TEACHING MATERIAL

5.0 GPS POSITIONING MODES

Positioning with GPS can be performed by either of two ways: Point

positioning or relative positioning.

GPS point positioning employs one GPS receiver that measures the code
pseudo range to determine the user’s position instantaneously as long as
four or more satellites are visible at the receiver.

The expected positional accuracy from the civilian C/A code receivers
has gone down from 100 m, when selected availability was on, to about
22 m in the absence of SA.

GPS point positioning is used mainly when relatively low accuracy is
required. This includes recreation applications and low accuracy
navigation.

GPS relative positioning, however, employs at least two GPS receivers
simultaneously tracking the same satellites.

If both receivers track at least four common satellites, a positioning
accuracy level of the order of a sub-centimeter to a few meters can be
obtained.

Carrier phase or / and pseudo range measurements can be used in GPS
relative positioning, depending on the accuracy requirements.

The former provides the highest possible accuracy.

GPS relative positioning can be made either in real time or post mission
modes. GPS relative positioning is used for high accuracy applications
such as surveying and mapping, GIS and precise navigation.

5.1. GPS point positioning

GPS point positioning, also known as standalone or autonomous

positioning, involves only one GPS receiver.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 50

 TEACHING MATERIAL

That is only one receiver simultaneously tracks four or more GPS

satellites to determine its own coordinates with respect to the centre of
the earth.

To determine the receiver’s position at any time, the satellite coordinates
as well as a minimum of four ranges to four satellites are required.

The receiver gets the satellite coordinates through navigation message,
while ranges are obtained from either C/A code or P-code, depending on
the receiver type civilian or military.

As mentioned before, the measured pseudo ranges are contaminated by
both the satellite and receiver clock synchronization errors. Correcting
the satellite clock errors may be done by applying the satellite clock
correction in the navigation message; the receiver clock error is treated as
an additional unknown parameter in the estimation process.

This brings the total number of unknown parameters to four: three for
receiver coordinates and one for the receiver clock error.

This is the reason why at least four satellites are needed. If more than
four satellites are tracked, the so-called least square estimation is applied.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 51

 TEACHING MATERIAL

As the satellites coordinates are given in the WGS-84 system, the

obtained receiver coordinates will be in WGS-84 system as well. These
are transformed to local coordinates system through transformation
parameters.

5.2 GPS Relative Positioning:

GPS relative positioning, also called differential positioning, employs at

least two GPS receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites to
determine their relative coordinates.

Of the two receivers, one is selected as a reference or base, which
remains stationary at a site with precisely known coordinates. The other
receiver known as Rover or Remote receiver has its coordinate unknown.
The rover receiver may or may not be stationary depending upon the type
of GPS operation.

A minimum of four common satellites is required for relative positioning.
However, tracking more than four common satellites simultaneously
would improve the precision of the GPS position solution.

Carrier phase or pseudo range measurements can be used in relative
positioning. A variety of positioning techniques are used to provide a
post processing (post mission) or real time solution.

GPS relative positioning provides a higher accuracy than that of
autonomous positioning.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 52

 TEACHING MATERIAL

Depending on whether the carrier phase or the pseudorange

measurements are used in relative positioning, an accuracy level of a sub
centimeter to a few meters can be obtained. This is mainly because the
measurements of two or more receivers simultaneously tracking a
particular satellite contain more or less the same errors and biases.

The shorter the distance between the two receivers, the more similar the
errors. Therefore, if we take the difference between the measurements of
the two receivers (hence the name “differential positioning”), the similar
errors will be removed or reduced and accuracy will be more.

5.3 Static GPS Positioning:

Static GPS surveying is a relative positioning technique that depends on
the carrier phase measurements.

It employs two or more stationary receivers simultaneously tracking the
same satellites.

One receiver, the base receiver, is set up over a point with precisely
known coordinates such as survey monuments. The other receiver, the

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 53

 TEACHING MATERIAL

remote receiver is set up over a point whose coordinates have to be

determined.

The base receiver can support any number of remote receivers, as long as
minimum of four common satellites is visible at both the base and the
remote sites.

In principle, this method is based on collecting simultaneous
measurements at both the base and remote receivers for a certain period
of time, which, after processing, yield the coordinates of the unknown
point. The observation or occupation time varies from about 20 minutes
to a few hours, depending on the distance between the base and the
remote receivers. (i.e. the baseline length), the number of satellite visible
and satellite geometry.

