REMAINING LIFE ASSESSMENT OF STEAM TURBINE AND HOT GAS EXPANDER COMPONENTS

David Dowson
Service Engineer (Materials & Repairs)
Elliott Group
Jeannette, PA, USA

David Dowson is a Service Engineer with

the Elliott Group, in Jeannette, Pennsylvania.
He has been involved with material related failure analysis,
repairs to rotating and non-rotating equipment, and
aftermarket support. He has co-authored papers on materials
selection for hot gas expanders, repairs to turbomachinery
components, defect tolerant design concepts and remaining
life assessment. Mr. Dowson received his B.S. degree (2003)
from the University of Pittsburgh.

Derrick Bauer
Manager, Materials Engineering
Elliott Group
Jeannette, PA, USA

Derrick joined Elliott Group in 2002 as a

Materials Engineer. He has been involved
with R&D projects, production and
aftermarket support, failure analysis and remaining life
assessment testing. He received an MS from the University of
Pittsburgh in 2011.
steam turbines and hot gas expander components are provided.
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

In today's market place, a large percentage of oil refinery, In recent years, from oil refinery to petrochemical and power
petrochemical, and power generation plants throughout the generation industries, more and more plants throughout the
world have been trying to reduce their operation cost by world are facing a common issue – aging turbines, usually over
extending the service life of their critical machines, such as 30 years old. Questions bearing in managers’ mind are what is
steam turbines and hot gas expanders, beyond the design life the machine condition and whether they can be continually
criteria. The key ingredient in plant life extension is Remaining operated (if yes, how long). The answer is significant not only
Life Assessment Technology. This paper will outline the for safety concern but also for cost reduction, especially with
Remaining Life Assessment procedures, and review the various today’s limited budget. Therefore, there is an increasingly
damage mechanisms such as creep, fatigue, creep-fatigue and strong desire for the engineering aftermarket service to perform
various embrittlement mechanisms that can occur in these “Remaining Life Assessment” of steam turbines and hot gas
machines. Also highlighted will be the various testing methods expanders.
for determining remaining life or life extension of components Remaining life assessment is to use metallurgical and
such as high precision SRT (Stress Relaxation Test), which fracture mechanics methodologies to predict the remaining life
determines creep strength, and CDR (Constant Displacement of structures and components that have been in service for an
Rate) Test, which evaluates fracture resistance. Other tests extended period of time, usually close to or beyond the
such as replication/microstructure analysis and toughness tests designed life. Traditionally, if parts are found with material
will be reviewed for assessment of the remaining life or life degradations or damages during an overhaul, they might be
extension of the components. Use of computer software will be scrapped and replaced for risk-free consideration; even though
highlighted showing how creep-life, fatigue-life and they might have some useful life. Remaining life assessment
creep/fatigue-life calculations can be performed. Actual offers a possible tool to estimate the useful remaining lifetime
examples of remaining life assessment testing performed on and avoid premature scrapping of the parts. Remaining life

