Ain Shams University

‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷﻤﺲ‬

Faculty of Engineering ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬
New Programs
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ‬
BUILDING ENGINEERING PROGRAM ‫ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮﺭﻳﻮﺱ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﺎﺀ‬

Spring 2010
BLDG 353: Structural Design (II)
3 Credit hours (3-2-0)

LECTURE NOTES

By
Dr. Ahmed Hassan yousef Aly
Associate Professor, Structural Engineering Department
Ain Shams University
Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

LECTURE (1): INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

A person traveling in the world might quite understandably decide that steel is the
perfect structural material. It is extensively used for the frameworks of bridges, buildings,
buses, cars conveyors, cranes, pipelines, ships, storage tanks, towers, trucks, and other
structures-comprising, in fact, a list too lengthy to enumerate. The material steel, as we know
it today, is a relatively modern human creation. Cast iron and wrought iron were used in
buildings and bridge construction from the mid-eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth
century.

The high strength of steel per unit of weight means dead loads will be small. This fact
is of great importance for long-span bridges, tall buildings, and for structures having poor
foundation conditions.

The properties of steel do not change appreciably with time as do those of a

reinforced-concrete structure. Steel behaves closer to design assumption than most materials
because it follows Hooke's law up to fairly high stresses. The moments of inertia of a steel
structure can be definitely calculated while the values obtained for a reinforcement concrete
structure are rather indefinite.

The property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation without

failure under high tensile stresses is said to be its ductility. When a mild steel member is
being tested in tension, a considerable reduction in cross section and a large amount of
elongation will occur at the point of failure before the actual fracture occurs. A material that
does not have this property is probably hard and brittle and might break if subjected to a
sudden shock.

In structural members under normal loads, high stress concentrations develop at

various points. The ductile nature of the usual structural steels enables them to yield locally
at those points, thus preventing premature failures. A further advantage of ductile structures
is that when overloaded their large deflections give visible evidence of impending failure
(sometimes jokingly referred to as ¨running time¨).

Steel structures are quite well suited to having additions made to them. New bays or
even entire new wings can be added to existing steel frame buildings, and steel bridges may
often be widened.

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

1.2 Fields of Application of Steel Structures

• Industrial buildings with their internal members such as crane girder, mezzanine floor...etc.
slope 1:10

Crane girder
I-section

Capacity = P tons
MEZZANINE FLOOR
Clear height

Span L (ms)
Span L (ms)

• Multistory buildings, exhibitions halls, hangers …etc.

• Shopping malls, sport halls, large shed

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

• Transmission Towers, Tanks, gas holders …etc.

Cover (cone)

Ring angle
d

Ladder

• Roadway and Railway Bridges

Span of bridge = L
Span of bridge = L
Plate Girder (30-40)m
Truss Girder (40-60)m

L/(6-7)

L/(20-24)

Span of bridge = L Span of bridge = L

ARCH BRIDGE WITH A TIE BOW-STRING BRIDGE

150 - 400 ms
Min 300 - 400 ms
Plate Girder or Truss
CABLE STAYED BRIDGE
SUSPENSION BRIDGE

Fig. (1.1) Various Examples of Common Steel Structures

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel Structures:

Advantages:
1) High strength material (resist high loads) ⇒ Small size of members.
2) Light weights ⇒ reducing straining action due to deal load and saving in foundations.
3) High Ductility (no sudden failure)
4) Water and gas tightness.
5) Easy strengthening during and after erection
6) Fast in erection.
7) No need form as in concrete structures.
8) Better control work in site (executed in workshop).
9) Easy to make extension.
10) Old steel structure can be reused or sold at reasonable price.
Disadvantages:

1) Rust when subjected to moisture. [maintenance cost]

2) More expensive.
3) Less-fire resistance (strength is reduced to about 50% at 500oC)
4) The strength is reduced due to fatigue and buckling of sections (instability problems).

