1.

1 Introduction

Generally speaking a vessel can be classified according to the purpose she

serves. The most common purposes are:

1)transportation of cargo or/and passengers;

2)assistance and service (by so called "special purpose vessels");
3)the catching of fish (fishermen);
4)peace keeping (warships)

Furthermore we can make the distinction between sea-going vessels and

vessels for coastal trade and/or inland waterways.

Liners and tramps

Vessels that have been designed to transport cargo or/and passengers are
called merchant ships. They may be classified as liners or tramps

A liner carries cargoes between two fixed destinations.

Her sailing schedule has been prearranged -she has a fixed homeport, port of
destination and port(s) of call, and fixed ETA's and ETD's (Estimated Times of
Arrival and Estimated Times of Departure). A liner-vessel is allowed to carry
up to 12 passengers.

Freighters that carry cargoes according to schedules that are not fixed are
called tramps.Homeports, ports of destination, ports of call, ETA’s and ETD's
differ with every voyage.

Merchant ships may carry general cargoes, bulk cargoes, refrigerated

cargoes, heavy cargoes, timber, and many more

1.2 Transportation

General cargo is cargo that has been packed incrates, boxes or bags, or
cargo coming in pieces (unpacked cargo items). Cargo is loaded and
discharged by the vessel's own derricks or by shore based cranes.

General cargo ships

The conventional general cargo ship has several tweendecks, so that the
cargoes for the various destinations can be reached and discharged without
having to remove cargo for other destinations first. Under the influence of
cargo-palletization the "open freighter" was fitted with two oreven three
hatches side by side.Both types of vessels, the general cargo ship andthe
open freighter, are becoming rather obsolete, since general cargo is more and
more transported by vessels that have been designed to carry general cargo
in containers.

Bulk Carriers

Bulk cargo is unpacked cargo of one commodity. Dry bulk cargo, such as
grain, ore, fertilizers,etc. is carried in specially designed vessels with holds
that have beendividedinto compartments by longitudinal and transverse
separations, sothat the ship's stability will not be affectedby a full cargo.The
holds of these ships are often constructed in such a way that they are self-
trimming; this means that the surfaceof the cargo is constantly made equalby
special pumps in rolling circumstancesor when the vessel has a list. Dry bulk
cargo is loaded and discharged by cranes with grabsor by pumps.

Liquid cargoes such as crude oil, petroleum, edible oils, etc. are carried in
tankers, for example in Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC's), chemical
tankers, such as Liquefied Petroleum Gas tankers (LPG carriers) or Liquefied
Natural Gas tankers (LNG carriers).Product tankers are small tankers that
carry different sorts of oils. Forsafety reasons tankers must be fitted with
double bottoms. These spaces also provide storage for fuel, lubricating oil
and waters. Tankersare divided into compartments by longitudinal and
transverse bulkheads.

Cofferdamsare empty spaces between the tanks and in the double bottom.
They serve as separations to preventliquids from leaking from one tank into
the other. Cofferdams often serve as pump-rooms.

Pumps for loading and discharging the cargo may be installed in these
compartments. Tankers are often loaded and discharged in the offingby
means of flexible pipes.

This system of wet bulk handling reducesthe number of laydays.

Container ships

Cargo that has been containerized is carried by container ships.Containers

are most often measuredin Twenty Feet Equivalent Units (TEU's)and are
stowedin a cellular arrangement in Rows, Bays and Tiers.The rows run
abeam,or athwartship;the bays run fore to aft andthe tiers are horizontal
layers.The three-figure codeon each container refers tothis stowage system.
Thus,each container can easily be found.Container ships are sometimes
equipped with their own gantry cranes that load and discharge the containers.
Container ships may carry general cargoes, liquid cargoes or refrigerated
cargoes. The advantages of carrying cargo in containers are: short lay time
because of efficient and rapid cargo handling; few stevedoresare
required;less pilferagebecause the cargo has been storedin lockedcontainers.

Roll-on / Roll-off ships (Ro / Ro ships)

n a Ro / Ro ship cargo is rolled on and rolled off by lorriesor trailers.The great

advantage of this system is that no cargo handling equipmentis required.The
loaded vehiclesare driven aboard via ramps through special stem and bow
doorsand are properly securedfor the passage. Upon arrivalin theport of
discharge,the vehicles are released anddriven ashore to their destinations.

