination of

one PNP transistor (Q1) and one NPN transistor (Q2). The emitter of Q1 acts as
the Anode terminal and the emitter of Q2 acts as the cathode terminal of SCR.
Further, the base of Q1 is connected to the collector of Q2 and the collector of Q1
is connected to the base of Q2. The Gate terminal of SCR is connected to the base
of Q2. This analogy of SCR as a combination of two transistors is
called two transistor model. The structure of SCR as two transistor model is
shown in the figure below.

Modes of operation in Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR):

Depending on the biasing given to SCR, there are three modes of operation. They
are

1. Forward Blocking Mode (OFF State)

2. Forward Conducting Mode (ON State)
3. Reverse Blocking Mode (OFF State)

1. Forward Blocking Mode (OFF State):

In this mode of operation, a positive voltage (+) is given to the Anode
(A) terminal of SCR, and a negative voltage (-) is given to Cathode (K). The Gate
(G) terminal is open-circuited as shown in the figure below.
Under this condition, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased whereas junction J2 is
in reverse biased condition. The depletion region at junction J2 blocks the flow
of current from junction J1 to junction J3 as it acts obstacle or wall between them.
However, a small amount of leakage current flows between these junctions
J2 and J3.

When the applied voltage across the SCR reaches a breakdown voltage,
the avalanche breakdown occurs due to high energy minority carriers. The
current starts flowing through the SCR at this breakdown voltage and there is no
current flow below the breakdown voltage because SCR offers very high
resistance to the current below the breakdown voltage and acts as an open
switch by blocking the forward current. Hence it will be in an OFF state.

From above, it is observed that the SCR is in forward biasing condition but there
is no current flow through it. Hence this mode of operation is named forward
locking mode.

2. Forward Conducting Mode (ON State):

In this mode of operation, the SCR comes into the conduction mode from
blocking mode. It can be done in two ways, i.e. either by increasing the forward
bias voltage (voltage across Anode and Cathode) beyond the breakdown
voltage or by applying positive pulse or voltage at the Gate terminal. The biasing
of SCR in this mode is shown in the figure below.
In the first case, the forward bias voltage applied between Anode and Cathode is
increased beyond the breakdown voltage, the depletion region breakdown occurs
at J2, and the current starts flowing through SCR. In this condition, the SCR will be
in an ON state. After the occurrence of junction breakdown, the current flow in
SCR increases rapidly as shown in V-I Characteristics below.

In the second case, a small positive pulse or voltage VG is applied to the Gate
terminal of SCR as shown in the figure above. When the gate voltage is applied to
the gate terminal, the reverse biased junction J2 in forward blocking mode will
become forward biased, and the depletion region width becomes very narrow. In
this condition, a small forward bias voltage between Anode and Cathode can
easily penetrate this narrow depletion region. Therefore on applying a
small forward bias voltage, an electric current starts flowing through the SCR and
it will be in an ON state.

Once the SCR starts conducting, no more gate voltage is needed to maintain it in
the ON state. The minimum current required to maintain the SCR in the ON state
on the removal of gate voltage VG is called latching current.

Any one of these methods results in avalanche breakdown at junction J2 and

hence the SCR turns into conduction mode and acts as a closed switch thereby
current starts flowing through it. Here, the SCR is forward biased and current flows
through it. Hence this mode of operation is named as forward conducting mode.
3. Reverse Blocking Mode (OFF State):
In this mode of operation, a positive voltage (+) is given to Cathode (K) terminal,
and a negative voltage (-) is given to Anode (A), Gate (G) terminal is an open
circuit as shown in the figure below.

Under this condition, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased whereas junction J2 is
in forward biased condition. As junctions J1 and J3 are reverse-biased, there is no
current flow through the SCR. But due to the drift of the charge carrier in a
forward-biased junction J2, there is small leakage current flow in SCR which is
not sufficient to turn ON the device. Hence the SCR will be in an OFF state and
acts as an open switch.

The SCR offers high impedance in this mode of operation until the applied
voltage is less than the reverse breakdown voltage VBR. If the reverse applied is
greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, the avalanche breakdowns occur at
junction J2 and hence increase reverse current flow in the SCR device. This
reverse current causes more losses in SCR and produces heat on more increasing
it. When the reverse voltage applied to SCR is more than VBR, There will be
considerable damage to the device.
V-I Characteristics of Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR):
The V-I characteristics of SCR are shown in the figure below. In this V-I
characteristic, the horizontal line represents the amount of voltage
applied VA across the SCR and the vertical line represents the amount of current
flow IA in the SCR.