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

assessment is considered to be an attractive method/process for occur. In turbomachinery components, the failure criteria can
cost reduction and for minimizing down-time. be governed by one or a combination of the following failure
Remaining life assessment has often been improperly mechanisms:
referred as “life extension”. Actually this analysis will not
extend the lifetime of the components. It can only assess the  Fatigue – high cycle or low cycle
useful remaining lifetime, based on the metallurgical  Corrosion / Corrosion Fatigue
examinations and theoretical (fracture mechanics) calculations.  Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
If such assessments indicate the need for extensive  Erosion – solid particle or liquid
replacements and refurbishments, life extension may not prove impingement
to be a viable option. Above and beyond this objective,  Erosion Corrosion
remaining life assessment technology serves many other  Embrittlement
purposes. It helps in setting up proper inspection schedules,  Creep Rupture / Creep Fatigue
maintenance procedures and operating procedures. It should,  High Temperature Corrosion/Embrittlement
therefore, be recognized at the outset that development of  Mechanical (foreign objective) Damage
techniques for remaining life assessment is more enduring in
value and broader in purpose than simply the extension of plant However, in remaining life assessment, usually only those
life. For instance, it has been possible to extend the inspections mechanisms depending on temperature & time are taken into
from six to ten year for modern rotors, on the basis of account. For example, for turbine casing, engineers usually
assessments from fracture mechanics calculations, resulting in focus on thermal-stress induced low cycle fatigue, creep
considerable savings. rupture, and tempering embrittlement cracking. These failures
In implementing remaining life assessment procedures, the usually are slow processes, therefore, can be assessed and
appropriate failure definition applicable to a given situation forecasted by examining the warning evidences in the material.
must be determined at the outset, and the purpose for which the Countless works have been done to study the behaviors of
assessment is being carried out must be kept in mind. While fatigue crack initiation/propagation and creep or embrittlement
determining the feasibility of extended plant life may be one rupture in materials. Scientists and engineers have reached to
objective, a more common objective is the setting of such a level that, by knowing the flaw size or microstructure
appropriate intervals for inspection, repair and maintenance. In deterioration/damage, one can theoretically calculate and
this context, remaining life assessment procedures are used predict the remaining lifetime of the parts, based on the
only to ascertain that failures will not occur between such knowledge of the material properties and understanding of the
intervals. It should never be assumed that having performed a stress distributions.
remaining life assessment study for a 20-year life extension,
one could then wait for 20 years without interim monitoring. FATIGUE
Periodic checks to ensure the validity of the initial approach are
essential. In this sense, remaining life assessment should be Failures that occur under cyclic loading are termed fatigue
viewed as an on-going task, rather than a one-time activity. failures. These can be vibration stresses on blades, alternating
A phased approach, in which the initial level includes non- bending loads on shafts, fluctuating thermal stresses during
incursive techniques followed by other levels of actual plant start-stop cycles, etc. There are two types of fatigue: low cycle
monitoring, then followed by nondestructive inspections and fatigue (LCF), high cycle fatigue (HCF). Traditionally, low
destructive tests would be the most logical and cost effective cycle fatigue failure is classified occurring below 104 cycles,
approach. In Level I, assessments are performed using plant and high cycle fatigue is above that number. An important
records, design stresses and temperatures, and minimum values distinction between HCF and LCF is that in HCF most of the
of material properties from the OEM. Level II involves actual fatigue life is spent in crack initiation, whereas in LCF most of
measurements of dimensions, temperatures, simplified stress the life is spent in crack propagation because cracks are found
calculations and inspections coupled with the use of minimum to initiate within three to 10 percent of the fatigue life. HCF is
material properties from the OEM. Level III involves in-depth usually associated with lower stress, while LCF usually occurs
inspection, stress levels, plant monitoring, and generation of under higher stress.
actual material data from samples removed from the component Remaining life of casings or rotating components is
(destructive testing). The degree of the detail and accuracy of generally based upon crack growth consideration. Fracture
the results increases from Level I to Level III, but at the same mechanics is the mathematical tool that is employed. It
time, the cost of the assessment also increases. Depending on provides the concepts and equations used to determine how
the extent of the information available and the results obtained, cracks grow and their effect on the strength of the structure. At
the analysis may stop at any level or proceed to the next level the author’s company fracture mechanics is utilized in
as necessary. analyzing the structural integrity of components that have been
In evaluating the failure criteria or remaining life, one in operation to determine whether the component is suitable for
needs to understand the various failure mechanisms that can further operation. Based upon crack growth analysis one

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

considers a number of scenarios. particular grade can have an effect on the Larson Miller curve.
From an initial defect size ao one must determine critical Also, Larson Miller curves are generally based upon creep
flaw size ac for fast fracture. rupture tests done for 104 to 3x104 hours and very few data at
ao → ac 105 hours. Consequently, the data for longer hours is generally
KI → KIC extrapolated. Since most of the creep rupture data is done with
where: smooth bar specimens, the effect of notch ductility at long-term
KI = applied tensile mode I stress intensity factor service has not been done. Short term notched bars tests may
KIC = plane strain fracture toughness of material fail to predict the onset of notch sensitivity. Notch sensitively
is not an inherent property but depends on the temperature,
For LCF, determine how many cycles for ao to grow to ac. For stress, stress state, and strain rate.
HCF, one must prevent crack growth. Consequently for HCF, In assessing remaining life of components due to creep,
∆KI < ∆ Kth , where: such as blade attachments, crack initiation is used as the
criteria. However, with the emergence of cleaner steel and
∆ KI = stress intensity factor ksi in. fracture mechanics and an increasing need to extend life of
∆ Kth = threshold stress intensity factor range below which component, application of crack growth, techniques have
fatigue crack growth (or corrosion fatigue crack growth) does become common in the past decade.
not occur. For crack initiation as the fracture criteria, history-based
calculation methods are often used to estimate life.
Further discussion of fracture mechanic concepts can be found
elsewhere (Dowson, 1995, 1994). Methods For Crack Initiation Due To Creep

