Complex

Variables &
Transforms
MATH- 232

Instructor: Dr. Naila Amir

Complex numbers
▪ Complex Numbers and Their Properties
▪ Complex Plane
▪ Polar Form of Complex Numbers
▪ Powers of Complex Numbers
▪ Roots of Complex Numbers
▪ Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ Applications
 Integer Powers of 𝒛
We can find integer powers of a complex number 𝑧 by using results of multiplication
and division in polar form. If 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), then
𝑎 𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟 2 cos(𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin (𝜃 + 𝜃) = 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 ,
𝑏 𝑧 3 = 𝑧 2 𝑧 = 𝑟 3 cos(2𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin (2𝜃 + 𝜃) = 𝑟 3 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃 ,
𝑐 𝑧 4 = 𝑧 3 𝑧 = 𝑟 4 cos(3𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin (3𝜃 + 𝜃) = 𝑟 4 cos 4𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜃 ,
and so on. Also,
1 1
= cos( 0 − 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin( 0 − 𝜃) = 𝑟 −1 cos( − 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin( − 𝜃) .
𝑧 𝑟
Similarly,
1 −2 = 𝑟 −2 cos( − 2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin( − 2𝜃) .
= 𝑧
𝑧2
 Integer Powers of 𝒛
Continuing in the same manner, we obtain a formula for the 𝑛th power of 𝑧 for any
integer 𝑛 as:
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑛 cis 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 . ∗

Eq. (∗) is the general form of the De Moivre's theorem which is stated as:
“If 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 such that 𝑧 = 𝑟 = 1 the for any integer 𝑛

𝑧 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 = cis 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 . ”

Note: This theorem is also valid if 𝑛 is a rational number.

 Example
3 1
𝑧3
Determine if 𝑧 = + 𝑖 .
2 2
Solution:
For the present case we have:
𝜋
𝑧 = 1 and Arg 𝑧 = 𝜃 = .
6
Thus,
3
3 1 𝜋 𝜋 3
𝑧3 = +𝑖 = cos + 𝑖 sin
2 2 6 6

3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
6 6

𝜋 𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin = 𝑖.
2 2
 De Moivre’s Theorem
▪ De Moivre's theorem, named after the French mathematician Abraham de Moivre
is used the find the powers and roots of complex numbers.
▪ De Moivre's Theorem states that the power of a complex number in polar form is
equal to raising the modulus to the same power and multiplying the argument
by the same power.
▪ De Moivre's theorem can be derived from Euler's equation, and is important
because it connects trigonometry to complex numbers.
▪ In general, for any complex number 𝑧 and any integer 𝑛, the following is true:
If 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 then 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛 𝜃 .
 Example
Given 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 3, find
𝑖 𝑧2 𝑖𝑖 𝑧 5 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 7 .

Solution:
For the present case note that:
𝑧 = 1 + 3 = 2,
and
3 𝜋
tan 𝜃 = ⇒𝜃= .
1 3
Thus,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑖 sin .
3 3
 Example
Since,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑖 sin ,
3 3
so

2
2𝜋 2𝜋 −1 3
𝑖 𝑧 = 4 cos + 𝑖 sin =4 +𝑖 = −2 + 2 3𝑖.
3 3 2 2

5 5
5𝜋 5𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋
𝑖𝑖 𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑖 sin = 32 cos + 𝑖 sin = 16 − 16 3𝑖.
3 3 3 3

7 7
7𝜋 7𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑖 sin = 128 cos + 𝑖 sin = 64 + 63 3𝑖.
3 3 3 3
 Practice Questions
Book: A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications by Dennis G.
Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan.
Chapter: 1

Exercise: 1.3
Q # 1 – 38.
Applications
 Complex Numbers
Book: A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications by
Dennis G. Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan.

• Chapter: 1

• Sections: 1.4, 1.6

 Applications of De Moivre’s Theorem
▪ To express cos 𝑛𝜃 and sin 𝑛𝜃 as finite sums of trigonometric
functions of 𝜃, where 𝑛 is a positive integer.

▪ To express powers of cos 𝜃 (or sin 𝜃) in a series of cosines (or

sines) of multiples 𝜃.

▪ To find 𝑛th roots of a complex number.

