Introduction to

Power System
Operation and
Control

Lecture #1
Outline

Power system basics

Operational states

Power system control

– Active power and frequency
– Reactive power and voltage
Transport of electric power

Apparent power (Complex power) (S) [VA]

– S=VI*=P+jQ – Electric power P [W]
– Reactive Power Q [VAR]

Two ways to increase the transported power

– Increase current I
• Larger conductor cross-section
– Increase voltage U
• More insulation

Two ways to transport electricity

– Alternating current (AC)
– Direct current (DC)
Power network structure

Transmission system
– all major generating stations and main load centers
– voltage levels (typically, 132 kV and above).

Sub-transmission system
– transmits the transmission substations to the
distribution substations.
– Large industrial customers

Distribution system
– power to the individual customers
– between 0.4 kV and 33 kV

Note: Iraqi power network has only transmission and

distribution system
Operational requirement
Follow the change in the load demands
Supply energy at minimum cost and environmental impact.
Power quality
– Frequency
– Voltage
– Level of reliability

Why constant frequency

Frequency fluctuations are harmful to electrical appliances.
– Speed of three phase ac motors proportional to the frequency.
(N=120f/p)

Why constant voltage

Over voltage
– Electric motors will tend to run on over speed when they are fed with
higher voltages resulting vibration and mechanical damage.
– Over voltage may also cause insulation failure.
Under voltage
– For a specified power rating, lower voltage results in more current and
this results in heating problems. (P=VI)
Control parameters
Active Power and Frequency
– Balance of load and generation
– Load-Frequency

Control Reactive Power and Voltage

– Automatic voltage regulator
– capacitors and reactors
– Tap-changing transformers

Load & generation balance

Match between electric load and generation
Frequency is an indication
Balanced system, 50/60 Hz
Net power surplus , frequency increases
Net power shortage, frequency decreases
ΔP Δf
 Operational states
uNormal state, all system variables are within
the normal range
uAlert state, security level falls below a certain
limit of adequacy because of a disturbance
• generation shifting (security dispatch) ,
Increased reserve
uEmergency state, severe disturbance
• fault clearing, generation tripping, load
curtailment
uIn extremis, cascading outages
• load shedding and controlled system
separation
uRestorative state, control action is being taken
to reconnect all the facilities and to restore
system load
Basic P-F And Q-V Control Loops
A Static changes in ΔPi the real bus power affect the bus phase angle and not the
bus voltage magnitudes.
A static change in ΔQi the reactive bus power affects the bus voltage at the
particular bus and has little effect on the magnitude of voltage

P-F Control Loop

The circuit primarily controls the steam valve leading to the turbine. A speed
sensor senses the speed of the turbine. This is compared with a reference speed,
governor whose main activity is to control the speed of the steam by closing and
opening of the control valve.
That is, if the differential speed is low, then the control valve is opened to let out
the steam at high speed thereby increasing turbine‘s speed and vice versa. The
control of speed in turn controls the frequency

Q-V Control Loop

the rectifier circuit which converts the AC voltage into DC voltage and a filter
circuit used in this removes the harmonics. The voltage Vi, thus rectified is
compared with a reference voltage Vref in the comparator and a voltage error
signal is generated.
Frequency control action
Primary Frequency Control

Generation is controlled by mechanical output of

the prime mover
The speed governor senses the change in speed
(frequency)
Actions taken within 5 –30 seconds by generator
droop control
Secondary control reserves

Should reset the primary control reserves in 5 –15 minutes to

be ready for next disturbance

Should correct the frequency deviation within allowable limit

•+/-0.1 Hz
•+/-0.2 Hz
 Under frequency Load Shedding
(UFLS)
Example

To prevent extended operation of

separated areas
at low frequency, load shedding
schemes are
employed.
Voltage Control

Control of voltage levels is carried out by controlling

the production, absorption, and flow of reactive
power
Generating units provide the basic means of voltage
control. synchronous generators
Ø can generate or absorb Q depending on excitation
Ø automatic voltage regulator continuously adjusts excitation to
control armature voltage
Ø primary source of voltage support
Voltage Control

Additional means are usually required to control voltage

throughout the system:

Ø sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitors,

shunt reactors, synchronous condensers, and static var
compensators (SVCs)

Ø line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors

Ø regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers

and boosters
Example: Shunt Compensation

a) shunt compensation

b) phasor diagram without compensation

c) phasor diagram with compensation

Load on Power
System

Lecture #2
Ø Outline

Introduction
* Structure of Electric Power system
* Load Characteristics
* Types of load
* Load curves
* Load duration curves
* Load curves and selection of generating units
Introduction

Ø The power demands of different consumers vary in

accordance with their activities.