For the analytical method, one must have accurate operating

CREEP RUPTURE AND STRESS RUPTURE
history of the components which may consist of temperature,
Evidence of creep damage in the high temperature regions of applied loads, changes in operation, such as shut downs or
blade attachment areas of rotors has been observed in some variation in speed or pressure. A simplistic estimation of the
instances (Bush, 1982). The rim stresses and metal temperature creep life expended can be made by assessing the relaxed long-
at these locations are assessed against the creep rupture data for term bore stresses and rim-stresses against the standard rupture
that particular grade of steel/or material. Traditionally one has data using the life fraction rule. The life fraction rule (LFR)
used a Larson Miller (LM) plot of the type shown in Figure 1. states that at failure:
ti
Larson-Miller Parameter of Cr-Mo-V Steel ∑ =1 (1)
tri
100
where:
ti is the time spent at a given stress and temperature and tri is the
rupture life for the same test conditions.
Example:
The purpose of this example is to illustrate the use of the
life-fraction rule. A steam turbine piping system, made of 1-
Stress [ksi]

1/4 Cr-1/2Mo steel designed for a hoop stress of 7 ksi, was

10
operated at 1000°F (538°C) for 42,500 h and at 1025°F (552°C)
for the next 42,500 h. Calculate the life fraction expended
using the life-fraction rule. From the Larson Miller Parameter
curve of the steel, it is found that, at σ = 7 ksi,

tri at 1000°F = 220,000 h

tri at 1025°F = 82,380 h
1
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45
Life fraction expended, ti/tri, at 1000°F
(T+460)(logt+20)x10^-3
= 42,500 = 0.19
220,000
Figure 1. Larson-Miller Curve of Cr-Mo-V alloy steel (ASTM
A470 Class 8)
Life fraction expended, ti/tri, at 1025°F
The degree of safety margin depends on the user and what = 42,500 = 0.516
82,380
lower bound design curve is applied. Since these curves are
based upon the chemistry, variation in chemistry for a

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

The total life fraction expended is 0.71. C, and Stage D. These stages were corresponded roughly to
expended life fractures (t/tr) values of 0.27, 0.46, 0.65, 0.84 and
This rule was found to work well for small changes in stress 1 respectively using the conservative lower bound curve.
and temperature especially for CrMoV rotor steel. However, Consequently, the remaining life can be calculated using the
for stress variations, the actual rupture lives were lower than the relationship as shown in Equation (2):
predicted values. Consequently, the LFR is generally valid for tr
variable-temperature conditions as long as changing creep trem = t( − 1) (2)
mechanisms and environmental interaction do not interfere with t
test results. However, the possible effect of material ductility
on the applicability of the LFR needs to be investigated. where: t is the service life expended and tr is the rupture life.

Non-Destructive Techniques For undamaged material and damaged stages A, B and C,

the remaining life was found to be approximately 2.7t, 1.17t,
Conventional non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques fail 0.54t and 0.19t, respectively. Then by applying a safety factor
to detect incipient damage which can be a precursor to crack of 3 to the calculations, the safe re-inspection intervals will
initiation and subsequent rapid failure. However, there are become 0.9t, 0.4t, 0.18t and 0.06t respectively. This approach
other NDE techniques that have been developed for estimating has been developed and implemented in the power generation
the life consumption. These include microstructural techniques industry (Viswanathan and Gehl, 1991). It was found to give
and hardness based techniques. increased inspection intervals as compared to the Neubauer and
Wadel (1983) approach, as shown in Table 1.
Metallographic Examination
Table 1. Suggested Reinspection Intervals for a plant with 30
Metallographic techniques have been developed that can years of Service.
correlate changes in the microstructure and the onset of Inspection Interval (Years)
incipient creep damage, such as triple point cavitation at the Damage Wedel- EPRI-APTECH
grain boundaries. For this technique, measurements by Classification Neubauer
replication technique are taken on crack sensitive areas that are Undamaged 5 27
subjected to the higher temperatures and stresses. These areas A. Isolated Cavities 3 12
are generally indicated by experience and analysis of previous B. Oriented Cavities 1.5 5.4
damages. C. Linked Cavities 0.5 1.8
The creep damage measured by replication is classified (Microcracks)
into four damage stages: D. Macrocracks Repair Based on fracture
 Isolated cavities (A) Immediately mechanics
 Oriented cavities (B)
 Macrocracks (linking of cavities) (C) This approach has been applied by several utilities and realized
 Formation of macrocracks (D) significant savings in inspection costs. Other investigations
The figure 2 shows the location of the four stages on the indicate that there are wide variations in behavior due to
creep strain/exposure time curve (Neubauer and Wadel, 1983). differences in grain size, ductility and impurity control
(Carlton, et al. 1967). For conservatism, the author’s company
adapted the Neubauer, et al., approach and classified the five
stages as follows:

1) Undamaged material: Equipment can run and be re-

inspected at next shutdown.
2) Class A – Re-inspection would be 3 to 5 years.
3) Class B – Re-inspection would be 1-1/2 to 3 years.
4) Class C – Replacement or repair would be needed
within 6 months.
5) Class D – Immediate repair would be required.

Hardness Measurement
Figure 2. Replicas for Remaining Life Assessment.
The first attempt to develop hardness as a technique to
In applying this approach Neubauer, et al., classified the stages determine creep damage was by Goldhoff and Woodford
into five stages which are Undamaged, Stage A, Stage B, Stage (1972). In their study a good correlation was observed between

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

room temperature hardness measured on exposed creep Destructive Techniques
specimens and the post exposure rupture life, Figure 3.
Newer tests to ascertain the useful life of used and/or repaired
components have been utilized by the author’s company.
Design-For-Performance is a recently developed methodology
for evaluating the creep strength and fracture resistance of high
temperature materials. Whereas the traditional approach to
creep design involves long-term testing and attempts to
incorporate microstructural evolution in the test measurements,
the new approach aims to exclude these changes in a short time
high-precision test. The test may also be used to evaluate
consequences of such changes in service-exposed samples. The
new methodology recognizes that separate tests are necessary
to measure creep strength and fracture resistance. For creep
strength, a stress vs. creep rate response is determined from a
stress relaxation test (SRT) and for fracture resistance a
constant displacement rate (CDR) test of a notched temple
specimen is performed at a temperature where the part is most
vulnerable to fracture (Woodford, 1993).
Figure 3. Correlation between post-exposure rupture time in
the standard test at 538°C and 240 MPa and room temperature Constant Displacement Rate Test
hardness for Cr-Mo-V rotor steel.
A description of the standardized CDR test is found
If similar calibration could be established between prior creep elsewhere (Pope and Genyen, 1989). The data from the CDR
life expended or the remaining life fraction in the post exposure test is tabulated in a curve similar to the load displacement
test and the hardness values for a range of CrMoV steels, this curve for an ordinary elevated tensile test. For a typical tensile
method could be applied to estimation of remaining life. test fracture becomes unstable after the peak load is reached.
However, data of this nature are not available in sufficient On the other hand, in the CDR test, since the deformation is
quantity. Other work done by Viswanathan and Gehl (1992) controlled at a constant rate and the notch is midway between
showed a lot of promise where he attempted to use the hardness the controlling extensometer, fracture rarely becomes unstable.
technique as a stress indication. He observed that the For a valid CDR test, the criteria for failure was considered
application of stress accelerated the softening process and to be the value of “displacement at fracture” was defined as the
shifted the hardness to lower parameter values compared with point of intersection of the 100 pound load line and the
the case of simple thermal softening on a plot of hardness vs. a descending load displacement curve. The “displacement at
modified Larson-Miller Parameter (Figure 4). failure” is measured from the start of the test to the point where
the load displacement curve decreases below 100 pounds
(Figure 5).

Figure 4. Plot of hardness ratio vs. G parameter for long-term Figure 5. Example of Load Displacement Curve from CDR
heating and creep of Cr-Mo-V rotor steel. Tests at 1200°F and 2 mils/in/hr.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 in Figure 7 for Waspaloy material. This shows stress vs.
An example of how the environment can affect the notch predicted time to one percent creep for Waspaloy. By utilizing
sensitivity of the material is indicated by Figure 6. This this data one can plot a stress vs. Larson-Miller parameter for
example illustrates the effect of air exposure on IN738. one percent predicted creep of Waspaloy compared to rupture
data (Figure 8). From the data shown on the curve, the stress
relaxation test can generate creep-stress rupture data in less
than a few weeks as compared to traditional approach which
incorporates long time testing.

Figure 6. Constant Displacement Rate Tests Comparing Crack

Growth Resistance in Heat Treated and Oxygen Embrittled
Specimens.