 Roots of a Complex Number
Suppose 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 and 𝜌 cos 𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝜑 are polar forms of the complex
numbers 𝑧 and 𝜔 respectively. Then, the equation: 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑧, becomes:
𝜌𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜑 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 (1)
From (1), we can conclude that:
𝜌𝑛 = 𝑟 (2)
and
cos 𝑛𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜑 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 (3)
From (2), we define:𝜌 = 𝑟1/𝑛 to be the unique positive 𝑛th root of the positive
real number 𝑟. From (3), the definition of equality of two complex numbers
implies that:
cos 𝑛𝜑 = cos 𝜃 and sin 𝑛𝜑 = sin 𝜃 .
These equalities, in turn, indicate that the arguments 𝜃 and 𝜑 are related by the
equation 𝑛𝜑 = 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋, where 𝑘 is an integer.
 Roots of a Complex Number
Thus,
𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝜑= .
𝑛
As 𝑘 takes on the successive integer values 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛 − 1, we obtain 𝑛
distinct 𝑛th roots of 𝑧; these roots have the same modulus 𝑟1/𝑛 but different
arguments. Thus, the 𝑛 𝑛th roots of a non-zero complex number 𝑧 are given by:
𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝜔𝑘 = 𝑧1/𝑛 = 𝑟1/𝑛 cos + 𝑖 sin , (4)
𝑛 𝑛

where 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 𝑛 − 1. These 𝑛 values lie on a circle of radius 𝑟1/𝑛 with

center at the origin and constitute the vertices of a regular polygon of 𝑛 sides. The
value of 𝑧1/𝑛 obtained by taking the principal value of arg 𝑧 and 𝑘 = 0 in (4) is
called the principal 𝒏th root of 𝜔 = 𝑧1/𝑛 .
 Example
Determine the four fourth roots of 𝑧 = 2(1 + 𝑖).
 Example
Note that, since Arg(𝑧) = 𝜋/4, so we have:

𝜔0 ≈ 1.1664 + 𝑖 0.2320,

is the principal fourth root of 𝑧 = 2(1 + 𝑖).

As shown in figure, the four roots lie on a circle
4
centered at the origin of radius 𝑟 = 2 ≈ 1.19
and are spaced at equal angular intervals of
2𝜋/4 = 𝜋/2 radians, beginning with the root
whose argument is 𝜋/16.
 Example
Determine the cube roots of 𝑧 = 𝑖.
 Example

Note that, since Arg(𝑧) = 𝜋/2, so we have:

𝜔0 ≈ 0.8660 + 0.5𝑖,

is the principal cubic root of 𝑧 = 𝑖.

As shown in figure, the three roots lie on a circle
centered at the origin of radius 𝑟 ≈ 1 and are
spaced at equal angular intervals of 2𝜋/3
radians, beginning with the root whose
argument is 𝜋/6.
 Quadratic Formula
The quadratic formula is perfectly valid when the coefficients 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏, and 𝑐 of a
quadratic polynomial equation 𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑏𝑧 + 𝑐 = 0 are complex numbers. Although
the formula can be obtained in exactly the same manner as for a quadratic
polynomial 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where the coefficients 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are real.
However, we choose to write the result as:

−𝑏 + 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 1/2
𝑧= . (∗)
2𝑎
Notice that the numerator of the right-hand side of (∗) looks a little different than
the traditional −𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 . Keep in mind that when 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≠ 0, the
expression 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 1/2 represents the set of two square roots of the complex
number𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐. Thus, (∗) gives two complex solutions.
 Example
Solve the quadratic equation 𝑧 2 + 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 − 3𝑖 = 0.
Solution:
Using quadratic formula with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1 − 𝑖, and 𝑐 = −3𝑖, we have:
− 1 − 𝑖 + 1 − 𝑖 2 − 4(−3𝑖) 1/2 −1 + 𝑖 + 10𝑖 1/2
𝑧= = .
2 2
To compute 10𝑖 1/2 we will use the procedure for finding roots of any complex
numbers. For the present case 𝑧 = 10𝑖 with 𝑟 = 10 and 𝜃 = 𝜋/2. We are required
to determine two square roots of 10𝑖. Here 𝑛 = 2 and 𝑘 = 0,1. Thus, the two square
roots of 10𝑖 are given as:
𝜋 𝜋
𝜔0 = 10 cos + 𝑖 sin = 5 1+𝑖 ,
4 4
and
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝜔1 = 10 cos + 𝑖 sin =− 5 1+𝑖 .
4 4
 Example
Thus,
1/2
−1 + 𝑖 + 10𝑖
𝑧= .
2

possess two root which are given as:

1 5−1 5+1
𝑧1 = −1 + 𝑖 + 5 + 𝑖 5 = +𝑖 ,
2 2 2
and
1 − 5+1 5−1
𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑖 − 5 − 𝑖 5 = −𝑖 .
2 2 2
 Factoring a Quadratic Polynomial
By finding all the roots of a polynomial equation we can factor the polynomial
completely. This statement follows as a corollary to an important theorem that will
be proved later. For the present, note that if 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are the roots defined by (∗),
i.e.,

−𝑏 + 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 1/2
𝑧= . (∗)
2𝑎
Then a quadratic polynomial 𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑏𝑧 + 𝑐 factors as:
𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑏𝑧 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧 − 𝑧2 . (∗∗)
 Example
Factorize the quadratic polynomial 𝑧 2 + 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 − 3𝑖 .
Solution:
Using equation (**), we have
𝑧 2 + 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 − 3𝑖 = 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧 − 𝑧2

5−1 5+1 5+1 5+1

= 𝑧− −𝑖 𝑧+ +𝑖 .
2 2 2 2
 Practice Questions
1. Find the three cube roots of 𝑧 = −1 + 𝑖.

2. Find the squares of all the cube roots of 𝑧 = − 𝑖.

3. Find the four fourth roots of 𝑧 = −2 3 + 2𝑖.

1 3
4. Find the squares of all the 5th roots of 𝑧 = + 𝑖.
2 2

5. Find the six 6th roots of (i) −1 and (ii) 1 + 𝑖.

 Practice Questions
Book: A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications by Dennis G.
Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan.
Chapter: 1

Exercise: 1.4
Q # 1 – 20, 25 – 26.

Exercise: 1.6
Q # 1 –12.
 Complex Magic
▪ Every complex number can be transformed into polar form. For 𝑧 = 𝑖 , we obtain:
𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/2 .
𝜋
Thus, in reality 𝑖 correspond to rotation by radians (90 degrees). This is the reason
2
imaginary part is always sketched on the 𝑦 −axis as it is at perpendicular to 𝑥 −axis.

▪ Suppose we have two complex numbers expressed in exponential form 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1

and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 , then their product is defined as:

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 × 𝑒 𝑖(𝜃1+𝜃2) .

re-scaling rotation

▪ Therefore, we conclude that a complex product encodes an information of two real

physical operations re-scaling and rotation. We can think on similar lines about other
complex operations e.g., addition, division, complexconjugation.
 Complex Magic
Let us explore the complex domain in more detail. Consider a real quadratic equation
𝑥 2 − 1 = 0.
We know that the solutions of this equation are 𝑥 = ±1, which are two points on the
real line.
 Complex Magic
▪ Now consider the complex equation
𝑧 2 − 1 = 0.
▪ How many solutions does this complex equation has?
▪ Of course, two: 𝑧 = ±1, two points on the complex plane. If the answers are same, then
we might believe that both equations are same !!!.
▪ It is certainly not true.
▪ The beauty of second equation can only be seen if we substitute 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , into the
equation, i.e,
(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 )2 − 1 = 0
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 1 = 0
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 1 + 𝑖 2𝑥𝑦 = 0
which gives rise to two equations:
𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 1 and 2𝑥𝑦 = 0,
▪ The first is an equation of a hyperbola and the other is an equation of 𝑥 − or 𝑦 −axis.
 Complex Magic
Therefore, we can conclude that the two solutions 𝑧 = ±1, are basically two points on
the intersection of hyperbolas and 𝑥 − axis.
 Some important facts about complex numbers
1. Space of all complex numbers ℂ, is a vector space.
1 𝑧ҧ
2. = 2 , where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
𝑧 𝑧

3. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 . (triangular inequality)
4. An 𝑛th degree complex polynomial equation has n complex roots. On the other
hand, an 𝑛th degree real polynomial equation may or may not have 𝑛 real roots.
5. If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 we define 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 .
6. 𝑒 𝑧 is never zero.
7. 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 , where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.