Ø The result of this variation in demand is that load

on a power station is never constant rather it varies
from time to time
STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM
STRUCTUREOFELECTRICPOWER SYSTE
System Load Characteristics

Connected load is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment

connected to supply systems.
Load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power
station with respect to time is known as a load curve. It varies from
time to time.
Load duration curve arranges the load elements of a load curve in the
order of descending magnitudes, i.e, the greatest load on the left and
lesser loads towards right.
Maximum demand is the greatest demand of load on the power station
during a given period.
Spinning reserve is the generating capacity that is connected to the
bus and it is prepared to supply load
LOAD ON POWER SYSEM

uBASE LOAD:
The unvarying load which occurs
almost the whole day on the
station
uPEAK LOAD:
The various peak demands of
load of the station
 LOAD CURVES

uThe curve showing the

variation of load on the power
station with respect to time
- Daily load curve
- Monthly load curve
- Yearly load curve
LOAD DURATION CURVES
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes

Load curve Load duration curve

System Load Characteristics
Demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand
of a system to the total connected load of the
system.
Key Points to Highlight
1.The Demand Factor is always less than or equal to 1
(or 100%) because the maximum demand cannot
exceed the total connected load.
2.It helps utilities and engineers
estimate the actual
load on a system, which is typically lower than the sum
of all connected loads due to diversity in usage
patterns.
 System Load Characteristics
Load factor is the ratio of average Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of
load to the maximum demand during individual maximum demand on power
a given period station
System Load Characteristics

Key Differences Between Load Factor and Diversity Factor

System Load Characteristics
Plant capacity factor is the ratio of Plant use factor is the ratio of kWh
actual energy produced to the generated to the product of plant
maximum possible energy that could capacity and the number of hours for
which the plant was in operation.
have been produced during a given
period.
 System Load Characteristics
Explanation of Plant Capacity Factor Explanation of Plant Use Factor
•Plant Capacity × Hours of Operation: This is the
•Maximum Possible Energy (MPE): This is the energy
maximum possible energy that could have been
that would be produced if the plant operated at its
generated if the plant operated at its full rated
full rated capacity for the entire period. For example,
capacity for the entire duration, it was in operation.
if a plant has a capacity of 100 MW and operates for
For example, if a plant has a capacity of 100 MW and
10 hours, the maximum possible energy is:
operates for 10 hours, the maximum possible energy
•MPE=Plant Capacity × Time is:
•Plant Capacity × Hours of Operation
• =100 MW×10 h = 1000 MWh
=100 MW×10 h = 1000 MWh
•Actual Energy Produced (AEP): This is the energy
actually generated by the plant during the same •Energy Generated (kWh): This is the energy actually
period. For example, if the plant produced 750 MWh generated by the plant during the same period. For
in 10 hours, the actual energy produced is 750 MWh. example, if the plant produced 750 MWh in 10 hours,
the actual energy generated is 750 MWh.
•Plant Capacity Factor (PCF): This is the ratio of the
actual energy produced to the maximum possible •Plant Use Factor (PUF): This is the ratio of the actual
energy. It indicates how effectively the plant is being energy generated to the product of plant capacity and
utilized. In the example: hours of operation. It indicates how effectively the
plant is being utilized during the time it is in operation.
In the example:
TYPES OF LOAD
Ø Domestic load
Lights, fans, domestic appliances like heaters, air conditioners, mixers, ovens.
Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3; Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15
Ø Commercial Load
Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans, AC etc.
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.1 to 1.2; Load factor= 0.25 to 0.3
Ø Industrial Load
Small scale industries : 0 - 20 kW
Medium scale industries: 20 - 100kW
Large scale industries : above 100kW
For heavy industries:
Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9;
Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8
Ø Agriculture Load
Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1;
Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5;
Loadfactor = 0.15 to 0.25
Example 1
Example 1
Example 2
Example 2
Economic Dispatch