Here, the V-I characteristics of SCR are divided into three regions. They are:

1. Forward Blocking Region

The region OA in V-I characteristics is called the forward blocking region. This
region represents the forward-blocking mode of SCR operation. In this region, the
forward bias voltage is given to SCR where positive voltage is given to Anode, the
negative is given to SCR and Gate is open-circuited. In this condition, the
junctions J1 and J3 become forward biased whereas junction J2 becomes reverse
biased. A small leakage current flows from the Anode terminal to the Cathode
terminal of SCR which is known as a forward leakage current. The SCR does not
conduct electric current and the device is in an OFF state in this region.

2. Forward Conduction Region

The region BC in V-I characteristics is called the forward conduction region. This
region represents the forward conduction mode of SCR operation. In this region,
the current flowing from Anode to Cathode increases rapidly. When the forward
bias voltage applied between Anode and Cathode is increased beyond the
breakdown voltage, the depletion region breakdown occurs at junction J2 and the
current starts flowing through the SCR and it will be in the ON state. The current
flow in this region increases rapidly after junction J2 breakdown occurs. The
voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs when the Gate is open is known
as forward breakdown voltage (VBF)

The region AB in V-I characteristics indicates that as soon as the SCR becomes
ON, the voltage across the SCR drops to some volts.

3. Reverse Blocking Region

The region OE in the V-I characteristics is called the reverse blocking region. This
region represents the reverse blocking mode of SCR operation. In this region, the
reverse bias voltage is applied to SCR where a positive voltage is given to
Cathode, a negative voltage is given to Anode, and the Gate terminal is open-
circuited. In this condition, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased whereas the
junction is forward biased. As junction J1 and J3 are in reverse biased condition,
there is no current flow through SCR. But due to the drift of the charge carrier in
forward-biased junction J2, there is small leakage current flow in SCR which is not
enough to turn ON the device. Hence the SCR will be in an OFF state in this
region.

When the reverse bias voltage between Anode and Cathode is increased beyond
the reverse breakdown voltage VBR, an avalanche breakdown occurs, and the
current increases rapidly. The region EF in V-I characteristics is known as the
reverse avalanche region.
Applications of SCR:
The main application of SCR is switching and power control. The followings are
some applications that use switching and power control properties of SCR.

 It is used as a switch
 It is used b in AC voltage stabilizers
 It is used in choppers (DC to Dc converters)
 It is used for inverters (DC to AC converters)
 It is used in battery charger
 It is used for power control circuits
 It is used in DC circuit breaker
 It is used for AC power control with a solid relay
 It is used to control motors speed
 It is used to adjust the light dimmer
 It is used in fan speed regulators

Advantages of SCR:
The followings are some advantages of SCR.

 It can handle large voltage, current, and power.

 The voltage drop across conducting SCR is small which will reduce the
power dissipation.
 Triggering circuits are simple.
 Easy to turn ON.
 It has a higher switching speed.
 It can be protected with the help of a fuse.
 It is simple to control.
 Disadvantages of SCR:
The followings are the disadvantages of SCR.

 It can conduct only in one direction. So power control can be done only
during half cycle of ac.
 The gate current cannot be negative
 It cannot be used at high frequency as it can be operated at a maximum
frequency of 400 HZ.
 It needs to be turned on each cycle in ac circuits.

What is IGBT? Construction, Types, Working and Applications

IGBT – Working, Types, Structure, Operation & Applications

Thyristors are the most used components in modern electronics and logic circuits
are used for switching and amplification. BJT and MOSFET are the most used
types of the transistor where each of them has its own advantage over the other and
some limitations. The IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) takes the best parts
of both BJT and MOSFET into a single transistor. It takes the input characteristics
(high input impedance) of MOSFET (Insulated Gate) and the output characteristics
of BJT (Bipolar nature).