Coasters

A coaster carries cargo along the coast or on sea-voyages. Trans-Atlantic

voyages are quite common.

A coaster is of limited lengthand tonnage.

Itsengine room is situated aft.Often there are no tweendecks and the cargo
spaces have no obstacles, so that a variety of cargo can be handled.Hatches
are very broad and cover most of the main decksurface. Because of itslimited
length itwill hardly experience any problems related to longitudinal stresses.
However, due to the broad hatchways,transverse strengthenings
arenecessary to avoiddifficulties caused by transverse stresses.

Refrigerated-cargo vessels (Reefers)

Refrigerated-cargo vessels are ships that carry perishablecargoes, such as

meat or fruit. These cargoes require cooling and must be stored in spaces
that have precise temperature-and humidity controls during the
voyage.Reefers, as these ships are also called, are equipped with
refrigerating plants.

Lash-vessels

"Lash” stands for "Lighter Aboard Ship". A Lash-vessel has a main deck that
is flat and without any obstacles. A lighter is a container that floats in the
water. The containers may be hoisted on board by the vessel's own heavy
derricks that stack them on board.Another way of loading the containers on
board is by submerging the vessel first (for this she must be equipped with a
powerful pumping-system), then have tugs or push boats towor push the
lighters over the Lash-vessel, after which the vessel will emerge again and
will "pick up" the lighters. This type of vessel is also referred to as a "Seabee".
Heavy-load vessel

Heavy-load vessels have been designed to lift and carry extremely heavy
cargo on the main deck.Their most prominent featuresare very heavy derricks
("booms"), masts and lifting-blocks.Their cargoes, such as drilling platforms,
engines, yachts, trains, derelictsand wrecks,are loaded onto the main deck,
which is flat and free from any obstacles.Aspecial way of loading and carrying
heavy cargo is performed by submerging theship and have the cargo-module
float over it. Itmust be equipped with a powerful pumping-system.After
pumping the ship empty the vessel will emergeagain and will pick up
thecargo.

Timber Carriers

Timber is a raw material fromwhich wood-products are manufactured.Vessels

that carry timber can easily be recognisedby their tall derricks.A timber carrier
has been designed in such a way that itcan carry a tall deck cargo.ItsPlimsoll
Mark is provided with a special timber Load-linethat indicates the maximum
draftto which itis allowed to be loaded under certain circumstancesand in
different seasons.

Multi-Purpose Vessels

Cargo ships that carry both general cargo, bulk cargo and containerised cargo
are called multi-purpose (or multi-loads)vessels. These ships are equipped
with a variety of cargo handling gears to load and discharge the different
types of cargoes.An OBO-ship has been designed to carry oil/bulk/ore. Ithas
been subdivided in such a way that oil can be carried in the largest
compartments and ore can be carried in the smaller compartments.

Passenger Ships

Passenger ships, such as cross-Channel ferries, have been designed to carry

passengers and their vehicles on a prearranged route. Their main features
are more or less the same as the features of the Ro/Ro vessels.

Cruise ships have been especially designed to carry holidaymakers

Assistance and service

Vessels that renderassistance and service have been designed to perform

specific tasks, for example assisting other vessels, or providing special
services to navigation.
A tugis a vessel that assists other vessels with enteringor leavingthe port,
tows an oil rig to its position or assists with a salvage operation.There are
sea-going tugs and harbour tugs. Their engines must be capable to
developenormous powers.

Seagoing tug

The largest and most powerful tugs are often fitted with Controllable Pitch
Propellers(C.P.P.) that have adjustable blades.Their manoeuvrability will be
enhancedeven more by bow thrustersand stem thrusters.One of the main
features is that the aft deckof a towing vessel is kept clear of all obstructions
that may interferewith the towing-line

A salvage vesselis a vessel that rescuesother ships and their cargoes from
loss at sea.Itmust be equipped with heavy derricks to lift wrecks from the
seabed.

A buoyage vesselplaces and maintains buoys.Itsaft deck is flat and provides

room to carry or haulin the buoys with itshoisting installation.