Lecture #3
Ø Outline

Introduction
Generator Cost Curves
- I/O Curve
- Fuel-cost Curve
- Heat-rate Curve
- Incremental cost Curve
Formulation
Co-ordination equations without and with loss
Introduction

Ø The economic dispatch problem basically determines

the generation of different plants to minimize total
operating cost.

Ø The main factors influencing the economic dispatch

are:

- Generator capacity and efficiency,

- Fuel cost (Cost of generation)
- Transmission losses (Distance between plant and load)
Generator Cost Curves
 Generator costs are typically represented by up to four
different curves
input/output (I/O) curve
fuel-cost curve
heat-rate curve
incremental cost curve
 For reference
1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1054 J
1 MBtu = 1x106 Btu
1 MBtu = 0.293 MWh
3.41 Mbtu = 1 MWh
I/O Curve
 The IO curve plots fuel input (in MBtu/hr) versus net MW
output.
Fuel-cost Curve
 The fuel-cost curve is the I/O curve scaled by fuel cost. A
typical cost for coal is $ 1.70/Mbtu.
Heat-rate Curve
 Plots the average number of MBtu/hr of fuel input needed per
MW of output.
Heat-rate curve is the I/O curve scaled by MW
Incremental (Marginal) cost Curve
 Plots the incremental $/MWh as a function of MW.
Found by differentiating the cost curve
 Formulation SYSTE

The goal of economic dispatch is to determine the generation

dispatch that minimizes the instantaneous operating cost,
subject to the constraint that
total generation = total load + losses
m
Minimize CT @ å Ci ( PGi ) Initially we'll
i =1 ignore generator limits
Such that and the losses
m
å PGi = PD + PLosses
i=1
 Co-ordination equations without and with loss
The relationship between power generation and fuel cost can be realized
by the following figure. This relationship is a nonlinear function and can
be approximated using a line whose equation is given as follows.

where is fuel cost in $, P is power generation in MW.

The incremental fuel rate is equal to a small change in input divided by the corresponding
change in output.
Incremental fuel rate =Δ Input/Δ Output
The incremental cost is the product of incremental fuel rate and fuel cost ($ /Btu).
The unit of the incremental fuel cost is $ /MWh.
Co-ordination equations
without and with loss

uIt seems that economic operation

of power system can be obtained
by loading the plants of lower fuel
cost more than the plants of costly
fuel such as thermal power station.
uIn real system the last statement
looks not true because of
transmission line losses.
The Lambda-Iteration Method
uThe solution of such problem can be
evaluated by considering a graphical
technique for solving the problem and
then extending this into the area of
computer algorithms.
uSuppose we have a three-machine
system and wish to find the optimum
economic operating point. One
approach would be to plot the
incremental cost characteristics for
each of these three units on the same
graph.
uIn order to establish the operating
points of each of these three units such
that we have minimum cost and at the
same time satisfy the specified
demand, we could use this sketch and a
ruler to find the solution.
The Lambda-Iteration Method

uWe could assume an incremental cost

rate (λ) and find the power outputs of
each of the three units for this value of
incremental cost.
uOfcourse, our first estimate will be
incorrect. If we have assumed the value
of incremental cost such that the total
power output is too low, we must
increase the value and try another
solution.
The Lambda-Iteration Method

uWith two solutions, we can extrapolate (or interpolate) the two

solutions to get closer to the desired value of total received power. By
keeping track of the total demand versus the incremental cost, we can
rapidly find the desired operating point.
uIf we wished, we could manufacture a whole series of tables that
would show the total power supplied for different incremental cost
levels and combinations of units. That is, we will now establish a set
of logical rules that would enable us to accomplish the same objective
as we have just done with ruler and graph paper.
uThe actual details of how the power output is established as a
function of the incremental cost rate are of very little importance.
Ex1
Solution 1
Solution 1
Economic Dispatch

