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UNIT 3
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Introduction

• Living things require energy for various essential

processes that sustain life.

• Living things extract energy from their

environment through various mechanisms.

• Autotrophy and heterotrophy are the two main

strategies for obtaining energy.

• The set of enzyme-mediated chemical reactions

that occur within living organisms to maintain life
is Metabolism
Metabolism.
Metabolism is the sum of chemical reactions that
takes place within each cell of an organism.

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Energy

• In cells, energy refers to the capacity to do work.

• Cells produce energy for vital processes and also

synthesize new organic materials.

• Metabolic reactions can be divided into catabolic

reactions and anabolic reactions.

a. Anabolism
• It is the constructive phase of metabolism.
• It is the process whereby simpler substances are
joined together to form complex macromolecules.
• The process requires energy to construct
substances.
• It is an endergonic (energy-absorbing) reaction.
• It occurs during photosynthesis.

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b. Catabolism
• It is the destructive phase of metabolism.
• It is the process whereby complex macromolecules
are broken down to form simpler substances.
• The process releases energy as a result of the
breakdown of molecules.
• It is an exergonic (energy-releasing) reaction.
• It occurs during cellular respiration.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• It is a series of chemical reactions that use light
energy to assemble CO2 into glucose and other
carbohydrates.
• Water is used in the process and O2 is released as a
byproduct.
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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• It is an efficient way to convert solar energy into

chemical energy.
• It is the process that forms the basis of life on
Earth.
• It provides food for the photosynthetic organisms.
• It provides energy, raw materials, and O2 to
support most heterotrophs.
• It contributes to the carbon cycle.

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External and Internal structure of the leaf

• Leaves are the primary organs involved in

photosynthesis in most plants.

• A leaf has three main parts:

1.Leaf base,

2.Petiole, and

3.Leaf lamina.

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• The leaf base is the lower part of a leaf where it

attaches to the stem or the branch.
 In many plants, the leaf base transitions into a
structure called the petiole.
• Petiole is a stalk that connects the leaf blade to the
stem.
• The leaf lamina (blade) is the flat, expanded part of
a leaf that is typically involved in photosynthesis.

a. Epidermis
• It is the outer leaf layer and secrets a waxy coating
called the cuticle.
 Cuticle is waterproof and helps the plant retain
water.
• It protects the plant organs from drying out and
from infection.
• It is a continuous layer on the outside of the plant.
• It is one cell thick and provides protection.

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b. Stomata
• Stomata (singular: stoma) are tiny pores found on
the surfaces of leaves.
• They play a crucial role in the exchange of gases,
particularly carbon dioxide and oxygen, as well as
in the regulation of water vapor.
• Stomata are essential for photosynthesis in plants.

c. The mesophyll
• It is made up of specilalised parenchyma cells
found between the lower and upper epidermis of
the leaf.
 Parenchyma cells are versatile and play essential
roles in plant structure and function. They are
characterized by their relatively thin cell walls and
the absence of secondary walls.

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• The mesophyll is a critical tissue in leaves,

providing a specialized environment for the
photosynthetic process.
 They are specialised for photosynthesis and
therefore contain chloroplasts.
• There are two main types of mesophyll cells:
palisade mesophyll cells and spongy mesophyll
cells.

i. Spongy mesophyll
• It is located beneath the palisade mesophyll.
• It consists of loosely arranged cells with large
intercellular spaces.
 These spaces create a spongy appearance when
observed under a microscope.
• The cells in the spongy mesophyll are not as tightly
packed as those in the palisade mesophyll.
• It plays a crucial role in gas exchange.

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ii. Palisade mesophyll

• It is located beneath the upper epidermis of the
leaf and above the spongy mesophyll.
• The cells in the palisade mesophyll are tightly
packed and arranged vertically.
• Palisade mesophyll cells are rich in chloroplasts
(high chloroplast density).
• It is the primary site of photosynthesis in the leaf.