A survey vesselperforms marine research.Itis equipped withoceanographic

instruments to carryout all kinds of measurementsand assessments.

A supply boatsupplies oil rigswith stores, spare partsand supplies for

domestic use. Itsaft deck must be flat.Additional dutiesmay include the towing
of rigs and extinguishing fires,for which they must be equipped with high-
capacity fire-extinguishing pumps.

A SAR-vesselperforms Search and Rescuewhen a ship is in distress.Itmust

be capable to develop high speeds and must be equipped with the most
modern communication equipment to maintaincontact with Rescue Co-
ordination Centres (RCC).

A Firefloatis a fire fighting vessel.Itmust have a powerful fire-extinguishing

system on board.

A pilot tender (orpilot launch) is a small boat that may be launched fromthe
pilot boat. The pilot will embarkthe ship that has requested pilotagefrom the
pilot tender. Itis often fitted with a shelteredaft deck to prevent the pilot from
getting wet.

A cable layerlays cables on the bottom of the sea.Itis fitted witha huge
horizontal wheel that reels off the cable. This type of ship is often equipped
with a Dynamic Positioning System to keep itin the exact position when the
submarine cableis reeled off.
A lightshipserves as a beaconfor navigation and is anchoredin the vicinityof
crowded channelsor seaways. Itis usually not self-propelled,which means that
ithas to be towed to itsposition.

Icebreakersare designed to ride up the ice and crush a way through for other
shipsto follow. This requires a powerful engine and a considerable
strengthening of her stem.

A dredgerdeepens out harboursand ports,fairways, approachesand

entrances,inland waterways, anchorages, roadsteads,etc. Spoil is discharged
into an integrated hopper or into a hopper that is moored alongside.To keep
itin position itis often spudded. There are bucket dredgers, grab dredgers (or
backhoe dredgers) and suction dredgers with drag heads. A cutterhead is
used to disintegraterocky bottoms.

3) Fisherman

Large and modern fishing vessels (fishermen) are capable of catching and
processing enormous quantities of fish. They may be underway for weeks
before they return to their homeports.Large refrigerating plants on board
provide deep-freezing facilities. Before the fish are deep-frozen they are often
stored in RSW-tanks(Refrigerated Sea Water Tanks). Powerful winches are
used for hoisting the nets on board

3.1 Spaces and separations

The general arrangement planshows the divisionof a vessel into compartments in

cross sectionsandlongitudinal sections.

The compartments are formed by vertical separations (longitudinal and transverse

bulkheads)andhorizontal separations (decks)

These compartments and spaces serve as storage

spaces for cargoes, stores, equipment, spare parts,liquids, etc., as accommodation

spacesfor passengers and members of the crew,and as "domestic spaces",such as
galley,pantries, dispensary,etc.The extremefore end of the vessel is called stem. The
extreme aft end is the stern

The upper deck,or main deck(a),isoften the deck that is exposed to sea
andweather.That is why the main deck is also calledthe "weather deck". In fact, it
provides a"shelter" for all the contents of the vessel.The foremostpart of the upper
deck iscalled the forecastle(b -pronounced as [foksl]). Its bulwarkis called the
vauxhall.The anchor winches are situated on this deck.The tweendeck(c)is the
intermediatedeck between upper deck(a)andthe inside bottom of the vessel,called
tanktop (d). The tweendeck divides the vessel into separate holds.The upper
holdsand lower holds(e)are the spaces that contain the cargoes.Spaces for liquid
cargoes are called tanks.Access to a hold can be obtainedthrough hatches.On
freightersthese hatches must be sufficientlybroad for grabs to be lowered into the
holds.The foremost and aftermost spaces of the vessel are the peak tanks(f).They
may serve as storage spaces for ballast water and are capable of "absorbing" a part
of the impact-forces that are released in case of a collision.The anchor chainis stored
in the chain locker(g).It is situated over the forepeaktank.The upper part of the fore
peaktank is called the boatswain's (or bosun's) locker(h),where ropes, paintand
dunnage arekept.

Bulkheads are the vertical separations between holds and spaces.