The measurements are usually taken at a recording interval of 15 or 20
seconds called epochs.

After completing the field measurements, the collected data is
downloaded from receivers into PC for processing. Different processing
options may be selected depending on the user requirements.

Base (Known) Remote (Unknown)

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 54

 TEACHING MATERIAL

Static GPS surveying with the carrier phase measurements is the most
accurate positioning technique. This is mainly due to the significant
change in satellite geometry over the long observation time span. This is
mainly used for new control point establishment in the area.

5.4 Fast (Rapid) Static Positioning:

Fast or Rapid static surveying is a carrier phase based relative positioning
technique similar to static GPS surveying. That is, it employs two or
more GPS receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites.

However, with rapid static surveying, only the base receiver remains
stationary over the known point during the entire observation session.
The rover receiver remains stationary over the unknown point for a short
period of time only, and then moves to another point whose coordinates
are sought.

Similar to static GPS surveying, the base receiver can support any
number of rovers.

This method is suitable when survey involves a number of unknown
points located in the vicinity (i.e. within up to 15 km) of a known point.

The survey starts by setting up the base receiver over the known point,
while setting up the rover receiver over the first unknown point.

The base receiver remains stationary and collects data continuously. The
rover receiver collects data for a period of about 2 to 10 minutes,
depending on the distance to the base as well as the satellite geometry.

Once the rover receiver has collected the data, the user moves to the
following point with unknown coordinates and repeat the procedures.

It should be pointed out that, while moving, the rover receiver may be
turned off.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 55

 TEACHING MATERIAL

Due to relatively short occupancy time for the rover receiver, the
recording interval is reduced to 5 seconds.

Movement of Rover

2 2
.1 .1
.3 .3
R R .4
.4 5
5
After certain interval of
Network 1,2,3,4,5 has to time, rover from 5 moves
be measured. Coordinate to 1 while other at 2 will
R is known Rover is kept move to point 3
at 5 and 2

1 1
2 R

R .3 .R

.4 .3
5 5
.4
Then one will be taken Next day, the operation
out, the other at 3 will will be repeated to check
move to 4 the errors
PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 56
 TEACHING MATERIAL

5.5 Stop and Go GPS Surveying:

Stop and go surveying is another carrier phase based relative positioning
technique. It employs two or more GPS receivers simultaneously tracking
the same satellites.

A base receiver that remains stationary over the known point and one or
more rover receivers travel between the unknown points and make a brief
stop at each point to collect the GPS data.

The data is usually collected at a 1 to 2 second recording rate for a period
if about 30 seconds per each stop.

Similar to previous methods, the base receiver can support any number of
rovers.

This method is suitable when survey involves a large number of
unknown points located in the vicinity (i.e. within up to 15 km) of a
known point.

The survey starts by first determining the initial integer ambiguity
parameters, a process known as receiver initialization. Once the
initialization is performed successfully, centimeter level accuracy can be
obtained instantaneously.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 57

 TEACHING MATERIAL

Base Initialization
position

Monitoring part

Initialization part
5
4 6
3
2 Reference
1 7
Initialization 8
part
9

This is true as long as there is minimum of four common satellites
simultaneously tracked by both base and the rover receivers at all the
times. If this condition is not fulfilled at any moment during the survey,
the initialization process must be repeated to ensure centimeter level
accuracy.

Following the initialization the rover moves to the first unknown point.
After collecting about 30 seconds of data, the rover moves, without being
switched off, to the second point and the procedures are repeated.

Once the data is collected and downloaded, PC software is used to
process it.

Both single and dual frequency receivers may use stop and go surveying
method.
5.6 Kinematic Surveying Technique:
A special case of stop and go surveying is know as Kinematic GPS
surveying. Both methods are same in the principle; however, the latter
requires no stops at the unknown points. The positional accuracy is expected

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 58

 TEACHING MATERIAL

to be higher with the stop and go surveying as the errors are averaged out
when the receiver stops at the unknown points.

5.6.1 Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS

RTK surveying is a carrier phase based relative positioning technique
that, like the previous methods, employs two or more receivers
simultaneously tracking the same satellites.