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Site of Photosynthesis
• The primary site of photosynthesis in plant cells is
the chloroplast
chloroplast.
• Chloroplasts are double-membraned cellular
organelles found in the cells of plants.
• Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll
chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll absorbs light energy during the light-
dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Chloroplast Structure
• The structural organization of chloroplasts allows
them to carry out the complex processes of
photosynthesis efficiently.
a. Thylakoids
• Internal membranes within chloroplasts where the
light-dependent reactions take place are thylakoid
membranes.

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• Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the

thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
• The interior of thylakoid is called lumen.
• The grana consist of stacks of thylakoids.
• Chloroplasts can have from 10 to 100 grana.
• The intergranal lamellae connects all the grana
present in the chloroplast.

b. Stroma
• It is the semi-fluid matrix that fills the interior of
the chloroplast and it surrounds the thylakoid
membranes.
• It is the site for the light-independent reactions.
• The stroma contains enzymes and proteins
necessary for various metabolic pathways related
to photosynthesis.

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Photosynthetic Pigments
• Photosynthetic pigments are molecules that
capture and absorb light energy for the process of
photosynthesis.
• The primary photosynthetic pigments in plants are
chlorophylls, but there are also accessory pigments
that broaden the range of light absorption.

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Chlorophyll-a
• It is the primary pigment involved in the light-
dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
• It is directly involved in the conversion of light
energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis.
• It absorbs violet-blue and reddish orange-red and
reflects green light, giving plants their
characteristic green color.

Chlorophyll-b
• It expands the overall range of light
wavelengths that a plant can absorb for
photosynthesis.
• It captures wavelengths that chlorophyll-a
cannot efficiently absorb.
• It absorbs mostly blue and yellow light.

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Carotenoids
• Carotenoids are pigments which exhibit
yellow, orange, red and purple colors.
• They absorb in the blue-green region of the
solar spectrum.
• Carotenoids can be further categorized into
two classes – xanthophylls and carotenes.

Xanthophylls
• Xanthophylls are typically yellow to orange
pigments.
• They absorb light energy in the blue and
green regions of the spectrum, which
complements the absorption spectra of
chlorophylls.

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Fucoxanthin
• It is a brownish-yellow pigment found in the
chloroplasts of brown algae.
• It is responsible for the characteristic brown
or olive-green color of brown algae.
• It has absorption peaks in the blue-green
range.

Phycobilins
• They are water-soluble pigments found in
Cyanobacteria & Red Algae.
• They are found in the cytoplasm (Cyanobacteria) or
in the stroma of the chloroplast (Rhodophyta).
• They absorb light in the blue and red regions.
• Phycobilins are localized in specialized
structures called phycobilisomes
phycobilisomes.

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Light-dependent and Light-independent reactions

1. Light-dependent reactions (cyclic and noncyclic
photophosphorylation)
• It converts solar energy to chemical energy.
• Water is split and O2 is released as a
byproduct.
• Transfer of electrons and hydrogen ions from
water to NADP+

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• Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH by addition of

a pair of electrons along with H+.
• Generation of ATP using chemiosmosis
(photophosphorylation)
• The light reactions do not produce sugar

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Photosystems
• Photosystems are functional and structural
units of protein complexes involved in
photosynthesis.
• Photosystems are found in the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplasts in plant cells.
• There are two kinds of photosystems: PSI and
PSII.

• Each photosystem has two parts: a reaction center

and an antenna complex.

• The two photosystems work together to capture

and convert light energy into chemical energy
during the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis.

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Photosystem I and II
• Photons of light are absorbed by chlorophyll
and other pigments.
• The absorbed light energy excites electrons in
the chlorophyll molecules.
• The excited electrons are donated to the
primary electron acceptor (pheophytin),
leaving P680 in an oxidized state.

• To replenish the electrons lost from

chlorophyll, water molecules are split in a
process called photolysis.

• Electrons from water are used to replace the

lost electrons in the chlorophyll, and oxygen
is released as a byproduct.