The fore peak bulkhead and after peak bulkhead(i)are the so-called collision
bulkheads. Thesetransverse bulkheads are watertight and prevent the vessel from
flooding in case the vessel collides withanother vessel. Collision bulkheads are also
fire-retarding or even fireproof.Apart from transverse bulkheads tankers are also
fitted with 2 longitudinal bulkheads that divide thevessel into starboard-and port wing
tanksand a centre tank.

The engine room(j)is a watertight machinery space that contains the vessel's
propulsion plant.

The steering engine room(k)must also be a watertight compartment and is very often
situated over theafter peaktank(f).Due tolarge stressesthat occur under the engine
room and peaktanks, additional strengthenings areoften inserted.The double
bottom(I)provides strength and storage space for fuel, lubricating oil, freshwater,
salt(ballast) water and potable water.

To preventliquids from leaking from one double bottom tank into the other,
longitudinal and transverseseparations are used between the tanks. These
separations, which are in fact empty spaces, are calledcofferdams(m).

On the main deck we find the so-called superstructure(n)with the accommodation for
the crew andpassengers, the messroom,the galleyand the pantry.

The navigating bridge contains the wheelhousewith the control station,the

chartroomwhere charts,pilotbooks and publications are kept, and the radio
room.There are the instruments for navigation, such as the Radar, the log, the echo
sounder, the steeringcompass and repeater compass.

The master compassis usually situated on the monkey island, asmall deck or
platform over thewheelhouse.
3.2The upper deck

The imaginary line from stem to stern is called the fore-and-aft line.It
dividesthevessel into a starboard-and portside (when facing forward). "Abeam" is
used to indicate directionat a right angleto the fore-and-aft line.

The terms used to indicate directions in which the vessel can proceedare: aheadand
astern,starboard and port.The upper deck, or main deck, is divided into the foremost
deck(a),called "forecastle",the centre deck, called "midships"(b),and the aft deck,
called "quarterdeck"(c).A raised quarterdeck is called "poopdeck".

The foremost part of the vessel is divided into the starboard bow and port bow(d).

The quarterdeck is divided into the starboard quarter and port quarter (e).

4.3Sentence-ending prepositions

4.3Sentence-ending prepositions A preposition is a word that creates a

relationship between other words.It is said that ending asentence with a
prepositionis a serious breach of grammatical etiquette. Here's an example of
a sentence that can end with a preposition: What did you step on? A key point
is that the sentence doesn't work if you leave off the preposition. You can't
say,“What did you step?” You need to say, “What did you step on?” to make a
grammatical sentence.Although it is often easy to remedy the offending
preposition, sometimes it isn't, and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy
sentence. "Indicate the book you are quoting from" is not greatly improved
with "Indicate from which book you are quoting."English has a type of verb
called a phrasal verb.These are verbs made up of multiple words, and one is
always a preposition. “Cheer up,” “run over,” “log on,” and “leave off” are all
examples of phrasal verbs, and often sentences that use phrasal verbs end
with a preposition:
I wish he would cheer up.
You should leave it off.

5.1Ship characteristics

Tonnage

The tonnage of a vessel indicates the measurement of her weight, size or

capacity.A very common way of measuring a vessel is by means of a
displacement-indication.Merchant vessels are also measured by their gross
tonnage or deadweight tonnage
Displacement

By displacementis understood the amount of water that is "displaced" by the

body of the vessel as she is floating in the water.

Displacement is indicated bythe word "ton" ( or "tonne").

According to Archimedes' Principle a vessel displaces a weight of water that
is equal toits own weight. Therefore a vessel will experience an upthrustthat is
equal to the weight of the displaced mass of water.
So, by displacement is understood the total weight of the vessel and her
contents,or the weight of the displaced water mass
A vessel will float whenbuoyancy(B) is equal to gravity(G).So, when buoyancy
is less than gravity, the vessel will sink.When buoyancy is greater than
gravity, the vessel will fly.Therefore "G" cannot possibly be less than B.