Table of Contents
 What is IGBT?
 Construction of IGBT
 Equivalent Structure of IGBT
 Working of IGBT
 Types of IGBT
o Punch through IGBT
o Non Punch through IGBT
 V-I Characteristics of IGBT
 General Comparison with BJT and MOSFET
 Advantages & Disadvantages of IGBT
 Applications of IGBT
What is IGBT?
The IGBT or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is the combination of BJT and
MOSFET. Its name also implies the fusion between them. “Insulated Gate” refers
to the input part of MOSFET having very high input impedance. It does not draw
any input current rather it operates on the voltage at its gate terminal. “Bipolar”
refers to the output part of the BJT having bipolar nature where the current flow is
due to both types of charge carriers. It allows it to handle very large currents and
voltages using small voltage signals. This hybrid combination makes the IGBT a
voltage-controlled device.

It is a four-layer PNPN device having three PN junctions. It has three terminals

Gate (G), Collector(C) and Emitter (E). The terminal’s name also implies being
taken from both transistors. Gate terminal as it is the input part, taken from
MOSFET while the collector and emitter as they are the output, taken from the
BJT.
Related Post:
Construction of IGBT
IGBT is made of four layers of semiconductor to form a PNPN structure. The
collector (C) electrode is attached to P layer while the emitter (E) is attached
between the P and N layers. A P+ substrate is used for the construction of IGBT.
An N- layer is placed on top of it to form PN junction J1. Two P regions are
fabricated on top of N- layer to form PN junction J2. The P region is designed in
such a way to leave a path in the middle for the gate (G) electrode. N+ regions are
diffused over the P region as shown in the figure.

The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. The emitter is directly attached to the
N+ region while the gate is insulated using a silicon dioxide layer. The base P+
layer inject holes into N- layer that is why it is called injector layer. While the N-
layer is called the drift region. Its thickness is proportional to voltage blocking
capacity. The P layer above is known as the body of IGBT.
The N- layer is designed to have a path for current flow between the emitter and
collector through the junction using the channel that is created under the influence
of the voltage at the gate electrode.
Equivalent Structure of IGBT
As we know that IGBT is the combination of input of MOSFET and output of BJT,
it has an equivalent structure to N-channel MOSFET and a PNP BJT in Darlington
configuration. The resistance of the drift region can also be incorporated.

If we look at the structure of the IGBT above, there is more than one path for the
current to flow. The current path is directed from collector to emitter. The first path
is “collector, P+ substrate, N-, P, emitter”. This path is already mentioned using the
PNP transistor in an equivalent structure. The 2nd path is “collector, P+ substrate,
N-, P, N+, emitter”. To include this path, another NPN transistor must be included
in the structure as shown in the figure below.
Working of IGBT
The two terminals of IGBT collector (C) and emitter (E) are used for the
conduction of current while the gate (G) is used for controlling the IGBT. Its
working is based on the biasing between Gate-Emitter terminals and Collector-
Emitter terminals.
The collector-emitter is connected to Vcc such that the collector is kept at a
positive voltage than the emitter. The junction j1 becomes forward biased and j2
becomes reverse biased. At this point, there is no voltage at the gate. Due to
reverse j2, the IGBT remains switched off and no current will flow between
collector and emitter.
Applying a gate voltage VG positive than the emitter, negative charges will
accumulate right beneath the SiO2 layer due to capacitance. Increasing the
VG increases the number of charges which eventually form a layer when the
VG exceeds the threshold voltage, in the upper P-region. This layer form N-channel
that shorts N- drift region and N+ region.
The electrons from the emitter flow from N+ region into N- drift region. While the
holes from the collector are injected from the P+ region into the N- drift region.
Due to the excess of both electrons and holes in the drift region, its conductivity
increase and starts the conduction of current. Hence the IGBT switches ON.

V-I Characteristics of IGBT

Unlike BJT, IGBT is a voltage-controlled device that requires only a small voltage
at its gate to control the collector current. However, the gate-emitter voltage
VGE needs to be greater than the threshold voltage.
Transfer characteristics of the IGBT show the relation of input voltage VGE to
output collector current IC. When the VGE is 0v, there is no IC and the device
remains switched off. When the VGE is slightly increased but remains below
threshold voltage VGET, the device remains switched off but there is a leakage
current. When the VGE exceeds the threshold limit, the IC starts to increase and the
device switches ON. Since it is a unidirectional device, the current only flows in
one direction.
The given graph shows the relation between the collector current IC and collector-
emitter voltage VCE at different levels of VGE. At VGE < VGET the IGBT is in cutoff
mode and the IC = 0 at any VCE. At VGE > VGET, the IGBT goes into active mode,
where the IC increases with an increase in VCE. Furthermore, for each VGE where
VGE1 < VGE2 < VGE3, the IC is different.
The reverse voltage should not exceed the reverse breakdown limit. So does the
forward voltage. If they exceed their respective breakdown limit, uncontrolled
current starts passing through it.
General Comparison with BJT and MOSFET
Characteristic Power BJT Power MOSFET IGBT