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• The excited electrons from the primary

electron acceptor move through a series of
proteins in the thylakoid membrane, known
as the electron transport chain (ETC).
 This chain pumps protons (H⁺ ions) across
the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid
space.

• The flow of protons back into the stroma

through ATP synthase drives the synthesis of
ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) in
a process known as chemiosmosis.

• The electrons from the ETC are eventually

transferred to photosystem I (PSI) via a
protein called plastocyanin.

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• PSI absorbs light and re-energizes the

electrons.

• The energized electrons are then transferred

to NADP⁺, reducing it to NADPH.

2. Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle)

• They are a series of chemical reactions that

take place in the stroma of chloroplasts
during photosynthesis.

• They do not directly rely on light.

• It is purely enzymatic and slower than light

reaction.

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• It uses the products of the light-dependent

reactions (ATP and NADPH) to convert carbon
dioxide into glucose or other sugars.

• In the stroma, in addition to CO2, two other

components are present to initiate the light-
independent reactions: RuBisCO and RuBP.

• It has 3 basic stages:

1. Carbon fixation

• It is a biochemical process in which CO2 is

converted into organic compounds.
• 3 molecules of CO2 are combined with 3
molecules of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)
with the help of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO).

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• The combination of CO2 and RuBP forms an unstable

six-carbon compound that immediately breaks down
into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
2. Reduction
• It refers to the chemical process in which 3-PGA is
converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
• It involves the addition of electrons and protons to 3-
PGA and it is an energy-requiring step.

• 6 ATP and 6 NADPH provide the energy and electrons

needed to convert six molecules of 3-PGA into six
molecules of G3P.

3-PGA + ATP + NADPH → G3P + ADP + NADP+ + Pi

• The enzyme that plays a crucial role in this

conversion is called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH).

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3. Regeneration of RuBP
• Some of the G3P molecules are used to regenerate
RuBP, ensuring the continuity of the Calvin cycle.

• Out of the six G3P molecules produced, only one is

directly used for the synthesis of glucose.

• 3 ATP molecules are consumed during various steps

of the regeneration phase.

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Photosynthetic Pathways

a. C3 Photosynthesis
• Most plants, including crops like wheat, rice, rye, oats
and soybeans, use C3 photosynthesis.
• It takes place in mesophyll cells of leaves.
• The first stable compound formed during carbon
fixation is 3-PGA (a three-carbon compound).

• It is efficient under moderate temperatures and

normal atmospheric conditions.

• It is less efficient in hot and dry conditions due to

photorespiration.

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b. C4 Photosynthesis

• Certain plants, especially those in hot and arid

regions, use C4 photosynthesis.

• It involves spatial separation with initial carbon

fixation occurring in mesophyll cells and the
Calvin cycle in bundle sheath cells.

• The first stable compound formed during carbon

fixation is a four-carbon compound, oxaloacetate.

• C4 plants are adapted to high temperatures and

can minimize water loss.

• They show reduced photorespiration making them

efficient in arid environments.

• Examples include maize, sorghum, and sugarcane.

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Steps
1. fixation of CO2 by carboxylation of PEP in
mesophyll cells to form oxaloacetic acid.
2. Transport of oxaloacetic acid to bundle
sheath cells
 The absence of thylakoids in bundle sheath
chloroplasts is an adaptation that minimizes
photorespiration

3. Decarboxylation of C4 acids within the

bundle sheath cells and generation of CO2
and pyruvate.
4. Transport of C3 acid to the mesophyll and
regeneration of PEP.

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c. CAM photosynthetic pathway

• CAM photosynthesis is employed by succulent

plants like cacti.

• CAM plants open stomata at night and fix CO2 into

organic acids, storing them in vacuoles.

• The Calvin cycle occurs during the day.

• Initial carbon fixation produces a four-carbon

organic acid (oxaloacetate).

• CAM plants are adapted to arid environments and

reduce water loss by opening stomata at night
when temperatures are lower.

• This pathway allows for CO2 uptake during the

night and minimizes water loss during the day.