1.4 Principles of Design and Design Procedure:

The design is a process by which the optimum solution is obtained. In any design, certain
criteria must be established to evaluate whether or not optimum has been achieved. These criteria
may be summarized in the following steps:

1. The structural and financial owner’s needs.

2. Laws and building codes are applied for health and safety requirements by the architect.
3. The structural type and layout are determined to fit the building function. (stability,
economy)
4. The most suitable material is chosen according to the cost, transportation …etc.
5. Calculations of applied loads and internal forces in the structures.
6. Design of the structural elements and connections [taking care of: stability, economy,
adequate stiffness, ease of connection and erection].
7. Producing design drawings to the fabricator, erector and the general contractor.
8. Inspection of the fabricator and the contractor’s work.

In designing the structural members and connections, the designer must consider the
following:

1. Strength: each member must have adequate strength to safely carry the load acting on it.
2. Stiffness: where the deflection of that member must be maintained with an acceptable
limit.
3. Construction requirements.
4. The economic aspects.
5. The aesthetic aspects.
6. Easy connections.

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

1.5 Specifications And Building Codes

A building code containing a set of rules to insure safety has to be applied by the designer.
Codes contain recommended design values for different loads, design rules governing the applied
loads and rules controlling the design of members and connections. The design codes represent
the consensus of opinion of experienced engineers, architects and others.
Project specifications include construction materials, methods of joining the members,
specifications of welding, bolts, etc. Standards, written by a special standard organization,
govern things like quality of steel, dimensions and size of steel sections, dimensions of screw
threads on bolts, tolerances allowed in the dimensions of the structural members, fasteners, etc.

1.6 Structural Steel Material

Steels used in construction are generally carbon steels, alloys of iron and carbon. The
carbon content is ordinarily less than 1 % by weight. The chemical composition of the steel is
varied, according to the properties desired, such as strength and corrosion resistance, by the
addition of other alloying elements, such as silicon, manganese, copper, nickel and
chromium.

1.7 Mechanical Properties of Steel

The stress-strain curve of the mild steel is obtained from the Standard tension test
shown in figure (1.2) and is characterized by the following:
1) An initial linear relation between stress and strain which defines the Young's
modulus of the steel or Modulus of Elasticity (E). The material is perfectly elastic
in this zone.
2) The yield point at which the material starts the plastic range.
3) Tensile strength is defined as a maximum value for the stress.

Stress (F)
Tensile Strength
upper yiled
point
Fu
Plastic range
Fy

Elastic range

E = 2100 t/cm2
Strain (ε)
εy
Fig. (1.2) Stress-strain curve for steel tensile coupon

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

The mechanical properties for all grades of steel under normal conditions of usual
temperature are as follows:
σ
• Modulus of Elasticity (E) = = 2100 t/cm2
ε
E
• Shear modulus (G) = = 810 t/cm2
2(1 + ν )
Lateral strain
• Poisson’s ratio (ν )= = 0.3
Longtidunal strain
• Mass Density ( ρ )= 7.85 t/m3
• Coefficient of thermal Expansion α = 1.2 * 10 −5 °C

Yield stress ( F y )
Allowable stresses =
Factor of safety (γ )

Factor of safety (γ ) ≈ 1.7 For tension stresses

≈ 1.7 → 2.75 For compression and bending stresses due to buckling.

Reasons for safety factors:

- Possible under-estimation of loads.
- Allowance shall be made for: material quality, fabrication, inaccuracies and approximate
calculation.

Grades of steel used according to Egyptian Code of Practice (2001) [Standard

Specification]
a) Steel 37 (normal mild steel) used for building
b) Steel 44 used for special building and bridges.
c) Steel 52 (high tensile steel) used for bridges.

The following table contains the nominal values of yield stress and ultimate strength
for different grades of steel used in ECP.

Table (1.1) Nominal Yield Stress and Ultimate Strength of different Types of Steel Grades
Nominal values of yield stress Fy and Ultimate Strength Fu
Thickness t
Grade of
Steel t ≤ 40 mm 40 mm < t ≤ 100 mm
Fy Fu Fy Fu
(t/cm2) (t/cm2) 2
(t/cm ) (t/cm2)
St. 37 2.40 3.60 2.15 3.4
St. 44 2.80 4.40 2.55 4.1
St. 52 3.60 5.20 3.35 4.9

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

1.8 Design Philosophies

Two philosophy of design are in current used: the allowable stress design (or working
stress design) and limit states design (or Load and resistance factor design). Working stress
design has been the principal philosophy used during the past 100 years. During the past 30 years
or so, structural design has been moving towards a more rational and probability- based design
procedure referred to as “limit states” design.