Stress Relaxation Test

Figure 7. Stress vs. Predicted Times to 1% Creep for Standard
Specially designed samples for stress relaxation testing
Waspaloy.
were tested on an Instron electromechanical series 8562 test
system fitted with self-aligning grips, a 1500°C short furnace,
and a capacitive extensometer. Details of the specimen
geometry and extensometer sensitivity are provided elsewhere
(Woodford, et al. 1992).
The standard test procedure involved loading the specimen
at a fast rate of 10 MPa/sec (1,450 psi/sec) to a prescribed stress
and then switching to strain control on the specimen and
monitoring the relaxation stress. The inelastic (principally
creep) strain-rate is calculated from the following equations,
Equations (3) and (4).

Ɛe + ƐI = Ɛt = Constant (3)
1 dσ
ε ε
• •
I = − e = − (4)
E dt
where:

ε
•
Ɛe is the elastic strain, e is the elastic strain rate, ƐI is the

ε
•
inelastic strain (principally creep strain), Figure 8. Stress vs. Larson-Miller Parameter for 1% Predicted
I is the inelastic
strain rate, Ɛt is the total strain, σ is the stress, and E is the Creep of Standard Waspaloy Compared with Rupture Data.
elastic modulus measured during loading. Using this
procedure, stress vs. strain-rate curves were generated covering One major objective to this framework has been that
up to five orders of magnitude in strain-rate in a test lasting less effects of very long time exposures which could influence
than five hours. stress rupture life will not be accounted for. However,
An example of the data generated in such tests is provided Woodford believes that such effect i.e. precipitation of

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

embrittling phases and grain boundary segregation of harmful Cƒ and nƒ are constants that depend on the material and
elements are expected to influence the fracture resistance rather environment.
than creep resistance. The author’s company has utilized this
methodology to generate data for high temperature materials The stress intensity factor range ∆ K depends on the stress
and weldments. Current methods are being developed for level at the crack tip. The life assessment criteria is that critical
miniature specimens taken from serviced blades. From this crack size ac is not to be exceeded. In other words,
data, it is envisioned that establishment of a set of minimum a ≤ ac
performance criteria which will enable
repair/rejuvenation/replacement decision to be made. Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the stress intensity factor
calculation together with the crack model that was used.
CREEP/FATIGUE INTERACTION

For components that operate at higher temperature where creep

growth can occur, one must take into account of the creep crack
growth at intervals during the fatigue life of the component.
The following is an example of a high temperature steam
turbine rotor that failed catastrophically at Gallatin Power Plant
in Tennessee (Saxena, 1998). The author will utilize computer
software to demonstrate how creep-life, fatigue life and
creep/fatigue-life calculations can be performed, and how
inaccurate the calculation would be without accounting the
creep life. Figure 10. pc CRACK, LEFM Module. Stress Intensity
The Gallatin rotor was operated for 106,000 hours and had Factor Calculation.
incurred 105 cold starts and 183 hot starts. The material was 1
CR- 1 Mo – 0.25V forging and had operated at a temperature of
800°F. The cracks originated from several MnS clusters with
the original flaw size of 0.254” x 5.51” and 0.7” from the bore
of the rotor (Figure 9).

Figure 10. Computer Software Module. Stress Intensity Factor

Calculation.

Figure 9. Schematic of the intermediate pressure (IP) section

of the rotor showing the size and location of the primary and
secondary flaws beneath the seventh row (7-R) of blades.
.

Step 1. Assessment of low cycle fatigue life.

The principle is that fatigue crack growth follows equation
such as Paris Law: Figure 11. Computer Software Module - Elliptical Subsurface
da
= Cƒ ∆Knƒ (5) Cracked Plate under Membrane and Bending Stresses.
dN
By computing the information a plot of stress intensity factor

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

verses crack depth was done. Based on the plane strain fracture
toughness of the material, the critical crack size 0.42” for cold
start and 0.48” for hot start were determined, Figure 12.

Figure 14. Fatigue Crack Growth Calculation Model.

Figure 15 shows the low cycle fatigue crack growth which does
not compare very well with that of the real life.

Figure 12. Critical Crack Size Calculation: The Critical Comparison of Low Cycle Fatigue Assessment
Crack Size ac is 0.42” for Cold Start and 0.48” for Hot Start. with the Real Life
0.22
Fatigue crack growth using Paris Law was computerized,
Figure 13, Figure 14, and the low cycle fatigue crack growth
was determines for both cold and hot starts. 0.2
Crack Depth [inch]

0.18

0.16

Cold Start
0.14 Hot Start
Real Life
0.12
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Cycles

Figure 15. Shows Low Cycle Fatigue Crack Growth for Cold
and Hot Starts Compared to Real Life.

