GNSS POSITIONING METHODS

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OUTLINE:
• Pseudo-Range and Carrier Phase Measurements
• Single Receiver Positioning
• Differential Positioning
Static and Rapid Static Mode
Kinematic and Real-Time Kinematic Mode
• Carrier Phase Differencing

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PSEUDORANGE AND CARRIER
PHASE MEASUREMENTS
• The measured distance from the receiver to the
satellite-based on code observations – is called
pseudo-range
• The pseudo-range equals the time shift required to
correlate the incoming code with a duplicate
generated by the GPS receiver, multiplied by the
speed of light

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PSEUDORANGE AND CARRIER
PHASE MEASUREMENTS
Range Determination from Code Observations
 Each satellite sends a unique Received Code
signal which repeats itself approx. from Satellite

1 msec
 Receiver compares self generated Generated

signal with received signal Code from

Receiver

 From the time difference (ΔT) a

range observation can be
ΔT
determined
 Receiver clock needs to be
r = c (ΔT)
synchronized with the satellite
clock
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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
•Only possible using the C/A-code (or the P-code for
authorized users)
•Solution is available in real-time
•Requires a knowledge of satellite position and satellite clock
•Satellite position is available from the broadcast ephemeris
•Satellite clock (signal transmit time) is carried on the PRN
code

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Adopting the following notation:
t s - satellite clock-time signal transmission (carried on the
C/A- code
t R - receiver clock time at signal reception
d s - satellite clock offset from GPS time
d R- receiver clock offset from GPS time

D t= t R - t s = (t R (GPS) - d R ) –(t s(GPS)- d s)

D t= D t(GPS) + Dd (where Dd = d s - d R)
Assuming that the satellite clock error can be modelled,
Dd = - d R(negative of the receiver offset)

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
• The time interval multiplied by the speed of light gives the pseudo-
range (in meters)
r =c Dt = (c Dt(GPS) + cDd) = (R + cDd)
Where R is the true range
Z
r =/X – XR/ + c Dd
s

rS R

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Outline Principle : Position

R1

We are somewhere on a sphere of

radius, R1

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Outline Principle : Position

R1

R2

2 Spheres intersect as a circle

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Outline Principle : Position

R1
R3
R2

3 Spheres intersect at a point

3 Ranges to resolve for Latitude, Longitude and Height

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING

r =/Xs – XR/ + c Dd
r RS=((Xs – XR)2 +(Ys – YR)2+(Zs – ZR)2)1/2+ c Dd
So for each satellite s say s= 1, 2, 3, 4

r R1=((X1 – XR)2 +(Y1 – YR)2+(Z1 – ZR)2)1/2+ c Dd

r R2=((X2 – XR)2 +(Y2 – YR)2+(Z2 – ZR)2)1/2+ c Dd
r R3=((X3 – XR)2 +(Y3 – YR)2+(Z3 – ZR)2)1/2+ c Dd
r R4=((X4 – XR)2 +(Y4 – YR)2+(Z4 – ZR)2)1/2+ c Dd
SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
• There are four unknowns in the basic pseudo-range observation
equation:
• (XR, YR, ZR)) and Dd

• Four satellites are required to solve for the four unknowns

(minimum)
• More than four satellites allow a least squares solution to be
computed
• The equations are non-linear with respect to the unknowns
• Linearization is required for solution (Taylor’s expansion)

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING

r RS = yo + -(Xs – XR)__________
((Xs – XR)2+(Ys – YR)2+(Zs – ZR)2)1/2
+ -(Ys – YR)__________
((X1 – XR)2+(Y1 – YR)2+(Z1 – ZR)2)1/2
+ -(Zs – ZR)__________
((X1 – XR)2+(Y1 – YR)2+(Z1 – ZR)2)1/2
+c
SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Bx = f
Where B = -(X1 – XR) -(Y1 – YR) -(Z1 – ZR) c
R1 R1 R1
-(X2 – XR) -(Y2 – YR) -(Z2 – ZR) c
R2 R2 R2
-(X3 – XR) -(Y3 – YR) -(Z3 – ZR) c
R3 R3 R3
-(X4 – XR) -(Y4 – YR) -(Z4 – ZR) c
R4 R4 R4
f = r RS - yo
yo = ((Xs – XR)2+(Ys – YR)2+(Zs – ZR)2)1/2 + c Dd
SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Bx = f
Where x = DX
DY
DZ
BT Bx = B T f
First Iteration: XR1 = 0
Second Iteration: XR2 = 0 + DXR1
Third Iteration: XR3 = 0 + DXR1 + DXR2
Continue until DX approaches 0 and XR becomes the final computed
position of the receiver
SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
The importance of satellite geometry
• DOP factors (Dilution of Precision) are used to quantify the effect of
satellite geometry on the navigation solution
• DOP factors are simple functions of the diagonal elements of the
covariance matrix of the adjusted parameters from the navigational
solution

