2 Diffraction Fundamentals
Scalar Diffraction
From experimental observations it is known that longer
wavelengths are diffracted at larger angles, and that tighter
focal spots are obtained from larger-aperture lenses. This
has led to the formulation of the fundamental relation for
a diffraction angle θd being proportional to the wavelength
of light λ, and inversely proportional to the size D of the
propagating wave:
θ d ∝ λ/ D
Solutions to a diffraction problem consider the spatial evolution
of finite-sized waves and waves whose propagation was
disrupted by amplitude or phase objects. Rigorous solutions
to diffraction problems satisfy Maxwell’s equations and
the appropriate boundary conditions. A simpler approach is
based on the Huygens-Fresnel principle, which defines the
foundation for scalar diffraction theory.
Scalar diffraction theory assumes that the propagating field
can be treated as a scalar field. The propagation of a field
described by its complex amplitude U ( x, y, z) in free space
from the object plane ( z = 0) to the observation plane is governed
by the Helmholtz equation:
∇2U ( x, y, z) + k20U ( x, y, z) = 0
in which k 0 = | k 0 | = 2π/λ0 is
the free space wave number.
According to Huygens’ principle, the
propagating field at the aperture
is considered as a superposition
of several secondary point sources
with spherical wavefronts. Fresnel
stated that intensity distribution
after the aperture is the result of
interferometric interaction between
the Huygens point sources.
Field Guide to Diffractive Optics
6 Fresnel Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Plates
A Fresnel zone plate (FZP) represents an amplitude mask
that consists of alternating opaque and transparent rings. Each
ring size corresponds to a Fresnel zone as defined by the
observation point. FZPs are often employed in lieu of lenses to
concentrate the propagating field into a tight on-axis spot.
Increasing the number of zones progressively reduces the width,
as well as increases the peak intensity and the total power
contained in the central peak of the diffraction pattern.
Field Guide to Diffractive Optics
26 Diffraction by Multiple Apertures
Aperture Fill Factor
The near-field aperture duty cycle, also known as a fill factor
ζ, is defined as the ratio of the aperture width w to the aperture
spacing value d (ζ = w/ d ). The effects of the duty cycle changes
on the shape of a diffraction pattern are shown for three
rectangular apertures:
An increase in the duty cycle leads to a reduction in the number
of high-peak-intensity nodes, as well as an increase in the
energy concentration in the central diffraction spot.
In the limiting case of ζ = 1, the pattern becomes identical to an
entirely filled single rectangular aperture with a width of 3w
and a height h.
Field Guide to Diffractive Optics
36 Diffractive Components
Diffraction Gratings
Diffraction gratings are periodic diffractive structures that
modify the amplitude or phase of a propagating field. Linear
gratings represent the simplest periodic diffractive structures.
Amplitude gratings are based on the amplitude modulation
of the incident wavefront and are employed in spectral regions
where nonabsorbing optical materials are not available. The
amplitude modulation is associated with transmission losses
introduced by the grating.
Phase gratings are based on the phase modulation of the
incident wavefront by introducing a periodic phase delay to
the individual portions of the propagating wavefront. Phase
gratings are designed to work in transmission, reflection, or
in a bidirectional manner.
Surface-relief phase gratings are based on wavefront-division
interference principles and introduce periodic phase delays to
the fractions of the incident wavefront due to periodic changes
of the substrate thickness.
Reflective surface-relief Transmissive surface-
phase grating with relief phase grating
triangular profile with triangular profile
Reflective surface-relief phase grating with
sinusoidal profile
Field Guide to Diffractive Optics