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Steps

• During the night, CAM plants open their stomata to

allow the entry of CO2.

• CO2 taken in during the night is fixed into

oxaloacetate.
This initial carbon fixation occurs in mesophyll
cells of the plant.

• PEP carboxylase is a key enzyme involved in the

initial fixation of CO2 during CAM photosynthesis.

• Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is the substrate for PEP

carboxylase.
 PEP is a three-carbon compound.

Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) + CO2 → Oxaloacetate

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• Oxaloacetate is reduced to malate in a reaction

catalyzed by malate dehydrogenase.

• Malate is a four-carbon organic acid, and it is

stored in vacuoles within the plant cells.

• During the day, CAM plants close their stomata to

minimize water loss through transpiration.

• The malate produced during the night serves as a

storage form of carbon.

• Malate is stored in vacuoles until it is needed for

the Calvin cycle.

• During the day, malate is transported out of

vacuoles to the chloroplasts where decarboxylation
occurs.

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• Malic enzyme catalyzes the conversion of malate

to pyruvate and releases CO2 in the process.

Malate → Pyruvate + CO2

• The released CO2 is then used in the Calvin cycle to

drive photosynthesis.

Photorespiration

• It is the oxidation of organic compounds in plants

by oxygen in the presence of light.

• It releases CO2 but no ATP.

 It is a wasteful process because it can reduce

the efficiency of photosynthesis.

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• RuBisCO can also catalyze the oxygenation of

RuBP.

 formation of one molecule of 3-PGA and one

molecule of phosphoglycolate.

• It is common in C3 plants but highly reduced in C4

and absent in CAM plants.

• The compensation point occurs when the rate of

CO2 uptake through photosynthesis equals the rate
of CO2 release through photorespiration.

 At this point, there is neither a net gain nor a

net loss of carbon by the plant.

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Contributions of photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the primary process responsible

for the production of oxygen in the atmosphere.

• It converts CO2 from the atmosphere into organic

compounds, such as glucose.

• The glucose synthesized during photosynthesis

serve as a primary source of energy for organisms.

• Photosynthesis is the foundation of the food web,

as autotrophic organisms produce their own food
through photosynthesis.

• The synthesized organic matter contributes to the

formation of biomass in ecosystems.

• It regulates the concentrations of atmospheric

gases, especially CO2 and oxygen.

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• Photosynthesis plays a role in regulating the

Earth's climate by influencing the levels of
greenhouse gases, such as CO2.

 The absorption of CO2 by plants helps mitigate

the greenhouse effect.

• Photosynthesis plays a crucial role in influencing

global warming, as it directly affects the balance of
greenhouse gases, especially CO2.

RESPIRATION
• It is the process by which cells produce
energy from glucose in the form of ATP for
various cellular activities.

 ATP is a nucleotide consisting of an adenine

base attached to a ribose sugar, which is
attached to three phosphate groups.

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γ β α

• The three phosphate groups of ATP are linked to one

another by two high-energy bonds called
phosphoanhydride bonds
bonds.
 When one phosphate group is removed by breaking a
phosphoanhydride bond in a process called hydrolysis
energy is released, and ATP is converted to ADP.

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 Energy is also released when a phosphate is

removed from ADP to form AMP.
 The free energy from the breaking of
phosphoanhydride bond can be transferred to
other molecules to make unfavorable reactions in
a cell favorable.
 AMP, ADP, and ATP are constantly interconverted
as they involve in biological reactions.

Coupled Reactions
• A biochemical concept where the energy
released during one chemical reaction is used
to drive another reaction.
• The energy produced by an exergonic
reaction is harnessed to fuel an endergonic
reaction.

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• ATP is often the key molecule involved in

coupling reactions.
• An example of a coupled reaction is the
hydrolysis of ATP and the contraction of
muscle tissue.
 The energy released during the hydrolysis of ATP
is utilized to power muscle contraction.

