Theory and Mathematical Formalism 23
Dispersion of Thick-Volume Gratings
Even with the same mate-
rial characteristics (thick-
ness and modulation), the
dispersion properties of
thick-volume gratings
are very different for reflec-
tion and transmission
geometries. This is due to
the significant difference in
Bragg plane density (1=L)
that is about 300–3000 lp/mm for transmission, and over
4000 lp/mm in reflection (for visible wavelengths). The
variation of the diffraction efficiency according to the wave-
length at the Bragg incidence angle is called the blaze curve.
As a general rule, thick-
volume reflection gratings
are wavelength-selective
but angularly tolerant,
which means that they
diffract the same narrow-
wavelength band (small
Dl) at any incidence angle
(large Du), making them
useful as filters.
Thick-volume transmission gratings are wavelength-dispersive
and angularly selective, which means that they diffract a large
band of wavelengths (large Dl) but in very specific directions
(small Du). When changing
the incident angle, the effi-
ciency for a particular wave-
length drops and another
one rises. The envelope of
the entire efficiency spec-
trum according to the inci-
dence angle is called the
super-blaze. Transmission
gratings are used as disper-
sive elements.
Field Guide to Holography
24 Theory and Mathematical Formalism
Remarkable Thin Gratings
Depending on the type and shape of the modulation, thin
gratings have different diffraction properties. Transmit-
tance is expressed in terms of the ratio of electric fields,
and efficiency in term of the ratio of intensities.
Sinusoidal transmittance
• Modulation function: tðxÞ ¼ t0 þ Dt sinð2px=LÞ
• Requirement: Must be positive, i.e., t(x) 0
• Only three orders are diffracted: 0, þ1, and –1. The
maximum efficiency is obtained in the þ1 and –1
orders when t0 ¼ Dt ¼ 0:5 (peak-to-peak amplitude
modulation ¼ 1):
h0 ¼ t20 , h 1 ¼ ðDt=2Þ2 6:25%, hjmj>1 ¼ 0
Square-wave transmittance
• Modulation function: tðxÞ ¼ t0 þ Dt sgnð2px=LÞ
• Must be positive, i.e, t(x) 0
• The diffraction efficiency in the first orders is higher
than for a sinusoidal transmittance. The maximum
efficiency is obtained when t0 ¼ Dt ¼ 0:5 (peak-to-
peak amplitude modulation ¼ 1). There are no even
orders:
1
h0 ¼ t20 , h ¼ ð2Dt=pÞ2 10:1%, hm¼even ¼ 0, hm¼odd ¼ h
1
X m2 þ1
• Total diffracted energy: hm ¼ Dt2 24%
m6¼0
Sinusoidal phase
• Modulation function: wðxÞ ¼ w0 þ Dw sinð2px=LÞ
• The diffraction efficiency is expressed in terms of
first-order Bessel functions:
h0 ¼ J02 ðDwÞ, h 1 ¼ J12 ðDwÞ 33:8%
• Maximum efficiency is achieved when Dw ¼ 0:59p
(peak-to-peak phase modulation ¼ 1:18p)
X
• Total diffracted energy: hm ¼ 1 J02 ðDwÞ 100%
m6¼0
Field Guide to Holography
Theory and Mathematical Formalism 25
Remarkable Thin Gratings (cont.)
Square-function phase
• Modulation function: wðxÞ ¼ w0 þ Dw sgnð2px=LÞ
• The diffraction efficiency in the first orders is higher
than for the sinusoidal phase. The maximum efficiency
is obtained when Dw ¼ p=2 (peak-to-peak phase
modulation ¼ p). There are no even orders:
2
2
h0 ¼ cos2 ðDwÞ, h 1 ¼ sinðDwÞ 40:5%,
p
1
hm¼even ¼ 0, hm¼odd ¼ 2 hþ1
m
X
• Total diffracted energy: hm ¼ sin2 ðDwÞ 100%
m6¼0
Sawtooth-function phase
• This corresponds to a blazed grating.
X1
ð2pmx=LÞ
• Modulation function: wðxÞ ¼ w0 þ Dw sin
m¼1
k
• The diffraction efficiency in the first orders can be up to
100% for Dw ¼ p (peak-to-peak phase modulation ¼ 2p):
sinðDwÞ 2
h 1¼ 100%
p Dw
Peak-to-peak phase modulation
0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
Sawtooth-function
Square-function
Sinusoidal
Square-wave transmittance
Sinusoidal
transmittance
Peak-to-peak amplitude modulation
Field Guide to Holography
26 Theory and Mathematical Formalism
Scalar Theory of Diffraction:
Kirchhoff Diffraction Integral
It would make sense to calculate the diffraction of light
starting from Maxwell’s equations of the electromagnetic field.
However, the coupling between the electric and magnetic
vectors rapidly complicates the equation, and analytic solu-
tions can only be found for highly symmetrical cases.
The issue can be greatly simplified by replacing the electric-
vector-wave equation E with a scalar equation Eðx,y,z,tÞ:
2
1 @ E
r E¼ 2
2
c @t2
Because the magnetic component of the field is neglected, it
is assumed that the diffraction does not affect the polariza-
tion of the incident wave.
Two other assumptions are made as a basis for the
Kirchhoff diffraction integral: The open portion of the
aperture acts as a homogeneous source of the field E0 ðx0 ,y0 Þ,
as stated by Huygens’ principle, and the field is zero in the
opaque portion of the aperture.
X
Eðxz , yz Þ ¼ ½incident field at x0 , y0 ½wave propagation to z : rz0
aperture
Note that the summation is over the aperture surface and
is 2D. It translates into the Kirchhoff diffraction integral:
Z
1 expðikrz0 Þ
Eðxz , yz Þ ¼ Eðx0 ,y0 Þ cos uds
il rz0
aperture
where
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rz0 ¼ z2 þ ðxz x0 Þ2 þ ðyz y0 Þ2
Field Guide to Holography
Theory and Mathematical Formalism 27
Fresnel Diffraction Integral
From the Kirchhoff diffraction integral, some simplifica-
tions are possible. For example,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi consider the expansion of z
in the Taylor series 1 þ : ¼ 1 þ 2: :8 þ :
2
1 xz x0 2 yz y0 2
rz0 ¼ z þ þ þ
2 z z
In a paraxial approximation, the aperture is small
compared to the distance z : z xz x0 and z yz y0 .
• The third term of the expansion is negligible even in
the complex exponential. It must be much smaller
than 2p.
• The second term of the expansion can be dropped in
the denominator.
• cos u ¼ 1.
The simplified Kirchhoff diffraction integral is known as
the Fresnel diffraction integral:
Z
expðikzÞ ik
Eðxz ,yz Þ ¼ Eðx0 ,y0 Þ exp ðxz x0 Þ2 þ ðyz y0 Þ2 ds
ilz 2z
aperture
The near-field validity criteria of the Fresnel equation is
ðD=2Þ2
F¼ 1
zl
where D is the aperture diameter, z is the distance of
observation, l is the wavelength, and F is the Fresnel
number.
This equation is useful when z is large, considering the
wavelength, but not necessarily much larger than the
size of the aperture—thus the so-called “near-field”
validity.
Field Guide to Holography
