Fundamental of Power System
Operation and Control
1
Power network structure
Transmission system
– all major generating stations and main load
centers
– voltage levels (typically, 230 kV and
above).
Sub-transmission system
– transmits the transmission substations to
the distribution substations.
– Large industrial customers
Distribution system
– power to the individual customers
2
Operational requirement
1. Follow the change in the load demands
2. Supply energy at minimum cost and environmental impact.
3. Maintaining high power quality
– Frequency
– Voltage
– Level of reliability.
– Harmonics
3
Why the frequency should be constant
Frequency fluctuations are harmful to electrical appliances.
Example:
– Speed of motors is proportional to the frequency. (N=120f/p)
– The blades of steam and water turbines are designed to operate at a
particular speed. Frequency variation leads to speed variation and
results in mechanical vibration/fatigue.
• For 2-pole generator running at 3000 rpm:
If the frequency increased from 50 Hz to 51 Hz , the rotor speed becomes
3060 rpm.
4
Why the voltage should be constant
Over-voltage and under-voltage
– Over voltage may also cause insulation failure due to the
increased stress.
– For a specified power rating, lower voltage results in more
current and this results in heating problems. (P=VI)
5
Control parameters
A. Active Power and Frequency
– Balance of load and generation
– Load-Frequency Control
B. Reactive Power and Voltage
– Automatic voltage regulator
– capacitors and reactors
– Tap-changing transformers
6
A. Active Power and
Frequency
7
Load & generation balance
Match between electric load and generation
Frequency is an indication Balanced system, 50/60 Hz
Consequences:
Generation Load
➢ power surplus >> frequency increases
➢ power shortage >>frequency decreases
ΔP Δf
8
Frequency control actions
Generation side Control Demand side control
Primary Control
Δf Power System
Governor
df
Upri dt
UFLS
Generator f
USec
UUFLS
ΔPtie
AGC/LFC
Δf
Secondary Control
UCT
Operator
Connection and
Tripping of power Emergency Control
9
Example
10
Primary Frequency Control
• Generation is controlled by
mechanical output of the prime mover
• The speed governor senses the
change in speed (frequency)
• Actions taken within 5 – 30 seconds
by generator droop control
11
Under frequency Load Shedding (UFLS)
• To prevent extended operation of separated areas at
low frequency, load shedding schemes are employed.
A typical scheme for 60 Hz system:
• 10% load shed when frequency drops to 59.2 Hz
• 15% additional load shed when frequency drops to 58.8 Hz
• 20% additional load shed when frequency reaches 58.0 Hz
12
B. Reactive Power and
Voltage
13
Voltage Control
• Control of voltage levels is carried out by controlling the
production, absorption, and flow of reactive power
• Generating units provide the basic means of voltage
control. synchronous generators
– can generate or absorb Q depending on excitation
– automatic voltage regulator (AVR) continuously adjusts excitation to
control armature voltage.
14
Voltage Control
• Additional means are required to control voltage
throughout the system ( sources or sinks of reactive power)
i. shunt capacitors
ii. shunt reactors
iii. synchronous condensers
iv. and static var compensators (SVCs)
v. Line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors
vi. regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers and
boosters
15
Mathematical derivation of Reactive Power/Voltage
and Real Power/Frequency relation
power–angle characteristic
Important notes:
• In power networks, node voltages must be within a small
percentage of their nominal values. Therefore, small
variations cannot influence the value of real power
• large changes of real power, from negative to positive
values, correspond to changes in the sine of the angle δ.
• the system can operate only in that part of the
characteristic which is shown by a solid line in the
previous figure
17