QX = s2 X s YX s ZX s TX
s XY s2 Y s ZY s TY
s XZ s YZ s2 Z s TZ
s XT s YT s ZT s2 T

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Dilution of Precision (DOP)
• A description of purely geometrical contribution to the uncertainty in a
position fix
• It is an indicator as to the geometrical strength of the satellites being
tracked at the time of measurement
Good GDOP
– GDOP (Geometrical)
• Includes Lat, Lon, Height & Time
– PDOP (Positional)
• Includes Lat, Lon & Height
– HDOP (Horizontal)
• Includes Lat & Lon
– VDOP (Vertical)
• Includes Height only

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
Dilution of Precision (DOP)
• A description of purely geometrical contribution to the uncertainty in a
position fix
• It is an indicator as to the geometrical strength of the satellites being
tracked at the time of measurement
Poor DOP
– GDOP (Geometrical)
• Includes Lat, Lon, Height & Time
– PDOP (Positional)
• Includes Lat, Lon & Height
– HDOP (Horizontal)
• Includes Lat & Lon
– VDOP (Vertical)
• Includes Height only

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
The importance of satellite geometry
• Transformation from the geocentric into a local cartesian system
(east, north, height) gives:

QX = s2e s ne s he s Te
s en s2 n s hn s Tn
s eh s nh s2 h s Th
s eT s nT s hT s2 T

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SINGLE RECEIVER POSITIONING
The importance of satellite geometry
• The relevant DOP factors are then given by:
VDOP = sh
HDOP = (s2e + s2 n)1/2
PDOP = (s2e + s2 n+ s2 h) 1/2
TDOP = s T
GDOP = (s2e + s2 n+ s2 h+c2s2 T) 1/2

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DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING

A (XA, YA, ZA)

B

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DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
• It is possible to determine the
position of Rover ‘B’ in relation to
Reference ‘A’ provided
• The coordinates of the Reference
Station (A) are known
• Satellites are tracked simultaneously
• Differential Positioning
– eliminates errors in the sat. and
receiver clocks
– Accuracy 0.5 cm - 5 m
A B

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DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
BLOCK SHIFT METHOD
• Base receiver placed on a point of known position: (XA, YA, ZA)

• Base receiver position is also measured from known pseudo-range

observations: (X’A, Y’A, Z’A)

• Position corrections (shifts) are computed at the base station:

D XA= XA - X’A
D YA= YA - Y’A
D ZA= ZA - Z’A
• Roving receiver position is measured from known pseudo-range
observations: (X’B, Y’B, Z’B)
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DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
PSEUDO-RANGE CORRECTION METHOD
• The pseudo-range corrections are applied to the measured
ranges at the rover for each satellite separately

• The position of the roving receiver is computed from the

corrected ranges

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DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
BLOCK SHIFT METHOD:
• Simple to implement
• Only valid when the same satellites are used at both the
base and the rover
• Failure to use the same satellites could degrade rather than
improve the solution
PSEUDO-RANGE CORRECTION METHOD
• Slightly more complex (mathematically)
• Forces the use of common satellites (an advantage)
• More rigorous, therefore preferred
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DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
• DGPS offers a significant accuracy improvement over single receiver
positioning

• Requires at least two receivers

• Solution can be obtained in real-time (with a communication link) or

by post-processing

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DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Static (STS)

• The classical method for long lines and the highest accuracy 5mm +
1ppm baseline rms
– Classical GPS baseline measurement, where each line is observed
for at least one hour
– The observation time is proportional to the length of the line
– Standard method for lines over 20 km

• Applications
– Geodetic control over large areas
– National and continental networks
– Monitoring tectonic movement
– Network adjustments for highest accuracy
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Rapid Static (STS)

• Short observation time for baselines up to 20 km. Accuracy 5-10mm

+1ppm

• Applications
– Control Surveys, GIS city inventories, detail surveys. Replace
traversing and local triangulation. Any job where many points have
to be surveyed
– Easy, quick, efficient
– Ideal for short-range survey
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Kinematic (KIS)

• Stop Mode
– The rover must first initialize
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Kinematic (KIS)