Lecture #4
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Methods of solving Economic Linear Dispatch (ELD)
Economic Dispatch
Economic Dispatch
Economic Dispatch

UNIT COMMITMENT

Lecture #5
UNIT COMMITMENT

Unit commitment schedules are thus required for

economically committing the units in plants to
service with the time at which individual units
should be taken out from or returned to service.
There are periods of high-power consumption as
well as low power consumption. It is therefore
possible to commit the generating units from the
available capacity into service to meet the
demand.
UNIT
COMMITMENT
UNIT COMMITMENT
UNIT COMMITMENT
UNIT
COMMITMENT
UNIT COMMITMENT
UNIT COMMITMENT
Constraints in Unit Commitment

Spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total amount of

generation available from all units synchronized (i.e., spinning) on
the system, minus the present load and losses being supplied.
Typical rules specify that reserve must be a given percentage of
forecasted peak demand, or that reserve must be capable of making
up the loss of the most heavily loaded unit in each period.
Thermal Unit Constraints
Thermal Unit Constraints
Unit Commitment Solution Methods
Unit Commitment Solution Methods

u• Priority-list schemes,
u• Dynamic programming (DP),
u• Lagrange relation (LR).
Real Power – Frequency
Control

Lecture #6
Introduction

Operation of electric power system must be maintained within

the desired levels of the following nominal values:
Ø 1.Frequency
Ø 2.Voltage
Ø 3.Load flow

They are maintained within nominal values by controlling the

active and reactive power generated by the controllable
source of the systems. It must keep matching between
generation and load. if load changes, generation should
respond to control signals. Therefore, speed or frequency
variations occur because of chasing the load in transient
unbalance of load and generation. The control of active and
reactive power in used to keep the system in the steady state.
 Plant and system level control
Real power-frequency (P-f) and reactive power-voltage (Q-V)
control problems are demonstrated for small disturbance as
follows:
uA mismatch in real power balance affects frequency and leaves
bus voltage unaffected.
uA mismatch in reactive power balance affects bus voltage and
leaves frequency unaffected.

Controlling mechanical power (turbine) causes change in electric

power output. The problem of autonomous controlling the real
output power of generators is called Automatic Generation
Control (AGC). The objective of the control strategy is to generate
and delivery power in an interconnected system as economically
and reliable as possible while maintaining the voltage and
frequency with permissible limits.
Generator control loops

In an interconnected system, there are

Ø Load frequency control (LFC).

Ø Automatic voltage regulator (AVR).

These are responsible for small changes in load to

maintain frequency deviation and tie-power deviation
within their limits.
Δ ∝Δ → Δ ∝Δ →
Time constant of excitation system is much smaller than
prime mover time constant. Thus, the coupling between
LFC loop and AVR loop is neglected, and their controls are
studied independently.
LFC and AVR of a synchronous generator
Automatic Load Frequency Control
The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ΔPtie (measured
from the tie line flows), and the frequency deviation Δf (obtained by
measuring the angle deviation Δδ). These error signals Δf and ΔPtie
are amplified, mixed and transformed to a real power signal, which
then controls the valve position. Depending on the valve position, the
turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to establish the real
power balance.
Automatic Load Frequency Control

Ø Generator Model
The valve and the hydraulic amplifier represent the speed governing
system. Using the swing equation, the generator can be modeled by
Automatic Load Frequency Control

Ø LOAD MODEL

uD is called frequency characteristic of

the load (also called as damping constant)
expressed in percent change in load for 1%
change in frequency
Automatic Load Frequency Control
Ø Prime mover or Turbine model

The turbine can be modeled as

Gt(s) is the transfer function (TF) of the turbine;