Voltage Rating High < 1kV High < 1kV Very High > 1kV

Very High > 500

Current Rating High < 500 A Low < 200 A
A

Input Parameter Base Current, Ib Voltage, VGS Voltage, VGE

Current gain (hfe) Voltage, VGS Voltage, VGE

Input Drive
20-200 3-10V 4-8V
Input Drive Power High Low Low

Input Drive
Complex Simple Simples
Circuitry

Input Impedance Low High High

Output Impedance Low Medium Low

Switching Loss High Low Medium

Switching Speed Low Fast Medium

Cost Low Medium High

Advantages & Disadvantages of IGBT

Advantages
IGBT as a whole has the advantages of both BJT and MOSFET.
 It has higher voltage and current handling capabilities.
 It has a very high input impedance.
 It can switch very high currents using very low voltage.
 It is voltage-controlled i.e. it has no input current and low input losses.
 The gate drive circuitry is simple and cheap.
 It can be easily switched ON by applying positive voltage and OFF by applying
zero or slightly negative voltage.
 It has very low ON-state resistance
 It has a high current density, enabling it to have a smaller chip size.
 It has a higher power gain than both BJT and MOSFET.
 It has a higher switching speed than BJT.

Disadvantages
 It has a lower switching speed than MOSFET.
 It is unidirectional it cannot conduct in reverse.
 It cannot block higher reverse voltage.
 It is costlier than BJT and MOSFET.
 It has latching problems due to the PNPN structure resembling thyristor.

Applications of IGBT
IGBTs have numerous applications used in AC as well as DC circuits. Here are
some of the important applications of IGBT
 It is used in SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) to supply power to sensitive
medical equipment and computers.
 It is used in UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) system.
 It is used in AC and DC motor drives offering speed control.
 It is used in chopper and inverters.
 It is used in solar inverters.
Power Amplifier
What is a Power Amplifier?

Definition

A power amplifier (PA) converts a low-power signal to a higher power one. Two
common examples are audio amplifiers, used to drive loudspeakers and
headphones, and RF power amplifiers, such as those used in the final stage of a
transmitter.

What are the types of power amplifier?

Power amplifiers are divided into classes based on the amplifier’s characteristics.
Classes A, AB, B, and C depend on their conduction angle, which is the number of
degrees in a cycle during which the amplifying device conducts. Classes D and E
are switching amplifiers. Classes D, DG, and H are also common audio amplifiers
that are similar to Class AB but use different techniques to improve efficiency.

Class Conduction angle Input Signal Used Efficiency Linearity

A 360o 100% Lowest Highest
AB 180o-360o 50-100% Medium low Medium high
B 180o 50% Medium high Medium low
C <180o <50% Highest Lowest
What is a Power Amplifier? Types, Classes, Applications

They are used in Audio applications, Radio Communication, Medical Equipment

(MRI) and many more. So, we will learn What is a power amplifier, what are the
different types of power amplifiers, Power Amplifier Classes and a few
applications as well.

Introduction

An amplifier is an electronic device used to increase the magnitude of

voltage/current/power of an input signal. It takes in a weak electrical
signal/waveform and reproduces a similar stronger waveform at the output by
using an external power source.

Depending on the changes it makes to the input signal, amplifiers are broadly
classified into Current, Voltage and Power amplifiers. In this article we will learn
about power amplifiers in detail. For more information on different types of
amplifiers: Different Types and Applications of Amplifiers

What is a Power Amplifier?

A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase the magnitude of

power of a given input signal. The power of the input signal is increased to a level
high enough to drive loads of output devices like speakers, headphones, RF
transmitters etc. Unlike voltage/current amplifiers, a power amplifier is designed to
drive loads directly and is used as a final block in an amplifier chain.
The input signal to a power amplifier needs to be above a certain threshold. So,
instead of directly passing the raw audio/RF signal to the power amplifier, it is first
pre-amplified using current/voltage amplifiers and is sent as input to the power
amp after making necessary modifications. You can observe the block diagram of
an audio amplifier and the usage of power amplifier below.