The reason for the calculated life being much longer than the
real life is that the hold time effect (or creep cracking effect) is
not taken into account. Consequently, one must run a creep-
Figure 13. Fatigue Crack Growth. fatigue remaining life assessment. The principle is that high
temperature crack propagation is the summation of high

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

temperature fatigue plus primary creep plus secondary creep.
Creep-Fatigue Crack Growth: (6)
da q C n
= C c [C t (t)] + f ( ∆ K ) f Comparation of Low Cycle Fatigue and
dt h
where:
Creep Fatigue
Creep-Fatigue Assessments with the Real Life
h is the hold time in each cycle (which is 368 hours in this
case). 0.22
The creep crack driving force is consisted of two parts:
(7) 0.2
2 / [(1 + p)(m − 1)] (1 − ν ) K n+ p+ 1

Crack Depth [inch]

2 2
1 − 2 / [(1 + p)(m − 1)] 1 p/ (p + 1)
Ct(t) = [C*] [ ] + Ch* ( ) + C*
E (n+ 1) t (n+ 1)(p + 1) t
0.18
Primary Creep Secondary Creep
0.16
The data that is inputted into the code is shown in Figure Low Cycle Fatigue
16 and Figure 17. The calculation shows that, with accounting
the creep effect, the creep-fatigue crack growth is much closer 0.14 Real Life
to the real life, Figure 18. Creep-Fatigue
0.12
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Cycles
Figure 18. Compares Low Cycle Fatigue and Creep-Fatigue
Crack Growth to the Real Crack Growth.

This example demonstrates that if the material/component

is operating in the creep mode, one must perform a creep-
fatigue analysis instead of fatigue only. Generally a rule of
thumb is that if only low cycle fatigue crack growth is counted
and creep is not, then the calculated lifetime is about 10 times
Figure 16. Creep/Fatigue Model. longer than the real life. By utilizing this software program,
more accurate remaining life assessment can be achieved for
materials operating in the creep regime under cyclic loading.
Also, the lesson being learnt is that this rotor should have been
examined by ultrasonic inspection every five years.

EMBRITTLEMENT

Trends toward increasing size and operating stresses in

components, such as large turbine-generator rotors, require
higher hardenability steels with increased strength and fracture
toughness. However, higher hardenability steels especially
those containing nickel and chromium are usually much more
susceptible to a phenomena called temper embrittlement. The
term temper embrittlement refers to a shift in the brittle-to-
ductile transition temperature when steels/rotor shafts are
heated or cooled slowly through the temperature range 660°F to
1060°F. This shift in the brittle-to-ductile transition
temperature can be reversed by heating at a temperature of
1100°F or higher then fast cooled. Consequently, when
Figure 17. Creep/Fatigue Material Data. examining rotor or casings that have been in service and
operated within this temper embrittlement temperature range,
the property toughness becomes an important criteria.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 for the rotor, one must calculate for the worst combination of
Evaluation of Toughness these variables to prevent failure.
This can be done by using lower scatter band values of KIC.
Due to the advancement of fracture mechanics, it is now However, to determine KIC for rotors, large specimens need to
become possible to characterize toughness in terms of critical be taken to satisfy the plane strain conditions required for a
flaw size ac. The definition of ac depends on the conditions valid test. A more common practice is to determine the ductile-
under which final rapid fracture occurs following the initial brittle fracture at transition temperature, FATT, using samples
phase of sub-critical crack growth. At rotor grooves and rotor extracted from the periphery of a rotor and converting the
bores where final fracture is likely to occur at low temperatures FATT into KIC using a correlation such as the one shown in
during start-stop transients, ac is dictated by linear elastic Figure 20 (Schwant and Timo, 1985).
fracture mechanics. ac is given by an expression of the form
KIC = Mσ πac (8)
where:
KIC is the fracture toughness of the material or critical stress
intensity for fracture, M is a constant to a given flaw size and
geometry and σ is the nominal applied stress.
A typical loading sequence for turbine rotors shows variation in
temperature and stress and their effect on critical flaw size ac
for cold start sequence (Viswanathan and Jaffee, 1983). Figure
19 shows the cold start sequence and associated variations in
stress (σ), temperature (T) and critical flaw size (ac) as function
of time for the Gallatin rotor which failed catastrophically.

Figure 20. Turbine Rotor and Wheel Toughness Data.