• Another example of a coupled reaction is the

hydrolysis of creatine phosphate to release
energy which in turn is used for the formation
of more ATP.
 The hydrolysis of creatine phosphate involves the
transfer of a phosphate group from creatine
phosphate to ADP, forming ATP.

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The Site of Cellular Respiration

• Cellular respiration is carried out by both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• In prokaryotes, such as bacteria and archaea,
cellular respiration occurs in the cytoplasm.
 The electron transport chain and oxidative
phosphorylation in prokaryotes take place on
the cell membrane.

• In eukaryotic cells, cellular respiration occurs

in the the cytoplasm and mitochondria.
 Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
 The site of pyruvate oxidation is the
mitochondria.
 The mitochondria play a central role in the
generation of ATP through the citric acid cycle
and the electron transport chain.

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Stages of respiration
• The stages of cellular respiration are
glycolysis, transition reaction (pyruvate
oxidation), the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle),
and oxidative phosphorylation through the
elctron transport chain.

1. Glycolysis
• It occurs in the cytosol of the cell in
anaerobic condition.
• It is the common pathway of both aerobic
and anaerobic respiration.
• It begins cellular respiration by breaking
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate.

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• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and

consists of 10 enzyme-catalyzed steps.
Step 1: Glucose Phosphorylation
• Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to form
glucose-6-phosphate.
Step 2: Isomerization
• Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to its
isomer, fructose-6-phosphate.

Step 3: Phosphorylation
• Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated by
ATP to form fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
Step 4: Cleavage
• Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into two
three-carbon compounds: dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P).

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Step 5: Isomerization
• DHAP is isomerized to form another molecule
of G3P.
Step 6: Oxidation and Phosphorylation
• G3P is oxidized, and NAD+ is reduced to form
NADH.
• Inorganic phosphate is added to G3P, forming
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

Step 7: Phosphorylation
• 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is converted to 3-
phosphoglycerate by transferring a
phosphate group to ADP, forming ATP.
Step 8: Isomerization
• 3-phosphoglycerate is isomerized to form 2-
phosphoglycerate.

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Step 9: Dehydration
• 2-phosphoglycerate undergoes dehydration
to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
Step 10: Phosphorylation
• PEP is converted to pyruvate by transferring
its phosphate group to ADP, forming ATP.

• At the end of glycolysis, one molecule of

glucose is converted into two molecules of
pyruvate, and a net gain of two molecules of
ATP and two molecules of NADH are
achieved.

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2. Pyruvate Oxidation (The link reaction)

• It is a crucial step in cellular respiration,
linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
• Pyruvate undergoes a series of enzymatic
reactions that result in the production of
acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA).
• It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix in
eukaryotic cells.

The key steps involved in pyruvate oxidation

Step 1: A carboxyl group is removed from
pyruvate, releasing a molecule of carbon
dioxide into the surrounding medium.
Step 2: The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to
an acetyl group, and the electrons are picked
by NAD+, forming NADH.

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Step 3: The enzyme-bound acetyl group is

transferred to CoA, producing a molecule of
acetyl CoA.

• The acetyl-CoA enter the Krebs cycle, NADH

goes to ETC to produce ATP. CO2 diffuses out
of the cell as a waste product. The protons
(2H+) stay in the matrix.

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Acetyl-CoA (C23H38N7O17P3S)

3. Kreb Cycle
• It takes place in the mitochondria of
eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of
prokaryotic cells.
• It is also known as the citric acid cycle or
tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
• It completes the breakdown of carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins.

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• It plays a crucial role by providing electrons

to the electron transport chain.
The key steps of the Krebs Cycle
1. Citrate formation
• The Acetyl-CoA formed from the breakdown
of carbohydrates, fats, or proteins enters the
cycle by combining with oxaloacetate (4C),
forming citrate (6C).

2. Citrate isomerization
• Citrate undergoes isomerization to
isocitrate.
3. α-Ketoglutarate formation
• Isocitrate is converted to α-ketoglutarate,
releasing CO2 and producing NADH.