ΔPV(s) is the change in steam valve output (due to action).
ΔPm(s) is the change in the turbine output the governor (Mechanical power output)
Govern Model
Fig. bellow is the schematic representation of Turbine Speed Governing system. It has mainly
four major components.
Speed governor: Speed governor senses the change in speed (or frequency) hence it can be
regarded as heart of the system. The standard model of speed governor operates by fly-ball
mechanism. Fly-balls moves outward when
speed increases and the point Q on the linkage mechanism moves downwards. the reverse
happens when the speed decreases. The movement of point Q is proportional to change in
shaft speed.
Linage mechanism: PQR is a rigid link pivoted at Q and RST is another rigid link pivoted at
S. This link mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to change in
speed. It also provides a feedback from the steam valve movement.
Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement. It converts low
power level pilot valve movement into high power level piston valve movement. This is
necessary in order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.
Speed changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine. Its downwards
movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the turbine under
steady conditions the reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer. By adjusting
the linkage position of point P the scheduled speed/frequency can be obtained at the given
loading condition.
Govern Model
Govern Model
Govern Model
Automatic Load Frequency Control
All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC
loop as follows:

The block diagram representation of the ALFC

Govern Model
Govern Model
Real Power – Frequency
Control

Lecture #7
 Mathematical Model:
1.Governor Equation: 2.Turbine Equation:

1.ΔPg(s): Change in governor

output (mechanical power).
2.Kg: Governor gain. • ΔPt(s): Change in turbine output.
3.Tg: Governor time constant. • Kt: Turbine gain.
4.Δf(s): Frequency deviation. • Tt: Turbine time constant.
4. Overall Transfer Function: 3. Generator and Load Equation:

• H: Inertia constant of the generator.

• D: Load damping coefficient.
• ΔPL(s): Change in load demand.
Mathematical Modeling of Load Frequency Control (LFC)

Load Frequency Control (LFC) is a critical aspect of power

system operation, ensuring that the frequency remains stable
despite changes in load demand. The mathematical modeling
of LFC involves representing the dynamics of the power system
using differential equations and transfer functions.
Single-Area Power System Model
In a single-area power system, the entire system is treated as a
single entity, and the goal is to maintain the frequency within
acceptable limits. Components of a Single-Area System:
1.Generator: Converts mechanical power into electrical power.
2.Turbine: Supplies mechanical power to the generator.
3.Governor: Controls the turbine's output based on frequency
deviations.
4.Load: Represents the power demand from consumers.
Two Area Load Frequency
Control
Lecture #8
 Examples for Two Area
Ex.1
A two-area system connected by a tie line has the following
parameters on a 1000 MVA common base:
Speed Regulation Load coefficient Inertia constant
Area 1: R = 0.05, D = 0.6, H=5
Area 2: R = 0.0625, D = 0.9, H=4
Base power: 1000 MVA
Governor time constant Turbine time constant
g1 = 0.2 sec, Tr = 0.5 sec
g2 = 0.3 sec, Tt2 = 0.6 sec
The units are operating in parallel at the nominal frequency of 60 Hz.
The synchronizing power coefficient is computed from the initial
operating condition and is given to be P = 2.0 per unit. A load change
of 187.5 MW occurs in area 1. Determine the new steady state
frequency and 2. the change in the tie line flow.
Examples for Two Area
Ex.2
A Two interconnected Area-1 and Area-2 have the capacity of 2,000
and 500 MW, respectively.
The incremental regulation and damping torque coefficient for each
area on its own base are 0.2 p.u. and 0.8 p.u., respectively.
Find the steady-state change in system frequency from a nominal
frequency of 50 Hz and the change in steady-state tie-line power
following a 750 MW change in the load of Area-1.
Repeat last example without governor control
Ex.3
Two control areas have the following characteristics: Area-1: Speed
regulation = 0.02 p.u. Damping coefficient = 0.8 p.u. Rated MVA =
1,500 Area-2: Speed regulation = 0.025 p.u. Damping coefficient =
0.9 p.u. Rated MVA = 500 Determine the steady-state frequency
change and the changed frequency following a load change of 120
MW, which occurs in Area-1. Also find the tie-line power flow
change.
Given Data:
•Area-1 Characteristics:
• Speed regulation (R1): 0.02 p.u.
• Damping coefficient (D1): 0.8 p.u.
• Rated MVA (S1): 1,500 MVA
•Area-2 Characteristics:
• Speed regulation (R2): 0.025 p.u.
• Damping coefficient (D2): 0.9 p.u.
• Rated MVA (S2): 500 MVA
•Load Change in Area-1 (ΔPL1): 120 MW
•Nominal Frequency (f0): 50 Hz (assumed, since not
specified)
Step 1: Convert Parameters to a
Common Base