Viswanathan and Gehl (1991) evaluated a number of data from

numerous exposed CrMoV rotors and defined a lower threshold
band for low alloy steels. The lower limit line for CrMoV steel
is defined by the equation (Viswanathan and Wells, 1995)
below:
KIC = 95.042 + 0.5872 TE + 0.00168 TE2 + 0.00000163 (9)

where: KIC is expressed in ksi in and TE is the excess

temperature (T – FATT) expressed in °F. Once the FATT is
Figure 19. Illustration of cold-start sequence and associated known, a KIC verses temperature T curve can be established and
variations in stress (σ), temperature (T), and critical flaw size used to determine ac versus T.
(ac) as functions of time from start. However, such procedures tended to be conservative and
there have been various other nondestructive and relatively
The Region A consists of a warm up period after which the destructive tests involving removal of very small samples to
rotor was gradually brought up to speed (Region B). Once determine toughness of rotors. These techniques investigated
continuous operating speed was reached (Region C) include eddy-current examination, analytical electron
approximately three hours after the warm up period, maximum microscope, secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS),
loading was applied. Analysis of the failure location (7th row) compositional correlations, Auger electron spectroscopy,
showed that stresses reached a peak value of 74 ksi (520 MPa), chemical etching, use of single Charpy specimen and small
1-1/2 hours after the maximum continuous speed had been punch tests. The techniques that show the most promise and
attained. The critical crack size reached its lowest value of have currently been applied in service application are:
0.27” (6.9 mm) at temperature of 270°F (132°C) and 74 ksi  Correlation Based on Composition
(510 MPa). Since variation in temperature, stress, and material  Small Punch Testing
fracture toughness at the defect location can dictate the ac value  Chemical Etching

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 X = (10P + 5 Sb + 4 Sn + As) 102 (12)
Correlation Based on Composition
The Figure 22 and 23 show relationship between increase of
An ASTM special task force on Large Turbine Generator
Rotors of Subcommittee VI of ASTM Committee A-1 on steel FATT and J Factor and X Factor at 399°C for a 3.5 percent
has conducted a systematic study of the isothermal NiCrMoV steel.
embrittlement at 750°F of vacuum carbon deoxidized (VCD)
NiCrMoV rotor steels. Elements, such as P, Sn, As, Sb and Mo
were varied in a controlled fashion and the shifts in FATT, (∆)
FATT were measured after 10,000 hours of exposure. From
the results, the following correlations were observed in
Equation (10):
∆ FATT = 13544P + 12950 Sn + 2100 As – 93 Mo – 810,000 (PxSn) (10)

where: ∆FATT is expressed in °F and the correlation of all the

elements are expressed in weight percent. According to this
correlation, the elements P, Sn, and As increase temper
embrittlement of steels, while Mo, P and Sn interaction
decrease the temper embrittlement susceptibility.
All available 10,000 hour embrittlement data are plotted in
Figure 21 as a function of calculated ∆FATT using Equation
(10), (Newhouse, et al. 1972). A good correlation is observed
between calculated and experimental ∆FATT. The scatter for
this data is approximately ± 30°F for 750°F exposure and Figure 22. Correlation between compositional factor “J” and
±15°F for the 650°F exposure. the shift in FATT of NiCrMoV Steels following exposure at
650°F and 750°F for 8800 hours.

Figure 21. Correlation between compositional parameter “N”

and the shift in FATT of NiCrMoV steels following exposure at
650°F and 750°F for 8800 hours.
Figure 23. Relationship Between Increase of FATT and X .
Other correlations for determining the temper
embrittlement susceptibility of steel, such as the J Factor
proposed by Watanabe and Murakami (1981) and X Factor Small Punch Testing
proposed by Bruscato (1970), are widely used.
These factors are given by: Small punch testing of small disk-like specimen subjected
J = (Si + Mn) (P+Sn) 104 (11) to bending loads have found good correlation for determining
the ductile-brittle transition temperature (Baik, et al. 1983). The

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procedure consists of thin plate 0.4 x 0.4 x 0.02 inch is W = Width of grain boundary groove
subjected to a punch deformation with a 0.09 inch diameter HV = Vicker Hardness of sample/rotor.
steel ball in a specially designed specimen holder. The test is
performed at various temperatures and from the load deflector By utilizing this equation, the calculated FATT values were
curves obtained at various temperatures, the fracture energy is compared with critical FATT values and the results were very
calculated. The fracture energy is plotted as a function of test attractive (Figure 25).
temperature to determine the ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature. The area under the deflector curve denotes the
energy absorbed during the test. This test procedure has been
used successfully on a number of retired rotor samples to
determine the TSP (ductile-to-brittle transition) and found to
correlate well with the Charpy FATT values (Foulds, et al.
1991). (Figure 24).