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4. Succinyl-CoA formation
• α-ketoglutarate is transformed into succinyl-
CoA, releasing another molecule of carbon
dioxide and producing NADH.
5. Succinate formation
• Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate with
the release of GTP and the conversion of a
NAD+ to NADH.

6. Fumarate formation
• Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, producing
FADH2.
7. Malate formation
• Fumarate is further transformed into malate.
8. Regeneration of Oxaloacetate
• Malate is converted back to oxaloacetate, and
the cycle can start again.

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• In a single turn of the cycle,

 2 CO2 are released

 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are generated

 1 GTP (ATP) is produced.

• The Krebs cycle makes a lot of ATP indirectly,

by way of the NADH and FADH2 it generates.

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• The overall reaction of the Krebs cycle is:

Acetyl-CoA+3NAD++1FAD+1ADP+1Pi → 2CO2 +
3NADH + 3H+ + 1FADH2 + 1ATP

4. Oxidative Phosphorylation
• It is the process in which ATP is formed as a result
of the transfer of electrons from NADH or FADH2
to O2 by a series of electron carriers.
• It is a highly efficient process for ATP production.
• It takes place in the inner mitochondrial
membrane of eukaryotic cells and the
plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells.

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• It involves the transfer of electrons through a

series of protein complexes known as the
electron transport chain (ETC) and the
synthesis of ATP through the process of
chemiosmosis.
chemiosmosis
• In the inner mitochondrial membrane, there are
protein complexes (Complex I, II, III, and IV) that
make up the electron transport chain.

• The protein complexes contain electron carriers

that pass electrons from one to another.
• Electrons are initially donated by molecules such
as NADH and FADH2.
• As electrons move through the ETC, they lose
energy, which is used to actively pump protons
(H+ ions) from the mitochondrial matrix into the
intermembrane space.

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• The pumping of protons creates a proton gradient,

with a higher concentration of protons in the
intermembrane space compared to the
mitochondrial matrix.
• ATP synthase allows protons to flow back into the
mitochondrial matrix, and as they do so, ATP
synthase harnesses the energy released to
synthesize ATP from ADP & inorganic phosphate.

• The flow of protons through ATP synthase is

coupled with the synthesis of ATP, a process
known as oxidative phosphorylation.
phosphorylation
• At the end of the electron transport chain,
oxygen serves as the terminal electron
acceptor.
 Oxygen combines with electrons and
protons to form water.

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• ETC is composed of four protein complexes:

i. Complex I: NADH dehydrogenase, FMN, and an
iron-sulphur protein.

ii. Complex II: Succinate dehydrogenase, FAD, and an

iron-sulphur protein.

iii.Complex III: Cytochrome b and cytochrome c1.

iv.Complex IV: Cytochrome a and cytochrome a3.

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Coenzyme Q shuttles electrons from Complex I

and Complex II to Complex III.
After receiving electrons from Complex III,
cytochrome c carries the electrons to Complex IV.
• The flow of electrons in ETC is as follows:

Complex I → Complex II → Coenzyme Q → Complex

III → Cytochrome c → Complex IV → Oxygen

• The chemiosmotic process in mitochondria

involves the following steps:
 Electrons are provided to the electron transport
chain via NADH and FADH2.
 NADH provides electrons to Complex I of the ETC
while FADH2 provides electrons to Complex II.
 The electrons then move down the electron
transport chain liberating a considerable amount
of energy.

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 The energy liberated from electrons moving down

the ETC is used to pump protons, creating a
proton gradient.
 The proton gradient serves as the driving force
for ATP synthesis.
 Protons flow back into the mitochondrial matrix
through ATP synthase.
 The flow of protons induces a rotary motion in
ATP synthase, leading to the synthesis of ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

• The oxidation of 1 NADH leads to the synthesis of 3

ATP and the oxidation of 1 FADH2 leads to the
synthesis of 2 ATP.
• The difference in ATP yields between NADH and
FADH2 is a consequence of their entry points into the
ETC and the number of protons pumped during the
electron transport process.
 NADH contributes to more proton-pumping events.

