The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self

Objectives:
1. Discuss the Western and Eastern concepts of self, and
2. Examine personal conceptualization of self.

One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking seriously the cultures of
others. If forces to pay attention to those details of life which differentiate them from you.
- Edward T. Hall

This topic outlines the Western and Eastern concepts of self and how they differ and agree on
certain perspective. The Western conceptualization of the self is divided into three periods of
historical development while the Eastern concepts of the self are presented on the four great
systems of thought: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism.

I Western Concept of Self

The Western concept of self is holistically defined in terms of the following aspects:
1. Western Self as Anayltic - the Western way of thinking is analytic -deductive with emphasis
on the causal links (part-to-whole relationships.

2. Western Self as Monotheistic - the belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with the universe
condenses the supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both qualities of existence
(e.g. beautiful / ugly; kind / cruel; sacred / profane; strong / weak; , etc.) and categories of
identity or experience (e.g., God / Satan; body / soul; love / lust; sinner / saint; etc.)

3. Western Self as Individualistic - Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of favorable

and unfavorable conditions inherent in personal freedom. Although the right to individual
freedom provides opportunities for self-fulfillment, it also increases the likelihood of
experiencing alienation and frustration.

4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic - the Western way of thinking is focused on
material “things” and favors a rational - empirical approach over magical and superstitious
explanation of immaterial “things.”

Stage Period Historical Development

1 Pre - christian There were philosophical and theological attempts to characterize
time until 1850 the self through the concepts of soul and mind with emphasis on
conscious experience of the individual, distinction between physical
and mental nature of man (mind-body dualism), and the causality of
human behavior.

2 1850 - 1940 The establishment of experimental psychology in mid-nineteenth

century led to change in emphasis from abstract concepts of soul
and mind to observable and measurable aspects of human faculties.

The concept of self re-emerged within the social - interactionist

framework in the early 1900s.

3 1940 - present There is multidirectional and continuous development of concept of

self:
a. Sociological and psychological theories of self encompass all three
levels of self, namely inner self, interpersonal self, and social self.
 b. Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in philosophy and
psychology, engaged in holistic approach integrating the inner,
interpersonal, and social aspects of self.
c. At present, there is convergence in some conceptualizations of the
self among psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists,
philosophers, and linguists whose studies focus on the actual,
multivariate, and situational contexts of the self employing new
frameworks and methodologies.

II Eastern Concept of Self

In the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism,
and Taoism are Eastern major religions at the same time are common representatives of
Eastern thought. These Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features and approaches
to various issues about selfhood. Hence, Eastern thought is described as pluralistic. These four
systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches about the concept of self, they share the
same goal-to teach how to become a perfect person.

The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought

Eastern Thought Its Concept of Self
Hinduism The concept of self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian
thought based on Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical treatises.

It has been stated that Brahman is an absolute reality, and Atman (soul
or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman. Vedanta
characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to realize the
distinction between the true self (permanent and unchanging) and the
non-true self (impermanent and changes continually). The goal of the
person is to have knowledge of the true reality-Brahman. Self-realization
is being united to all-embracing Brahman. But the realization of true
selfhood will result in a complete dissolution of individual identity.

The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. All actions
are subject to karma. Individual actions will lead to either good or bad
outcomes in one’s life. If you do good things, you will be rewarded, if you
do bad, you will be punished. Therefore, the individual is the only one
responsible for the consequence of his or her actions

Hindus believe that Atman, being immortal soul, continues to be

reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime until it is freed from the cycle of
rebirth and reachesa state of nirvana or non-birth. Karma does not end
with a body’s death, so its influence may extend through incarnation of
the soul.

Buddhism Siddharta Gautama founded Buddhism. The root word of Buddhism is

budh meaning awake. To be awake may imply that opening the eyes
would lead to understanding more about the self and the world.
According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of
enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. But the seed should
be nurtured.
 The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism:
1. Life is suffering.
2. Suffering is caused by attachment to desires.
3. Suffering can be eliminated.
4. Elimination of suffering is through the practice of Eightfold Path (right
view, right aspiration, right speech, right action,right livelihood, right
effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration).

In Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five
parts (matter, sensation, perception, mental constructs, and
consciousness) that compose the individual, however each of the parts
distinctly is not man. Man has no self (or no-soul).There is only nothing
and all else is an illusion. There is nothing permanent but change, The
ignorance of the impermanence of everything may lead to an illusion of
selfhood. This primal ignorance is the cause of life’s misery, births and
rebirths. The perfect moral-intellectual knowledge becomes powerful in
the sense that it eliminates the cause of one’s misery and wakens one
from the illusion of selfhood. The ideal is to experience Nirvana (literaly
meaning, “blowing out,” as of a lamp), a state of transcendence devoid of
self-reference. The state of transcendence can be achieved through
meditation.

Confucianism The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects. (Conversation of

Confucius).
The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of
reciprocity; “Do not do to others what you would not want others to do
to you.” Thus, the basic virtue of proper conduct is knowing how to act in
relation to others. The most important of relationships are the Five
Cardinal Relationships: between ruler and minister, between father and
son, between husband and wife, between brothers, and between friends.
Hence, the self is known as relational self.

Another important feature in Confucian thought is the individual’s

greatest mission of attaining self - realization wherein self-cultivation is
instrumental. Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one’s
role in society and acting accordingly. Moral character is perfected by
continuously taking every opportunity to improve oneself in thought and
action. There will be harmonious relationships when individuals follow
the rules of proper social behavior. The individual is set to respond to
what is socially required rather than to one’s personal needs and goals.
Hence, the self is subdued self.

Taoism Taoists reject the Confucian idea of relational self. To them, the self is an
extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self is described
as one of the limitless forms of the Tao. The Tao is commonly regarded
as Nature that is the foundation of all that exists. It is not bounded by
time and space. The perfect has no self. Selflessness is attained when the
distinction between “I” and “other” dissolves. Consequently, the
individual may behave spontaneously, just going with flow of the Tao.
The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in harmony with both nature
and society. Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony
with nature should govern one’s life. Individuals must act seek to
understand and act in accordance with the natural order. There should
be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the Yin and Yang.
 Hence, there is oneness of the Tao.

Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Approaches to Understanding the Self

Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought
Frame of Reference There is a separation between Religion and philosophy are
philosophy and intertwined
religion/spirituality

Examples of Schools of Scholasticism Hinduism

Thought / Belief Systems Rationalism Buddhism
Empiricism Confucianism
Phenomenology Taoism

Notable Philosophers Greek Triumvirate: Socrates, Confucius

Plato, Aristotle Lao Tzu
Rene Descartes Siddharta Gautama
John Locke

Source of Knowledge Has made use of reason Has trusted intuition and is
rather than faith to pursue often associated with religious
wisdom beliefs

Modes of cognition Analytic and deductive Synthetic and inductive

Emphasis Distinctions and oppositions Commonalities and harmonies

View of the Universe and Life Linear Circular

Subject-Object Distinction Duality of self-as-subject Simultaneously subject and

(Bipolar Qualities of Self) (knower) and self-as-object object (the experience as both
(known) knower and known)

Theological View Monotheistic Polytheistic (Pluralistic)

Ideal Self-actualization through To achieve a balance life and

personal growth find one’s role in society

Cultural Framework Individualism Collectivism

a. The self is a distinct and a. The self is an integrated
autonomous entity; it is an part of the universe and
independent part of the society.
universe and the society.
b. Interdependence and
b. Independence and self- connectedness are core
reliance are core values. values.

c. Prioritize personal goals c. No distinction between

over group goals personal and group goals, or if
there is a distinction, the
personal goals are
subordinate to the group
goals.
 d. Characterized by exchange d. Characterized by communal
relationship relationship

e. Uniqueness, sense of e. Conformity and obedience

direction, purpose and are essential social behaviors.
volition are the acknowledged
features of self.

f. Personal success is f. Duty towards all others is

important. important.

Activity: Triumvirate

Share with other two class members the items below. The result of your sharing will be
discussed during online meeting.

1. Individual Self such as your unique personal traits, skills, abilities and hobbies
2. Collective Self such as your beliefs, values, and characteristics which are socially shared
within a group
3. Your Western, Eastern, and Filipino characteristics