Weights and volumes

Mannersare often confused as to the exact meaning of the word "ton",

because it may indicate weight,but it may also indicate volume.As a weight 1
ton equals 1000 kg. The "long ton" equals 1016 kg. The obsolete "short ton"
equals 907 kg.As a volume 1 ton equals one cubic metre, or, according to the
English avoirdupois-system (avdp), 1 tonequals 2.83 cubic metres, which is
equal to 100 cubic feet.Since "volume" is a very important aspect in
mercantileaffairs, merchant ships are often measured byvolume, contrary
towarships, which are measured by displacement, which indicates weight.We
distinguishseveral kinds of tonnages.Gross Register Tonnage= the entire
volume of the enclosed spaces of the vessel that can be used forcargo,
storesand accommodation.NetTonnage= volume that can be used to carry
cargo. It is calculated by deducting the spaces that arenot used for cargo from
the gross tonnage.Net tonnage is often used to calculateharbour duesthat
must be paid to municipalport authorities forthe use of all the port
facilities.Deadweight Tonnage= the weight of all the contents a vessel is
capable of carrying when loaded tosummer mark. The contents of a merchant
vessel are cargo, stores, equipment, fresh water, potablewater, lubricating
oiland fuel.By Cargo Carrying Capacityis understood the amount of cargo that
a vessel is capable of carrying.

Cargo spaces

By Bale Spaceis meant the volume of the cargo holds that can be used to
carry general cargo.By Grain Spaceis understood the volume of the cargo
holds that can be used to carry dry bulk cargo.By Oil Space is understood
98% of the total volume of the wet bulk tanks.The remaining2% are used as
ullage.This is the empty space on top of the liquid levelthat will prevent a tank
from overflowing when the oil expands due to heat.
5.2Dimensions

Moulded Breadth

By moulded breadthis understood thehorizontal distancebetween the insides

of themoulds.In other words, it is the inside breadth(or width)of the vessel.It is
used to determinethe vessel's cargocarrying capacity in relation to her
stability.
Moulded Depth

By moulded depthis understood thevertical distance between the insides ofthe

moulds (including the double bottom).It indicates the inside heightof the
vessel.It is used to determine the vessel's cargocarrying capacity in relation to
her stability.

Beam

By beam is understood the extreme breadth of the vessel. In restricted,narrow

fairways (e.g. thePanama Canal) the vessel's beam is an important factor to
obtain a clearanceto proceed.

Length Over All (L.O.A.).

By Length over all (A -B) is understood the distance between theextreme fore-
end and the extreme
aft-end of the vessel. Before a berthalong an embankment is allocated,the
port authorities will have to knowthe total length of the ship.

Length Between Perpendiculars (LPP)

Length Between Perpendiculars (C -D) is measured between the fore-

perpendicular (FPP) and the aft-perpendicular (APP). It is used to determine
the vessel's stability.The Construction Waterline is the line to which the ship
may be loaded in summer.The fore-perpendicular is the vertical line through
the point where the Construction Waterline and thestem intersect. The aft
perpendicular goes through the rudderstock.

Draft, air draft, freeboard and underkeel clearance

Bydraftis understood the distance from the bottom of the keel to the surface of
the water. A distinctionmust be made between loaded draftand light draft,
aswell as salt-waterdraft and fresh-water draft.Due to the salinityof seawater,
the draft in seawater is less than draft in fresh-water, because seawaterhas a
higher specific gravity.Byair draftis understood the distance fromthe waterline
to the highest point of the vessel.

Whenproceeding through a channel thatis spannedby abridge, the air draft

should of course be less than thevertical clearanceof the bridge. When a
vessel's air draft is greater than the vertical clearance will allow,we speak of a
top-hamperedvessel.ByFreeboardis understood the distance between
deckline and waterline.ByUnderkeel Clearance(UKC) is understood the
distance between keel and seabed.

5.3Binomials

Binomials are expressions (often idiomatic) where two words are joined by a
conjunction (usually 'and'). The order of the words is usually fixed. It is best to
use them only in informal situations, with one or two exceptions.odds and
ends: small, unimportant things, e.g. Let's get the main things packed; we can
do the odds and ends later, give and take: a spirit of compromise, e.g. Every
relationship needs a bit of give and take to be successful.