We will use the rated MVA of each

area as its base power. Thus:
•Base power for Area-1 (S1):
1,500 MVA
•Base power for Area-2 (S2):
500 MVA

The speed regulation (R) and

damping coefficient (D) are already
given on their own bases, so no
conversion is needed.

Step 2: Compute Frequency

Response Characteristics (β₁ and β₂)
Reactive Power – Voltage
Control
Lecture #9
Voltage and Reactive Power Control in Power System
Voltage control and reactive power control are interrelated and need to
be therefore considered together. One of the most trouble some
features associated with the operation of overhead transmission
system is the inherent variation of voltage at the receiving end, due to
variations in load. These fluctuations of voltage are to be kept within
the reasonable limits fixed.
When power is supplied to a load through a transmission line keeping
sending-end voltage constant, the receiving-end (or load) voltage
undergoes variations depending upon the magnitude of the load and
power factor of the load. The higher the load with smaller power
factor the greater is the voltage variation. The voltage variation at a
load is an indication of the unbalance between the reactive power
generated and absorbed by that load. When the reactive power
generated exceeds, the reactive power absorbed, the voltage goes up
and vice versa.
Reactive power control in general is via:
- Excitation control
- Tap-changing and regulating transformers
- Switching shunt capacitor banks or reactors, and static
VAR systems or other FACTS
 Tap changing transformer:
• when the movable arm makes contact with lower positions such as 1, the
secondary voltage is minimum, during the period of light inductive load
• When the movable arm contact with higher position such as 5 ,the
secondary voltage is maximum, during the period of high inductive load

Advantage of tap changing transformer

• During high system load conditions, network voltages are kept At highest
practical level to minimize reactive power requirements increase effectiveness
of shunt capacitors to compensated reactive power
• During light load conditions, it is usually required to lower network voltages
avoid under excited operation of generators
• All power transformers on transmission lines are provided with taps for control
of secondary voltage. The tap changing transformers do not control voltage by
regulating the flow of reactive VARs but by changing transformation ratio.
There are two types of tap changing transformers.
• Off-load tap changing transformers.
• On-load (Under-load) tap changing transformers (OLTC).

Off-load tap changing transformers:

The off-load tap changing transformer as shown in figure
which requires the disconnection of the transformer
when the tap setting is to be changed. Off-load tap
changers are used when it is to be operated in
frequently due to load growth or some seasonal change.

• On-load tap changing transformer is used when changes in transformer ratio to be needed frequently,
and no need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of transformer.
• It is used on power transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution transformers and at other
points of load service.
• The modern practice is to use on-load tap changing transformer which is shown in figure.
• In the position shown, the voltage is maximum and since the currents divide equally and flow in
opposition through the coil between Q1 and Q2, the resultant flux is zero and hence minimum impedance
On-load tap changing transformers (OLTC):
• To reduce the voltage, the following operations are required in sequence:
• Open Q1.
• Move selector switch S1 to the next contact. Close Q1. • Open Q2.
• Move selector switch S2 to the next contact. Close Q2. • Thus, six
operations are required for one change in tap position. The voltage change
between taps is often 1.25 % of the nominal voltage.

System Level Control using Generator Voltage Magnitude Setting:

• Transformers transfer the reactive power from one side to another side by altering
the inphase component of the system voltage. Let us consider the tap changing
transformer at both ends of a line is shown in figure.
• Let t1, t2 be the functions of nominal transformation ratio. i.e., tap
ratio/nominal voltage
• The actual voltage will be t1V1 and t2V2. Let V1, V2 be the nominal voltage at
the ends of the line. Since, the line has impedance, it is necessary to compensate
the voltage drop in the line so that the voltage at the receiving end is maintained
at a desired level.
• For a given load, given the nominal
voltages, we can find t1 and t2 as to
keep V2 constant at a specific value.

