Complex numbers

For the equation

2
a x +bx +c=0
Then to find the roots of the equations:

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a
For Δ >0 then the equation has real solutions. For Δ <0 the equation has no real solutions and
thereofr has complex solutions for complex numbers

Complex number ¿)

Complex number is an ordered pair if real numbers a , b ∈ R such that z is a complex number i.e.,
z ∈ C for which
z=(a , b)∈ C
Real part of z is then

ℜ ( z )=a
Imaginary part of z is then

ℑ ( z )=b
Theorem

Let

 z=(a , b)∈ C
 w=(c ,d )∈C
If a=c and b=d then z=w

Algebraic operations

Let

 z=(a , b)∈ C
 w=(c ,d )∈C
Sum of complex numbers is:

z +w=(a+c , b+d )
Product of complex numbers are

zw=( a , b )( c , d )
zw=( ac−b ) +( ad+ bc)i
Note this by cross multiplication/factor multiplication
Theorem

Real numbers can be expressed as complex numbers i.e., R ⊆ C . For a , b ∈ R , then a is expressed as
(a ,0) and
( a , 0 )+ ( b , 0 )=(a+b ,0)
( a , 0 )( b , 0 )=( ab−a 0 , 0 b+00 )=(ab , 0)

Properties of complex numbers

Let

 z=(a , b)∈ C
 w=(c ,d )∈C

 z +w=w + z
 ( z +w )+ y=z + ( w+ y )
 z + ( 0 , 0 )=z
 z + (−z )=( 0 , 0 ) =0
 zw=wz
 z ( wy )=( zw ) y
 (1 , 0)z=z
 z ( w+ y ) =zw+ wy
 z−w=z +(−w)
n
 z =z 1 z z … z n

Theorem

Consider (1 , 0) and i=(0 , 1) that are complex numbers

All complex numbers z=( a ,b ) can be written as

z=(a , 0)+(0 , b)=(a , 0)+(0 , b)i

Hence the standard form of a complex number

z=a+bi
For ⅈ 2=−1 for ⅈ 2=( 0 , 1 )( 0 ,1 )=−1

Properties of standard form

 If z=a+bi∈ R then it suggests that ℑ ( z )=b=0 thereofr z=a+0 i=a

 z +w=(a+c )+(b+ d)i
 zw=( a+ bi )( c +di ) =( ac +adi+bci+bd ⅈ2 ) =ac +adi+bci−bd =( ac−bc ) + ( ad +bc ) i

Inverse of a complex number theorem

Let
  z=a+bi

Then there exist a unique complex number z−1 so that

−1
z z =1
Proof

Let z=a+bi∈ C and w=x + yi

Consider zw

zw=( ax−by )+ ( bx+ ay ) i

Then zw=1 if and only if

ax−by=1
bx +ay =0
Such that the augmented matrix is

A=
[ ab −ba ] and x= [ xy ] and b= [10 ]
For A x=b

Therefore

zw=1if and inly if A x=b

For which
2 2
det ( A )=a + b
Conjugate

Conjugate of a complex number z=a+bi∈ C is

z=a−bⅈ
For which the conjugate is the multiplicative inverse of a complex number

Properties of the conjugate

 z +w=z +w
 zw=z × w
 z z ∈ R due to z z =a2 +b 2
 z=z
z −1
 =z w
w


Theorem

Let
  z=a+bi
 z=a−bⅈ
−1 1
z = z
zz
Proof

Let z=a+bi

Then by properties of conjugate z z =a2 +b 2 for which z ≠ 0 indigating z z is nonzero

1
Let w= z
zz
Then

1
w= 22
×a−bⅈ
a +b
a−bⅈ
w= 2 2
a +b
a b
w= 2
2
− 2 2i
a +b a + b
Hence

zw

( a a+b − a b+b i)
¿ ( a+ bi ) 2 2 2 2

( a +b a +b ) ( a + b a + b ) i
¿ a
a
−b
2
−b
2
+ a
−b
+b
2
a
2 2 2 2 2

( )( )
2 2
a b −ab ab
¿ 2 2
+ 2 2 + 2 2+ 2 2 i
a +b a +b a +b a +b
¿ 1+0 i
¿1

Modulus of Complex numbers

Argand plane

Let z=a+bi with the poiny (a ,b) . Then the point set with references to the real axis and imaginary
axis is as follows on the argand plane
ℑ

z=(a , b)
b
|z|
ℜ
a
Modulus

For a complex number z=a+bi , then the modul |z|

|z|=√ a2 +b2
Note the modulus |z|is the distance from 0 to z defining the radius of the circle, and |z−w| is the
distance from z to w

If complex number z=a+bi for which z ∈ R i.e., b=0 then |z| is the absolute value.

Properties of the modulus

 |z|≥ 0
 |z|=0 if z=0
 ℜ ( z ) ≤|z|
 ℑ ( z ) ≤| z|
 |zw|=| z||w|
 |z|=|z|
1
 If w ≠ 0 then |w |=
−1

|w|
 If w ≠ 0 then
z |z|
=
w |w| ||
 |z +w|≤|z|+|w| for Triangle inequality

Proof |z +w|≤|z|+|w| for Triangle inequality

2
Consider |z +w|
2 2 2
|z +w| =( z +w ) z + w=( z +w ) ( z + w )=z z+ w z + z w+w w=|z| + w z + z w+|w|
Then

z w=z w=z w
Note

x + x=ℜ ( x ) + ℑ ( x ) i+ ℜ ( x )−ℑ ( i )=2 ℜ( x )