This method is suitable when:
- Survey involves a large number of unknown points located in the
vicinity (i.e. within up to 10 – 15 km) of known point.
- The coordinates of the unknown points are required in real time and
- The line of sight, the propagation path, is relatively unobstructed.

Because of its ease of use as well as its capability to determine the
coordinates in real time, many users prefer this method.

In this method, the base receiver remains stationary over the known point
and is attached to a radio transmitter. The rover receiver is normally
carried in backpack and is attached to a radio receiver.

Similar to the conventional Kinematic GPS method, a data rate as high as
1 HZ (one sample per second observation time) is required.

The base receiver measurements and coordinates are transmitted to the
rover receiver through the communication radio link. The built in
software in a rover receiver combines and process the GPS measurements
collected at both the base and the rover receivers to obtain the rover
coordinates in real time. That is no post processing is required.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 59

 TEACHING MATERIAL

The expected positional accuracy is of the order of 2 to 5 cm which can

further be improved by staying over the point for a short period of time,
for example, about 30 seconds, to allow for averaging the position.

The computed rover coordinates for the entire survey may be stored and
downloaded at a later time into CAD software for further analysis.

This method is mainly used with dual frequency receivers.

Under the same conditions, the positioning accuracy of the RTK method
is slightly compared with that of the conventional kinematic GPS
method.

This is mainly because of the time tags (or time stamps) of the
conventional kinematic data from both the base and rover match perfectly
in processing. With RTK, however, the base receiver data reaches the
rover after some delay (called latency). Data latency occurs as result of
formatting, packetizing, transmitting and decoding the base data.

To match the time tag of the rover data, the base data must be
extrapolated which degrades the positional accuracy.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 60

 TEACHING MATERIAL

5.7 Real Time Differential GPS (DGPS):

Real time differential GPS (DGPS) is a code based relative positioning
technique that employs two or more receivers simultaneously tracking
the same satellites.

It is used when real time meter level accuracy is enough.

This method is based on the fact that the GPS errors in the measured
pseudoranges are essentially the same at both the base and the rover, as
long as the baseline length is within the few hundred kilometers.

As before, the base receiver remains stationary over the known point.
The built in software in the base receiver uses the precisely known base
coordinates as well as the satellite coordinates, derived from the
navigation message, to compute the ranges to each satellite in view.

The pseudoranges are also measured through code measurements
technique.

The software further takes the difference between the computed ranges
and the measured pseudoranges, to obtain the pseudorange errors. (or
DGPS corrections).

These DGPS corrections are transmitted in a standard format called
Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Service (RTCM) to the rover
through a communication link.

The rover then applies the DGPS corrections to correct the measured
pseudoranges at the rover. Finally the corrected pseudoranges are used to
compute the rover coordinates.

The accuracy obtained with this method varies between a sub-meter and
about 5 meters, depending upon the base rover distance, the transmission
rate of the RTCM DGPS corrections and the performance of the C/A
code receivers.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 61

 TEACHING MATERIAL

5.8 GPS Relative Positioning Corrections:

Differential corrections may be carried out as measurement corrections or as

position corrections. With either approach the coordinate one point, which
is used, as a base or reference station must be known.
Measurement Corrections

With the measurement method, the true Satellite – Receiver range, ρ,

between a satellite and reference station is computed as :-

ρ s
rk = (x s
− xrk ) + (r
2 s
− rrk ) + (z
2 s
− zrk )
2

xs,ys,zs = known satellites coordinates derived from broadcasted

ephemeredes

xrk,yrk,zrk = known receiver coordinates ,

Then error for Satellite– Receiver range is computed as,

Errors = Prks – ρ rks

Prks = observed sat. – rec. range (∆t x velocity)

ρ rks = True sat. – rec. range.
PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 62
 TEACHING MATERIAL

Major errors, which affect GPS observations, will affect points near the
reference station by approximately same magnitude. The errors computed at
the reference site there by form differential correction, which are applied at
the rover silt.

Position correction

With the position method, the true reference receiver position (xrk, yrk, zrk) is
compared to the position computed through single point positioning (xr, yr,
zr). The resulting position errors (i.e. the differences (xr – xrk, yr – yrk, zr –
zrk) at the reference site form differential correction which are applied at the
rover site.

PRIYAKANT, LECTURER, SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT 63