In this case, a microphone is used as an input source. The magnitude of signal from
the microphone is not enough for the power amplifier. So, first it is pre-amplified,
where its voltage and current are increased slightly. Then the signal is passed
through a tone and volume control circuit, which makes aesthetic adjustments to
the audio waveform. Finally, the signal is passed through a power amplifier and the
output from power amp is to a speaker.

Types of Power Amplifiers

Depending on the type of output device that is connected, power amplifiers are
divided into the following three types:

 Audio Power Amplifiers

 RF Power Amplifiers
 DC Power Amplifiers
Audio Power Amplifiers

This type of power amplifiers are used for increasing the magnitude of power of a
weaker audio Signal. The amplifiers used in speaker driving circuitries of
televisions, mobile phones etc. come under this category.

The output of an audio power amplifier ranges from a few milliwatts (like in
headphone amplifiers) to thousands of watts (like power amplifiers in Hi-Fi/Home
theatre systems).

Radio Frequency Power Amplifiers

Wireless transmissions require modulated waves to be sent over long distances

through air. The signals are transmitted using antennas and the range of
transmission depends on the magnitude of power of signals fed to the antenna.

For wireless transmissions like FM broadcasting, antennas require input signals at

thousands of kilowatts of power. Here, Radio Frequency Power amplifiers are
employed to increase the magnitude of power of modulated waves to a level high
enough for reaching the required transmission distance.

DC Power Amplifiers

DC power amplifiers are used to amplify the power of a PWM (Pulse Width
Modulated) signals. They are used in electronic control systems which need high
power signals to drive motors or actuators. They take input from microcontroller
systems, increase its power and feed the amplified signal to DC motors or
Actuators.

Power Amplifier Classes

There are multiple ways of designing a power amplifier circuit. The operation and
output characteristics of each of the circuit configurations differs from one another.

To differentiate the characteristics and behavior of different power amplifier

circuits, Power Amplifier Classes are used in which, letter symbols are assigned to
identify the method of operation.

They are broadly classified into two categories. Power amplifiers designed to
amplify analog signals come under A, B, AB or C category. Power amplifiers
designed to amplify Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) digital signals come under D,
E, F etc.

The most commonly used power amplifiers are the ones used in audio amplifier
circuits and they come under classes A, B, AB or C. So, let’s take a look at them in
detail.

Class A Power Amplifier

Analog waveforms are made up of positive highs and negative lows. In this class
of amplifiers, the entire input waveform is used in the amplification process.
A single transistor is used to amplify both the positive and negative halves of the
waveform. This makes their design simple and makes class A amplifiers the most
commonly used type of power amplifiers. Although this class of power amplifiers
are superseded by better designs, they are still popular among hobbyists.

In this class of amplifiers, the active element (the electronic component used for
amplifying, which is transistor in this case) is in use all the time even if there is no
input signal. This generates lot of heat and reduces the efficiency of class A
amplifiers to 25% in case of normal configuration and 50% in case of transformer
coupled configuration.
The conduction angle (the portion of waveform used for amplification, out of 360°)
for class A amplifiers is 360°. So, the signal distortion levels are very less allowing
better high frequency performance.

Class B Power Amplifier

Class B power amplifiers are designed to reduce the efficiency and heating
problems present in the class A amplifiers. Instead of a single transistor to amplify
the entire waveform, this class of amplifiers use two complementary transistors.

One transistor amplifies the positive half of the waveform and the other amplifies
the negative half of the waveform. So, each active device conducts for one half
(180°) of the waveform and two of them, when combined, amplify the entire
signal.
The efficiency of class B amplifiers is improved a lot over class A amplifiers
because of two transistor design. They can reach a theoretical efficiency of about
75%. Power amplifiers of this class are used in battery operated devices like FM
radios and transistor radios.

Because of superposition of two halves of the waveform, there exists a small

distortion at the crossover region. To reduce this signal distortion, class AB
amplifiers are designed.
Class AB Power Amplifier

Class AB amplifiers are a combination of class A and class B amplifiers. This class
of amplifiers are designed to reduce the less efficiency problem of class A
amplifiers and distortion of signal at crossover region in class B amplifiers.