• Moving Mode
– The rover must first initialize
– Once enough data is collected to resolve the
ambiguities the user can now move the receiver
– Lock must be maintained on a minimum of 4 satellites
at all times
– Rover records data at a specific time interval
– If lock is lost, the system must re-initialized
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Real Time

• Real Time Code, Real Time Phase

– No post processing required
– Results are instantly available
– Can operate in two modes
• RTK
• RT-DGPS

B
A
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Real Time

• Real Time Code, Real Time Phase

– No post processing required
– Results are instantly available
– Can operate in two modes
• RTK
• RT-DGPS

B
A
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Real Time

• From an architectural point of view,

RTK consists of:
1. a base station
2. one or several rover users
3. a communication channel
with which the base
broadcasts information
to the users at real time

B
A
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Accuracy and Observation Times

• Static
Baseline Number of Observation
GDOP Accuracy
Length Satellites Time

20 - 50 Km > 4 < 6 2 - 3 hr. 5 mm + 1ppm

50 - 100 Km > 4 < 6 min. 3 hr. 5 mm + 1ppm
> 100 Km > 4 < 6 min. 4 hr. 5 mm + 1ppm

• Rapid Static
Baseline Number of Observation
GDOP Accuracy
Length Satellites Time

0 - 5 Km > 4 < 5 5 - 10 min 5 - 10 mm + 1ppm

5 - 10 Km > 4 < 5 10 - 15 min 5 - 10 mm + 1ppm
10 - 20 Km > 4 < 5 10 - 30 min 5 - 10 mm + 1ppm
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Recommended Recording Intervals

Operation Recording
Type Interval

Static 15 sec.

Rapid Static 5 sec.

Kinematic 1 sec. or more

Dual Frequency Receivers

• The “high end” of the GPS Market

• Baseline Accuracy 5mm + 1ppm (rms)
• Used in all GPS Surveying tasks :-
– Geodetic Control Networks, Tectonic
Plate Monitoring, Network
Densification, Phogrammetric Control,
Detail Surveys etc.
• New applications are found on a daily
basis
Single Frequency Receivers

• Baseline Accuracy 1cm + 2ppm (rms)

• Uses Post process L1 carrier phase
• Used for all Surveying tasks with baselines up
to 15Km
– Network Densification, Detail Surveys
• Less expensive alternative to Dual frequency
DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
Single vs Dual Frequency

Single Frequency Dual Frequency

• Less expensive option
• Limitation on baseline length • Unlimited baseline length
(15Km). • Short occupation times
• Longer occupation times. • Real Time
• Real Time – OTF
– No OTF • Supports all GPS modes
• Depending on application can • More reliable results
be ideal solution
CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
If the receiver and satellite clocks were perfectly synchronized and
the signal passed through a vacuum, the transmit and receive
times would be related by
T = t + r/c

However this is not the case. Both the receiver and

satellite clocks will be offset from GPS time:
(T+dT) = (t+dt)+ r/c
The signal travel time (r/c) will be affected by the ionospheric and
tropospheric delay:
(T+dT) = (t+dt)+(r – dion + dtrop)/c
(T—t) = dt—dT+(r – dion + dtrop)/c
CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
j total = j(T) - j(t) = f(T-t)
= f(dt—dT)+f(r – dion + dtrop)/c

In terms of what a GPS receiver

actually observes, the total phase
consists of:
Fr(j) - measured fractional part
Int(j; to ,t) - measured integer
count of complete cycles
since the initial epoch to
N(to) - an unknown number of integer cycles
between the satellite and receiver at
the initial epoch
j total = Fr(j) + Int(j; to ,t) + N(to)
CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
j total = j measured + N(to)
j measured + N(to) = f(dt—dT)+f(r – dion + dtrop)/c

j measured = f(dt—dT)+f(r – dion + dtrop)/c - N(to)

Using the relation l = c/f and multiplying by l, convert the measured

carrier beat phase into length units

F = l j measured
= c(dt—dT)+ r – dion + dtrop - l N(to)
CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
Considering the receiver multipath and noise:
F = c(dt—dT)+ r – dion + dtrop - l N(to) + dmult + n

Usually multipath and noise are combined so that:

F = c(dt—dT)+ r – dion + dtrop - l N(to) + n
CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
Differences can be formed as follows :

• Between receivers (∆)

• Between satellites (▼)

• Between epochs (∂)

CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
Single Differences:
• Between receivers (common satellite and epoch)

• Between satellites (common receiver and epoch)

CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
Single Differences:
• Between epochs (common receiver and satellite)
CARRIER PHASE DIFFERENCING
Single Differences:
• Between receivers (common satellite and epoch)

• Between satellites (common receiver and epoch)