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The energy budget of one glucose molecule

Stage ATP NADH FADH2 CO2

Glycolysis 2 2 0 0

Link reaction 0 2 0 2

Krebs cycle 2 6 2 4

Total 4 10 2 6
(30 ATP) (4 ATP)

• The standard Gibbs free energy change (ΔG°) for the

hydrolysis of one mole of ATP is approximately -30.5
kJ/mol.
• The standard enthalpy change (ΔHo) for the complete
combustion of one mole of glucose is approximately
-2800 kJ/mol.

• The estimated efficiency of aerobic respiration is

approximately 39.2%.

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Energy from non-carbohydrate sources

• Energy can be derived from non-carbohydrate
sources through various metabolic pathways.

• While carbohydrates are a primary source of energy,

alternative sources such as fats and proteins can also
contribute to energy production.

1. Fats (Triglycerides)
• Fats are a major storage form of energy in the body.
• Triglycerides can be broken down through a process
called lipolysis.
 Lipolysis is a crucial process during times of
energy demand.
• The breakdown of triglycerides releases fatty acids
and glycerol.

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• Fatty acids can enter the mitochondria and

undergo beta–oxidation.
 It is a process that generates acetyl–CoA.
 If the fatty acid is an odd-numbered chain, the
final product will be propionyl–CoA, which
will be converted into succinyl–CoA and
enters the TCA cycle.
 NADH and FADH2 are also generated during
beta–oxidation.

• The complete oxidation of fatty acids in the Krebs

cycle and subsequent electron transport chain
contributes to the production of ATP.
• A gram of fat oxidized by respiration produces
more than twice as much ATP as a gram of
carbohydrate.

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2. Glycerol
• Glycerol is a simple polyol (sugar alcohol)
compound with the chemical formula C3H8O3.
• Glycerol can be converted to glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate, an intermediate of glycolysis,
and continue through the remainder of the
cellular respiration breakdown pathway.

3. Amino Acids
• They are the building blocks of proteins and their
catabolism is essential for energy production.
• Excess amino acids are converted to intermediates
of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
• Deamination occurs during amino acid
catabolism which is the removal of an amino
group from a molecule.

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• When an amino group (–NH2) is removed from an

amino acid, the resulting molecule is called an α–
keto acid.
• The α–keto acid can enter various metabolic
pathways depending on the specific amino acid
from which it originated.
• The amino group is converted into NH3 and needs
to be safely eliminated from the body.

Anaerobic Pathway
• In anaerobic respiration, a molecule other than
oxygen is used as the terminal electron acceptor.
 Some organisms use an organic molecule
(commonly pyruvate) as a final electron acceptor
through a process called fermentation.

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 In fermentation, the only energy extraction

pathway is glycolysis, with one or two extra
reactions tacked on at the end.
 Fermentation does not involve an electron
transport system.
 It does not directly produce any additional
ATP beyond that produced during glycolysis.
 The purpose of fermentation is to regenerate
NAD+ from the NADH produced in glycolysis.

• There are two main types of anaerobic

respiration, alcoholic fermentation and lactic
acid fermentation.
A. Alcohol fermentation
• It is a metabolic process in which sugars are
converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
• NADH donates its electrons to a derivative of
pyruvate, producing ethanol.

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• Going from pyruvate to ethanol is a two-step

process.
a) A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate
and released as carbon dioxide, producing
acetaldehyde (2C).
b) NADH passes its electrons to acetaldehyde,
regenerating NAD+ and forming ethanol.

• Alcohol fermentation by yeast produces the

ethanol found in alcoholic drinks.

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B. Lactic acid fermentation

• NADH transfers its electrons directly to pyruvate,
generating lactate as a byproduct.

Pyruvate + NADH lactic acid + NAD+

• The bacteria that make yogurt carry out lactic acid
fermentation.
• Muscle cells carry out lactic acid fermentation only when
they have too little oxygen for aerobic respiration.

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The fermentation processes in animal cells and yeast

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