1.8.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

Allowable stress design is the traditional method of design in which the focus is on
service load conditions for elastic structure when satisfying the safety requirements (adequate
strength) for the structure. In this philosophy all loads are assumed to have the same average
variability. This design philosophy for a member resisting moments is characterized by design
criteria such as:
M Fy
∑ ≤ (1.1)
S γ
where, ΣM is the sum of the applied moments, S is the elastic section modules, Fy is the specified
yield stress, and γ is the factor of safety [≈(1.7-1.8) for steel material].
The allowable stresses of the ASD Specification are derived from the strength capable of
being achieved if the structure is overloaded. When the section is ductile and buckling does not
occur, strains greater than the first yielding strain [εy=Fy/Es, where Es is the modulus of
elasticity] can exist on the section. Such ductile inelastic behavior may permit higher loads to be
carried than possible if the structure had remained entirely elastic. In such case the allowable
stress is adjusted upward. When the strength is limited by buckling or some other behavior such
that the stress does not reach yield stress, the allowable stress is adjusted downward.

1.8.2 Load and Resistance Factor Design(LRFD)

In LRFD a preliminary effort was made to recognize that the live load, in particular, was more
highly variable than the dead load. This thought is embodied in the concept of using a different
multiplier on dead load and live load:

γ1*M D + γ 2*M ( L + I ) ≤ φ * M u (1.2)

where, MD is moment from dead loads, M(L+I) is moment from live loads and impact, Mu is the
moment strength of the cross section, φ is a resistance reduction factor and γ is the multiplier load
factor which depends on the type of acting load.
Generally, the LRFD Specification is based on: 1) A probability-based model, 2) Calibration
with the allowable stress design specification, and 3) Evaluation using judgment and past
experience, along with studies of representative structures conducted by design offices. LRFD or
limit states are generally divided into two categories: strength and serviceability. Strength
(safety) limit are such behavior phenomena as achieving ductile maximum strength, buckling,
fatigue, etc. Serviceability limit are those concerned with occupancy of a building, such as
deflection, vibration and permanent deformation. Serviceability requirements are always
investigated at service loads; whether the LRFD or the ASD design procedure has been used to
satisfy safety requirements.

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

1.9 Common Types of Steel Cross section:

1.9.1 Hot rolled sections.

1) I-Sections (IPN, IPE, HEA, HEB):

y y y y
b
tf

x x x x x x x x
dw h

tw

y y y y

I.P.N. (S.I.B) I.P.E. H.E.A. H.E.B. (B.F.I.B)

IPN section is suitable for beam subjected to bending moment about its major axis.
IPE section is used mainly for beams or beam column.
HEA and HEB sections are primarily used for members subjected to bi-moments or for heavy
beam-columns.

2) Channel Sections (UPN):

Channels are used as purlins, side girts and as truss
members. Two channels back to back used mainly as
lower or upper chord in heavy trusses.

3) Angles sections:

Angles are used in trusses for resisting axial forces and

in connecting different steel structural elements.

4) Tubes (pipes) and Hollow sections:

Used as truss members in welded trusses. Hollow square and

rectangular sections are sometimes used as roof purlins or light
beam-columns.

5) Plates:

Thickness ranges from 5 to 50 mm and more as well as its

length from 6 to 8 meters. Used in connections as head plates,
gusset plates or it can be utilized in composing built-up
section.

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

1.9.2 Cold formed sections.

Thickness of steel sheets used in cold formed sections ranges from 0.4 mm to about 6 mm. Cold-
formed members can be used for beams subjected to light loads or short spans, as well as for
purlins and side (end) girts . Favorable strength-to-weight ratios can be obtained using these
sections.

Fig. (1.3) Some configurations of Cold-Formed Sections

1.9.3 Built-up sections:

These sections consist of many parts welded or bolted together to form I-sections or other
any shapes.

b fl. b

tfl. t

tweb
h web h web

tweb

tfl. tfl.

Welded Buit-up Sectios Bolted Buit-up Sectios

Dr. Ahmed Hassan yousef Introduction 9