Hence
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
|z +w| =|z| + w z+ z w+|w| =|z| + z w+ z w+|w| =|z| +2 ℜ ( z w ) +|w|
2
¿ (|z|+|w|)
2
And since |z +w| ≥ 0∧|z|+|w|≥ 0

|z +w|≤|z|+|w|
For monotonic increasing functions

Polar form and de Moivres Theorem

Theorem
Let z=a+bi∈ C be nonzero

Then there exists a unique number θ ∈ (−π , π ] such that

ℜ ( z )=rcosθ and ℑ ( z )=rsinθ for r =|z|=√ a 2+ b2

Proof

()()
2 2 2 2
a b a +b
+ = 2 =1
r r r
Then there exists θ ∈ (−π , π ] such that

ℜ ( z )=rcosθ and ℑ ( z )=rsinθ for r =|z|=√ a 2+ b2

By the Intermediate mean value theorem

Polar form

Let z=a+bi∈ C be nonzero, then the polar for of z is

z=r [ cosθ +sinθi ]

ℜ( z ) ℑ(z)
For which cosθ= and sinθ=
|z| |z|
z=0 [ cos 0+ sin 0 i ] ⇔ z=0

Principle argument of z is that θ ∈ (−π , π ] so that

z=r [ cosθ +sinθi ]
Note of θ ∉ (−π , π ] then add/ subtract 2 π i.e.

z=r [ cos ⁡(θ+2 πk )+ sin(θ+2 πk)i ] for k ∈ Z

Procedure for polar form

1. Define the modulus

2. Determine cosθ and sinθ
3. θ exits for cosθ and sinθ
4. If θ ∉ (−π , π ] then add/ subtract 2 π
5. Define the polar form z=r [ cosθ +sinθi ]

Theorem

Let

z ∈ C be nonzero
w ∈ C be nonzero
z=r 1 [ cos θ1 +sin θ 1 i ] be the polar form of z

w=r 2 [ cos θ 2+sin θ 2 i ] b eth polar form of w

Then there exists θ ∈ (−π , π ] such that

zw=r 1 r 2 [ cos ⁡(θ 1+θ 2)+sin ⁡(θ1 +θ2 )i ]

De Moivre’s Thereon

For z ∈ C and the polar form of z is z=r [ cosθ +sinθi ]. If n ≥ 0 ben ∈ Z . Then there exists
θ ∈ (−π , π ] such that

z =r [ cos ( nθ ) +sin ( nθ ) ⅈ ]
n n

Complex exponential

Let z=a+bi∈ C then the complex exponential is

e =e [ cos ( b ) +sin ( b ) i ]
z a

If z=a+bi∈ R i.e., b=0 then

e =e [ cos ( 0 ) +sin ( 0 ) i ] =e [ 1+ 0i ]=e

z a a a

Properties of complex exponential

 ⅇ z ⅇ w =ⅇ z+ w
n
 ( ⅇ z ) =ⅇ zn

Polar form by complex exponentials

For θ ∈ R then

cosθ +sinθi=e [ cosθ+ sinθi ]=e

0 θi

therefor the polar form of z is then

z=r e θi for r=| z|=√ a2 +b 2

De Moivre’s Thereon

For z ∈ C and the polar form of z is z=r [ cosθ +sinθi ]. If n ≥ 0 ben ∈ Z . Then there exists
θ ∈ (−π , π ] such that
n n nθi
z =r e
Euler’s identity

ⅇ πⅈ +1=0
Roots of Complex numbers

nth root of a complex number

Let z ∈ C and n ≥ 0 for n ∈ Z , then the nth root of z is the complex number w ∈ C such that
n
w =z
By de Moivre’s Theorem
n n nθi
z =r e

Theorem
θ1 ⅈ θ2 ⅈ
For z , w ∈C for z=r 1 ⅇ and w=r 2 ⅇ then

If r 1=r 2 and θ1=θ 2+ 2 πk for k ∈ Z then z=w

Proof

Assume that z=w

Then

r 1=r 2=|z|=¿ w∨¿

|z|[ c os θ1 +sin θ1 i ]=z=|w|[ cos θ 2+sin θ 2 i ]=w

Hence

cos θ 1=cos θ 2∧sin θ1=sin θ2

Therefore
2 2
cos ( θ1−cos θ 2 )=cos θ 1 cos θ 2+ sin θ1 sin θ 2=cos θ1 +¿ sin θ2=1 ¿

Hence

θ1−θ 2=2 πk → θ1=θ2 +2 πk

Roots of a complex number

Let r z ∈ C for z=r ⅇ θⅈ be the polar firm of z for θ ∈ (−π , π ] . For n ≥ 0 , n∈ Z then z has exactly n
distint nth roots w 0 ,… , wn−1 such that

n ( θ+n2 πk )i
w k =√ r e
For n= number of roots in the exponential and k ∈[0 , n−1]

Roots of unity

Roots of unity are the nth roots about 1 i.e., z=1

For the polar form ( 2nπk )i for k ∈[0 , n−1] then the nth roots of unity are defined as
1=e
 (2 nπk )i
w k =e
Note

o For k ∈[0 , n−1] then |w k ∨¿ 1 so that all roots of unity lie on the circle with radius 1 and
centre 0
2π
o Argument increases by
n
Procedure for roots of a complex number

1. Suggest the complex number and define the modulus

2. Determine the nth root i.e. n
3. Determine cosθ and sinθ
4. θ exits for cosθ and sinθ
5. If θ ∉ (−π , π ] then add/ subtract 2 π
6. Substitute all values for k ∈[0 , n−1]

Degrees 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 270° 360°
(° )
Radians 0 π π π π 2π 3π 5π π 3π 2π
(rad) 6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2
cosθ 1 √3 1 1 0 −1 −1 −√ 3 −1 0 1
2 √2 2 2 √2 2

sinθ 0 1 1 √3 1 √3 1 1 0 −1 0
2 √2 2 2 √2 2