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CE 154: PRINCIPLES OF STEEL DESIGN
RESEARCH WORK NO. 1
MARIA THERESE M. PRIETO
BSCE 4-C
ENGR. CHARLES A. MATEO
INSTRUCTOR
SEPTEMBER 2023
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
1. Reliability
Steel structures are very reliable. The reasons include consistency and
uniformity in properties, better quality control because of factory
manufacture, large elasticity, and ductility.
2. Industrial Behavior\
Rolled steel sections are manufactured in factories. Also, the members
may be cut and prepared for assembly in factories while only joining of
these components is carried out at the site by installing rivets or bolts and
by welding different components. Manual errors are reduced greatly in
such cases, the speed of construction increases and the total cost
reduces.
3. Lesser Construction Time/Greater Erection Speed
Progress of the work is fast, making the structures economical. The
reason is that these structures can be put to use earlier. The reduction in
labor cost and overhead changes and the benefits obtained from the early
use of the building contribute to the economy.
4. High Strength and Light Weight Nature
The high strength of steel per unit weight means that the dead loads will
be smaller. It is to be noted that dead loads are a bigger part of the total
loads on the structure. When the dead load reduces, the underneath
members become smaller due to less weight acting on them. this fact is
of great importance for long-span bridges, tall buildings, and structures
having poor foundation conditions.
5. Uniformity, Durability and Performance
Steel is a very homogenous and uniform material. Hence, it satisfies the
basic assumptions of most of the analysis and design formulas. If
properly maintained by painting, etc. the properties of concrete in a
reinforced concrete structure are considerably modified with time. Hence.
Steel structures are more durable.
6. Elasticity
Steel behaves closer to design assumption than most of the other
materials because it follows Hooke’s Law up to fairly high stresses. The
moments of inertia of a steel structure can be accurately calculated, while
the values obtained for a reinforced concrete structure are rather indefinite.
7. Ductility and Warning Before Failure
The property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation
without failure under high tensile stresses is its ductility. The ductile
nature of the usual structural steels enables them to yield locally at those
points, thus redistributing the stresses and preventing premature failures.
8. Additions to Existing Structures
Connections between new and existing structures can be employed very
effectively. New bays or even entire new wings can be added to existing
steel frame buildings, and steel bridges may often be widened.
9. Possible Reuse
Steel sections can be reused after a structure is disassembled.
10.Scrap Value
Steel has scrap value even though it is not reusable in its existing form.
11.Water-Tight and Air-Tight Constructions
Steel structures provide completely impervious construction and
structures like reservoirs, oil pipes, gas pipes, etc. are preferably made
from structural steel.
12.Long Span Construction
High-rise buildings, long-span bridges, and tall transmission towers are
made up of structural steel. (Industrial Buildings – a span of 90 m; Bridge
– spanning up to 260 m)
13.Temporary Construction
Army constructions during the war were mostly made out of structural
steel. The structures may be disassembled by opening dew bolts,
component parts are carried to new places as the structure is easily
reassembled.
DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
1. High Maintenance Costs and More Corrosion
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and
water, therefore must be painted periodically. Thus, requiring extra cost
and special care.
2. Fireproofing Costs
Although steel members are incombustible, their strength is tremendously
reduced at temperatures prevailing in fires. As steel is an excellent
conductor of heat and may transmit enough heat from a burning
compartment of a building to start a fire in other parts of the building. An
extra cost is required to properly fireproof the building.
3. Susceptibility to Buckling
As the length and slenderness of a compression member is increased, its
danger of buckling increases. Some additional steel is needed to stiffen
them so they will not buckle.
4. Fatigue
The strength of steel may be reduced if it is subjected to a large number of
stress reversals or even to a large number of variations of tensile stress.
Fatigue problems occur only when tension is involved.
5. Brittle Fracture
Under certain conditions, steel may lose its ductility and brittle fracture
may occur at places of stress concentration. Fatigue-type loadings, very
low temperatures, and tri-axial stress conditions can lead to brittle failure.
6. Higher Initial Cost/Less Availability
In a few countries, steel is not available in abundance and its initial cost is
very high compared with other structural materials. This is the most
significant factor that has resulted in the decline of steel structures in
these countries.
7. Aesthetics
For certain types of buildings, the steel form is architecturally preferred.
However, for a majority of residential and office buildings, steel structures
without the use of false ceilings and cladding are considered to have poor
aesthetic appearance. A considerable cost is to be spent on such
structures to improve their appearance.
ADDITIONAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
The characteristics of steel that are of the most interest to structural
engineers can be examined by plotting the results of a tensile test.
The relationship between stress and strain is linear up to the proportional limit
(under Hooke’s Law)
A peak value, the upper yield point, is quickly reached after the proportional
limit
Levelling off at the lower yield point
Plastic Range – the stress remains constant, even though the strain continues
to increase
Strain Hardening – additional load (and stress) is required to cause additional
elongation (and strain)
A maximum value of stress is reached, after which the specimen begins to
“neck down” as the stress decreases with increasing strain, and fracture
occurs
The elastic limit of the material is a stress that lies between the proportional
limit and the upper yield point
Elastic Range – the linear portion of the diagram, the specimen can be
unloaded without permanent deformation
Yield Point (Yield Strength) – the proportional limit, elastic limit, and upper
and lower yield points
Ultimate Tensile Strength – the maximum value of stress that can be attained
Modulus of Elasticity – the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic range
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
1. Carbon Steel
The advantage of the increased carbon is that it makes the steel stronger and
less likely to yield under stress. A major negative of carbon steel is that the
increased strength makes it more difficult to shape. It is also more vulnerable
to rust and corrosion than other structural steel types.