It maintains high frequency response like in class A amplifiers and good efficiency
as in class B amplifiers. A combination of diodes and resistors are used to provide
little bias voltage which reduces the distortion of waveform near the crossover
region. There is a little drop in efficiency (60%) because of this.
Class C Power Amplifier

The design of class C power amplifiers allows greater efficiencies but reduces the
linearity/conduction angle, which is under 90°. In other words, it sacrifices quality
of amplification for increase in efficiency.

Lesser conduction angle implies greater distortion and so this class of amplifiers
are not suited for audio amplification. They are used in high frequency oscillators
and amplification of Radio Frequency signals.

Class C amplifiers generally contain a tuned load which filters and amplifies input
signals of certain frequency, and the waveforms of other frequencies are
suppressed.
In this type of power amplifier, the active element conducts only when the input
voltage is above a certain threshold, which reduces power dissipation and increases
efficiency.

Other Power Amplifier Classes

Power amplifier classes D, E, F, G etc. are used to amplify PWM modulated digital
signals. They come under the category of switching power amplifiers and turn the
output either constantly ON or constantly OFF without any other levels in
between.Because of this simplicity, power amplifiers falling under the above-
mentioned classes can reach theoretical efficiencies of up to (90-100)%.

Applications

Below are the applications of power amplifiers across different sectors:

 Consumer Electronics: Audio power amplifiers are used in almost all

consumer electronic devices ranging from microwave ovens, headphone
drivers, televisions, mobile phones and Home theatre systems to theatrical
and concert reinforcement systems.
 Industrial: Switching type power amplifiers are used for controlling most of
the industrial actuator systems like servos and DC motors.
 Wireless Communication: High power amplifiers are important in
transmission of cellular or FM broadcasting signals to users. Higher power
levels made possible because of power amplifiers increases data transfer
rates and usability. They are also used in satellite communication equipment.
Class B Operation

The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero signal
condition, there will be no collector current. The operating point is selected to be
at collector cut off voltage. So, when the signal is applied, only the positive half
cycle is amplified at the output.

The figure below shows the input and output waveforms during class B operation.

When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the positive half cycle
of the input and hence the collector current flows. But during the negative half
cycle of the input, the circuit is reverse biased and the collector current will be
absent. Hence only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.

As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal distortion will be high.
Also, when the applied signal increases, the power dissipation will be more. But
when compared to class A power amplifier, the output efficiency is increased.

Well, in order to minimize the disadvantages and achieve low distortion, high
efficiency and high output power, the push-pull configuration is used in this class
B amplifier.

Class B Push-Pull Amplifier

Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only
one half cycle of the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is
not completely utilized. In order to compensate these problems, the push-pull
configuration is introduced in class B amplifier.

Construction

The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical

transistors T1 and T2 whose bases are connected to the secondary of the center-
tapped input transformer Tr1. The emitters are shorted and the collectors are given
the VCC supply through the primary of the output transformer Tr2.

The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier, is same as that of class A

push-pull amplifier except that the transistors are biased at cut off, instead of using
the biasing resistors. The figure below gives the detailing of the construction of a
push-pull class B power amplifier.
The circuit operation of class B push pull amplifier is detailed below.

Operation

The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the above figure clears that
both the transformers are center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input, the
transistors T1 and T2 are in cut off condition and hence no collector currents flow.
As no current is drawn from VCC, no power is wasted.

When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer Tr1 which splits
the signal into two signals that are 180 o out of phase with each other. These two
signals are given to the two identical transistors T1 and T2. For the positive half
cycle, the base of the transistor T1 becomes positive and collector current flows. At
the same time, the transistor T2 has negative half cycle, which throws the transistor
T2 into cutoff condition and hence no collector current flows. The waveform is
produced as shown in the following figure.
For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the
transistor T2 gets into conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the
cycles, each transistor conducts alternately. The output transformer Tr3 serves to
join the two currents producing an almost undistorted output waveform.

Hence the class B push-pull amplifier improves the efficiency than the class A
push-pull amplifier.

POWER EFFICIENCY DERIVATIONS OF CLASS A AND CLASS B

AMPLIFIERS ARE DERIVED DURING REGULAR CLASS HOURS