Before a shipyard will start the building of a ship, the final construction plan
must be approved by a classification society.The classification will serve as a
guide during the whole period of building.Classification Societies are the
authorities with the most profound influence on shipbuilding, merchant ship
design and ship safety.Among the most important are Lloyd's Register of
Shipping, det Norske Veritas, the American Bureau of Shipping, Bureau
Veritas, Registro Italiano, Germanischer Lloyd and Nippon Kaiji Kyokai.Of all
these famous societies Lloyd's of London is the most famous and
respected.Lloyd 's Register of Shipping is concerned with the maintenance of
proper technical standards in ship-construction and the classification of ships,
i.e. the record of all relevant technical details and the assurance that the ship
will meet the required standards.Vessels that are classed with Lloyd 's
Register are awarded the classification +100 A1.The cross (+) indicates that
the ship has been built under the supervision of surveyors from Lloyd's
Register, while "100 A" indicates that the vessel has been built in accordance
with the recommended standards. "1" indicates that the safety equipment,
anchors and cabins are as required.Surveys at regular intervals are carried
out by the Society's surveyors to ensure that the vessel is still complying with
the standards. The Society is also empowered to allot leadline certificates to
determine and assess tonnage measurements and to ensure compliance with
safety regulations.Surveyors all over the world carry out these required
surveys and report to headquarters in London and other national centres. A
ship failing to meet the standards will lose her classification and become a
burden to the owners
Building the ship

The designing, construction and fitting out of a vessel are a very complicated
matter.When designing a ship the naval architect must take into consideration
not only the purpose for which the ship will be built, but also the enormous
stresses the ship will be exposed to when sailing in adverse weather and
rough seas.

Deformations of the ship's hull due to hogging and sagging must be avoided
by implementing additional strengthenings that will also providesupport.

These strengthenings are called stiffeners, or stringers. They may consist of

beams, girders, keelsons and stanchions.

The backbone of a ship is her keel. It is a longitudinal beam located at the

very bottom of the ship and extending from stem to stern.

The ship isgiven her rounded shape by a series of symmetrically curved

frames.Frames can be compared to the ribs in a human body. They are
fastenedto the keel, providing support and giving shape to the hull.The frames
that are in the middle are larger than those at the sides andare known as
floors.The frames are held in position by longitudinal stringers.
Additionalbracing is provided by beams extending across the width of the
ship.Deck-beam brackets serve as joints between deck beams and the
transverse frames.The rows of steel platings in the metal hull are called
strakes.Nowadays ships are built in sections, composed of welded plates and
frames.In the old days rivets were used to put the parts together.The ship is
divided into watertight compartments by decks and longitudinal and
transverse bulkheads. These bulkheads provide strengthening and are fire
proof or fire-retarding.The foremost bulkhead is the forepeak bulkhead, or
collision bulkhead.

The forepeak is a watertight compartment that will ensure that the vessel will
have sufficient buoyancy to remain afloat after a collision.The aftermost
bulkhead is the afterpeak bulkhead, through which the stern tube runs.The
a.p. bulkhead is constructed in such a way that it will prevent water from
entering the ship through the stern tube in case of leakage.Engine room and
steering engine room must also be separated from other compartments
bywatertight bulkheads, so that in case of a disaster her engines will remain
operational.

When all the sections have been put together, the shell plating is sandblasted
and then painted with a primer and an anti-fouling paint.Now the fitting-out of
the ship will commence. This means that the engines, auxiliary engines,
steering engine, navigation means, domestic installations and equipment,
cargo handling equipment, life saving equipment, stores and spares, electrical
and hydraulic installations, berthing and anchoring gear, etc. are
installed.Before the vessel is launched and ready for her maiden trip, engine
trials and sea trials must prove that the vessel is seaworthy, that infact she is
"a Good Ship", as she will be referred to in documents.

Propellers

The screw-propeller "screws" its way through the water, driving water aft and
the ship ahead.Some propellers have adjustable blades instead of fixed
blades.If a propeller turns clockwise when viewed from aft, it is said to be
right-handed; a left-handed propellerturns anti-clockwise. In a twin-screw ship
the starboard propeller is usually right-handed and the portpropeller left-
handed. They are outward-turning, which reduces cavitation.The "face" of the
propeller blade is the surface seen from aft. The other surface of the blade is
called the"back". The "leading edge" of the blade is that edge that thrusts
through the water when producing aheadthrust.The other edge is called the
"trailing edge".The Controllable Pitch Propeller, or CPP, is fitted with
adjustable blades. By turning (adjusting) the blades, the thrust that is being
developed can be varied whilst maintaining constant shaft-revolutions. In this
way the vessel's pitch can be controlled by changing the position of the
propeller blades.