2. High Strength Low Alloy Steel
High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are designed to the desired mechanical
properties, rather than a chemical composition like other steels. They have a
low amount of carbon and can be easily molded and formed.
HLSA steel is also offered in a corrosion-resistant variety. This makes this
structural steel type ideal for the construction of items with long life spans,
such as light posts and storage tanks.
3. Forged Steel
Forged steel is an alloy compressed under high pressure to increase strength
and hardness. Many industries use this versatile type. There are three main
types of forged steel: Drawn out – Increased length and decreased width;
Upset – Increased width and decreased length, and; Squeezed in – A die
forms it into a specific shape
The primary disadvantage to forged steel is that the initial cost and
maintenance are expensive. There are also limitations based on the size of
the press used.
4. Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel
This type of structural steel is an alloy that is stronger through the quenching
and tempering process. This process involves heating the metal to a very high
temperature and quickly cooling it in water to harden it.
Most alloys use this process. In addition to the increased strength, quenched
and tempered alloy steel is finely grained and has good ductility.
STRUCTURAL SHAPES AND SECTIONS
Hot-rolled Shapes
The manufacturing process takes place in a mill, molten steel is taken
from an electric arc furnace and poured into a continuous casting system
where the steel solidifies but is never allowed to cool completely, and then
passes through a series of rollers that squeeze the material into the
desired cross-sectional shape.
1. W-shape
It is also called a wide-flange shape. Consists of two parallel flanges
separated by a single web and has two axes of symmetry
2. American Standard (S-shape)
Formerly called an I-beam. It is similar to a W-shape in having two parallel
flanges, a single web, and two axes of symmetry. The flanges of the W are
wider in relation to the web than are the flanges of the S. The outside and
inside faces of the flanges of the W-shape are parallel, whereas the inside
faces of the flanges of the S-shape slope with respect to the outside faces.
3. Angle Shapes
Available in either equal-leg or unequal-leg. For equal-leg, 6” is the length of
the two legs as measured from the corner, or heel, to the toe at the other hand,
while for unequal-leg, 6” and 4” are the lengths. Both legs have a thickness of
¾”.
4. American Standard Channel (C-shape)
It has two flanges and a web, with only one axis of symmetry. The inside
faces of the flanges are sloping.
5. Structural Tee
It is produced by splitting an I-shaped member at mid-depth. Sometimes
referred to as split-tee. The prefix of the designation is either WT, ST, or MT,
depending on which shape is the “parent”.
The M-shape has two parallel flanges and a web, but it does not fit exactly
into either the W or S categories
The HP shape, used for bearing piles, has parallel flange surfaces,
approximately the same width and depth, and equal flange and web
thicknesses
6. Bars
Can have circular, square, or rectangular sections. The width of rectangular
bars is less than 8 inches (200 mm)
7. Plate
The width is greater than 8 inches (200 mm) Designation is the abbreviation
PL followed by the thickness in inches, the width in inches, and the length in
feet and inches, e.g. PL 3/8 x 5 x 3’ – 2 ½”
8. Hollow shapes
Can be produced either by bending plate material into the desired shape and
welding the seam or by hot-working to produce a seamless shape. The
shapes are categorized as steel pipe, round HSS, and square and rectangular
HSS. The designation HSS is for “Hollow Structural Sections”.
For pipes and round HSS, the designation is the outer diameter and wall
thickness in inches, while for square and rectangular HSS, they are designated
by nominal outside dimensions and wall thickness
Cold-formed Shapes
Made by bending thin sheets of carbon or low-alloy steels into almost any
desired cross-section. Cold-working reduces ductility but increases
strength Concrete floor slabs are very often cast on formed steel decks
that serve as economical forms for the wet concrete and are left in place
after the concrete hardens
Built-up Sections
When special conditions such as the need for heavier members or
particular cross-sectional geometries
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGNER
As the designer, you have a duty to develop a design that incorporates safety
principles. You must carry out calculations, analyses, tests, or examinations needed
to make sure the structure you design is, so far as is reasonably practicable, without
health and safety risks.
1. Safety
Safely supports loads
Control deflection
Control vibrations
2. Cost
Standard size members
Simple connections and details
Low cost maintenance
3. Constructability
Learn detailing
Learnt fabrication
Learn erection of steel
Reference:
Advantages & disadvantages of Steel Construction. Structural Community. (2022,
October 21). https://structural.community/articles/advantages-of-steel-
construction/
Mason, J. (2023, August 18). Structural steel shapes explained. Service Steel
Warehouse. https://www.servicesteel.org/resources/structural-steel-shapes
Uberuser. (2022, January 17). The different types of structural steel: Explained. Intsel
Steel West. https://www.intselsteelwest.com/different-types-of-structural-steel/