• For high line drops, the tap changing

transformers do not improve voltage
profile because it does not have any
reactive power generation capability.

• For small voltage variation or line

drop, tap changing transformer is used to
improve voltage magnitude of the
system.
Combined use of Tap changing Transformers and Reactive Power Injection:
• Normally tap setting are provided in steps for the range of ± 20 %. If the
setting exceeds this range, it is necessary to inject VARs at the load end to
maintain the voltage profile and to minimize transmission loss.
• A synchronous compensator is connected to the tertiary winding of a three
winding transformer as shown in figure.
• The equivalent circuit is shown in figure.
STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
v The term static var compensator is applied to a number of static var
compensation devices for use in shunt reactive control.
v These devices consist of shunt connected, static reactive element (linear or
nonlinear reactors and capacitors) configured into a var compensating system.
v Static var compensators (SVCs) constitute a mature technology that is finding
widespread usage in modern power systems for load compensation as well as
transmission-line applications.
v Static var compensators (SVCs) are used primarily in power systems for voltage
control as either an end in itself or a means of achieving other objectives, such
as system stabilization SVCs are used because SVC at suitable points of a
transmission system can maintain specific voltage profile and can limit the
voltage and frequency deviations under disturbances
v Static VAR compensators are located in receiving substations and distribution
systems for smooth and steeples variation of compensation of reactive power
injected into line by shunt capacitors and shunt reactors.
v Further the transient stability can be improved, and the system transmission
capacity can be increased both under operating and fault conditions.
v The performance of SVC voltage control is critically
dependent on several factors, including the influence of
network resonances, transformer saturation, geomagnetic
effects, and voltage distortion.
v When SVCs are applied in series-compensated
networks, a different kind of resonance between series
capacitors and shunt inductors becomes decisive in the
selection of control parameters and filters used in
measurement circuits.
v Let QC be the reactive power charging by capacitor
v Let QL be the reactive power absorbed by inductor
v Net reactive power injected to the bus Q = QC – QL
v For light load condition QL > QC
v For heavy load condition QL< QC
V-I Characteristics of the SVC
v The steady-state and dynamic characteristics of SVCs describe the variation of SVC
bus voltage with SVC current or reactive power.
v Two alternative representations of these characteristics such as
v Part (a) illustrates the terminal voltage–SVC current characteristic and
v Part (b) depicts the terminal voltage– SVC reactive-power relationship.
Advantages/ Merits of SVC
v Bus voltage can be controlled
v Improves system stability, voltage stability
v Reduces power oscillations
v Minimize transmission losses
v Increase in steady-state power-transfer capacity
v Enhancement of transient stability

Types of SVC
v Variable impedance type
v Current source type
v Voltage source type

The followings are the basic types of reactive power control

elements which makes all or
parts of SVC
v Saturated reactor
v Thyristor controlled Reactor
v Thyristor switched capacitor
v Thyristor Switched Reactor
v Thyristor controlled Transformer
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE
CONTROL
Lecture #10
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL

Old type AC excitation system has been replaced by brushless AC

excitation system wherein, inverted alternator (with field at the stator
and armature at the rotor) is used as exciter. A full wave rectifier
converts the exciter AC voltage to DC voltage. The armature of the
exciter, the full wave rectifier and the field of the synchronous
generator form the rotating components. The rotating components are
mounted on a common shaft. This kind of brushless AC excitation
system is shown
Brushless AC Excitation system
EXCITER MODELING
It is to be noted that error voltage e = |V|ref - |V|.
Assume that for some reason the terminal voltage of the main
generator decreases. This will result in decrease in |V|. This
immediately results in an increased “error voltage” e which in turn,
causes increased values of vR, ie, vf and if.
As a result of the boost in if the d axis generator flex increases, thus
raising the magnitude of the internal generator emf and hence the
terminal voltage. Higher setting of |V|ref also will have the same
effect of increasing the terminal voltage.
Mathematical modeling of the exciter and its control follows. For
the moment we discard the stability compensator (shown by the
dotted lines in the Fig. above).