By pitch is understood the distance that the propeller will travelafter one
revolution. The blades can even be put in a position that will produce
anastern-thrust while still rotating in the same direction. The
vessel'smanoeuvrability is increased considerably.

The greatest advantageof the CPP, however, is that engine-wear is reduced

because aconstant RPM can be maintained while proceeding at any
speed.Limitations of the CPP include the power that can be satisfactorily
transmitted (installations for more than25,000 bhp are uncommon). Another
disadvantage of the CPP is the complicated mechanism controlling the blade-
angle. Furthermore, the boss is enlarged to house bearings for the
blades.This increased boss-size reduces the maximum efficiency that can be
obtained.CPP's are mostly used in vessels that have variable rated
capacities.

The Voith Schneider Propeller, or Vertical Axis Propeller, consists of a

horizontal disc rotating around a vertical axis.Projecting vertically down from
this disc are a number of blades whosepositions can be varied. By doing so a
thrust can be produced in anydesired direction. An obvious advantage of such
a propeller is that itoffers a high manoeuvrability for vessels that require to be
highlymanoeuvrable. The horizontal driving shaft, however, necessitates
theintroduction of a bevel gear, with consequential limitations on themaximum
power that can be produced

The Shrouded Propeller, or Ducted Propeller, is integrated into a "tunnel", or

duct. Enlargement of the tail-race and the thrust that can be produced is
achieved by shaping of the duct, as is often done with heavily loaded
propellers (e.g. with tugs).Other advantages of the duct are: it protects the
propeller from fouling and reduces propeller noise. However, the system is
quite costly

Jet propulsion is achieved by drawing water into the ship and then thrusting it
out at by means of a pump. In this way the vessel is "jet-propelled". It's an
attractive means of propulsion where it is desirable to have no moving parts
outside the hull of the ship, where a protected screw is desired, and for small
vessels with high rating capacities.Therefore it is widely employed in Ultra-
Shallow-Draught (USD) Vessels.Jet propulsion involves higher speeds and
outstanding manoeuvrability because the duct is movable.However, because
of the resistance caused by the flow of the water through the duct, its
efficiency islower than that of the ordinary screw-propeller.

Rudders

The choice of the type of rudder that is used will largely depend on the shape
of the stern, the size ofthe vessel and the capacity of the steering gear.

The Balanced Spade rudder (or balanced rudder) is used for vessels with
along "sharp" stem. Not much strength is applied to the rudder stock and
thesteering gear can be made quite compact.Because of the large rudder
area it offers good manoeuvrability.

The Semi-Balanced rudder (or Gnomon Rudder) is used where the size ofthe
rudder requires that it is supported at an additional point to the rudderbearing,
but where it is still desired to reduce the size of the steering gear.This type of
rudder offers a high manoeuvrability.

Maritime English6Maritime EnglishThe Unbalanced Rudder is used in vessels

whose stern-shape is not fit to carry a balanced rudder.Furthermore these
rudders are usually fitted on smaller ships of relatively deep draught.The
number of pintles fitted will depend on the required strength. There are single-
pintle rudders andmulti-pintle rudders.The rudderstock must be able to endure
large stresses.

The Flap Rudder has at its rear end a "flap" that can move at a greaterangle
than the main portion of the rudder.It is used in vessels that require
considerable manoeuvrability.The complicated linkage system between the
flap-portion andthe mainportion is vulnerable and often the source of
malfunction.

Stability

Most travellers take it for granted that their ship will float the right way up.This
it will only do if it has been correctly designed and constructed.A ship will
experience many forces that will try to turn it over.The ship must of course be
capable to resist these forces by what is commonly known as stability.Too
much stability is undesirable because this may cause unpleasant motions and
can be costly due toa high fuel consumption.Too little stability will make the
ship heel over easily and capsize.Thus, as with so many other features of
design, stability is a compromise.A body is said to be in a state of equilibrium
when the resultant of all the forces that act on it is zero andthe resultant
moment of the forces is also zero.If a body, subject to a small disturbance,
from a state of equilibrium tends to return to that state, it is saidto possess a
positive stability -it is in a state of equilibrium.If, following the disturbance, the
equilibrium is reduced even more, then the body is said to be in a stateof
unstable equilibrium -it has a negative stability.To reach the state of
equilibrium, buoyancy and the gravity (weight) must be equal and the two
forcesmust act along the same line.Another term for buoyancy is upthrust,
which of course is related to Archimedes' Law (or Archimedes'Principle),
which says that when a body is immersed'in a liquid it will experience an
upthrust that is equalto the weight of the displaced liquid.For conventional
ships the longitudinal stability is always high. This is not always the case for
offshoredrilling barges and other less conventional vessels.

Unless a ship is stable it will not float upright, because, although in the upright
position it is in equilibrium,there will always be disturbances -from the sea, air
or movement within the ship -which will force it outof the upright position.An
"unstable"ship will not return to this position. And even if it does not actually
capsize, it would beunpleasant to be in a ship that lolls to one side
constantly.Circumstances that will cause a ship to heel may be external or
internal.External influences are:-the action of the wind, which will be most
influential with ships with high freeboards and largesuperstructures;-the action
of waves, causing the rolling and pitching, heaving, surging, swaying and
yawing of vesselsin rough seas;-water properties, such as1) density (or
specific gravity). The density of the water in which a vessel floats will affect
her draft andtrim. Density will mainly depend upon the temperature and the
salinity of the water;2) kinematic viscosity. This is particularly relevant to the
frictional resistance a ship will experience whenproceeding through the
water.3) salinity. Values for samples of seawater will vary from area to area
and will depend, among otherthings, upon the salinity. Many objects will float
in the Dead Sea, but would sink in fresh water.Internal influences mostly
relate to the human element, or, as it is often called, the Human Factor
(HF).Examples are:-the action of the rudder when a ship is being
manoeuvred;-loading and discharging cargoes: if the stowage plan has been
drawn up badly the vesselwill soon heel over to port or starboard.

Survey report

We, the Undersigned, held survey this date on the above named vessel while
lying afloat at Jacksonville Shipyard Corp., in order to ascertain the nature
and extent and necessary repairs to damage alleged to have been sustained
as a consequence of main engine breakdown due to crew negligence,
resulting in a collision with MV Christina, after which MV Garland was
beached to prevent sinking.General recommendations:We have found it
necessary to drydock the vessel for repairs. Staging, fire lines and electricity
will be provided. Shifting berth by means of her own propulsion is not
possible.The vessel had been gas freed prior to the accident with MV
Christina, but a certificate was not issued. The cost of refilling the vessel's
CO2-system will be included in the agreed total sum from the repair-
contractor.Dock trial, proving engine satisfactory, will be carried out upon
completion of repairs. All debris associated with damage and repairs will be
removed from vessel and dock.Specific recommendations regarding
construction and mechanical parts:FOUND:a)plating of sheer strake (first and
second strake below sheer) fractured transversely for approx. 16',with crack-
stopper hole drilled in second strake below sheer;b)main deck stringer plate
fractured transversely for approx. 12 ';c)shell plating (nos. 2 and 3) heavily set
and buckled;d)"B"-strake (plate no.2) indented slightly along lower seam.
Welded seam has cracked open.e)second strake below sheer, after 8' from
first plate aft of bow nosing, badly set in;f)fractured welding at hawse
pipe;g)three hawse pipe brackets torn.
h) internal shell frames nos. 48 to 60 distorted badly;i) bulwark around stern
buckled (brackets and railings crushed);j) deck plating at stern badly buckled
and torn over an area of approximately 48 square ft.;k) mast bent just above
boat deck;I) hull bottom coating scuffed and abraded.

Number of weather working days: 42 days.

We estimate and agree the cost of the foregoing repairs to be the sum of €
1,125,750-Surveyors signed without prejudice, H. Hanson -representing
owners; A. Holliday -representing underwriters; W. Sharp -representing
Robbins Drydock.