Figure 25. Comparison Between Measured FATT and

Predicted FATT Using the Method of Etching.

HIGH TEMPERATURE CORROSION

Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) hot gas expanders operate in

environments that can be both corrosive and erosive. Although
Figure 24. Correlation Between Charpy FATT and Small it is well documented that the source of erosion comes from the
Punch Transition Temperature. regenerated catalyst that is carried with the hot flue gas from
the FCC, its effect on high temperature corrosion has only
Chemical Etching begun to be understood by the author’s company. Papers
published by the author outline the relationship of stress and
The grain boundaries of embrittled steel are attacked temperature on the high temperature corrosion/fracture
preferentially by picric acid solutions consisting of saturated mechanics of Waspaloy in various catalyst environments
picric acid solution with an addition of 1 gram of (Dowson and Rishel, 1995) (Dowson and Stinner, 2000).
tridecyl/benzene sulfonate (per 100 ml of aqueous picric acid). The nature of the corrosion attack is primarily influenced
Correlations have been made between the grain boundary by the type of crude oil stock, which in time has a bearing on
groove depth as measured metallographically even from plastic the resulting flue gas composition, regenerated catalyst and the
replicas and the ∆FATT of the sample due to prior temper nature and quality of additions injected into the FCC process.
embrittlement. By using plastic replicas this technique When evaluating remaining life assessment of hot gas
becomes very attractive for field use (Kadoya, et al. 1991). expanders especially the rotating components, one must
Also Kadoya, et al., was able to correlate the width of the consider the effect of the environment such as high temperature
grain boundary groove measured from plastic replicas using an corrosion. The author’s company has developed a fracture
SEM, with the FATT of the samples and actual rotors. They mechanics model which incorporated both the effect of oxide
also correlated the following equation based on regression wedge formation and the apparent reduction in fracture
analysis of a number of material variables. This equation was toughness of Waspaloy in contact with the catalyst residue. By
found to predict the FATT within a scatter of ±20°C. utilizing this model one can predict whether fracture will occur
FATT = 99.12W + 1.609HV + 816.4Si + 6520Mn + 3320P + under various environmental/operating conditions of the hot gas
310.4Cr + 3404Sn + 0.282J + 325.6(13) expander. The author’s company periodically tests catalysts
where: from end-users’ hot gas expanders to determine if oxide wedge
can occur and what life span to reach the critical size for
J is defined as (Si + Mn) (P + Sn) 104

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failure. Generally, if the catalyst is active, then high
Turbine Start/Stop Record
temperature corrosion will occur. Consequently, a blade will
be removed from the unit and examined metallographically to 12
determine the oxide wedge depth. Based upon the depth and 11
10
time of operation, the remaining life can be estimated, Figure
9
26. 8

Month
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
Year
Figure 27. Turbine Start/Stop Record.

During the last 23 years of operation, only two failure incidents

were recorded. The first one was a damage on the rotor, due to
condensate inlet during the startup of the turbine in late 1980's.
The other was found in the latest turnaround in 2004, in which
a blade failure and multiple cracks at steam balance holes were
found on 6th stage disc that was subject to repair. The casing
never experienced any problem in the past. During the
turnaround in 1995, a remaining life assessment was performed
Figure 26. Stress intensity profile vs. oxide wedge depth for and the casing was found to be in a very good condition, as
unit A. Critical oxide wedge depth for failure was defined as shown in Figure 30. The turbine component materials are listed
ac. In the failed blade, a2 was found to exceed ac. In an intact in Table 3.
blade, a1 was less than ac.
Table 3. Turbine Component Materials.
CASE STUDY 1 – REMAINING LIFE ASSESSMENT OF Steam-End Rotor Blades Diaphragms
STEAM TURBINE CASING Casing Forging
1.25Cr-0.5Mo Ni-Mo-V AISI 403 Alloy steel plate
Background Information of the Turbines alloy steel alloy stainless ASTM A517 Grade
casting, steel, steel for all F & A516 Grade 60
The subject ethylene plant has three steam turbines that drive ASTM A217 ASTM stages for 2nd to 5th stages.
three trains of compressors on the main deck. The units are Grade WC6 A470 Gray cast iron
listed in the following. The three turbines were commissioned (limited to Class 4 ASTM A278 Class
in August 1981. They've been using the same steam source and 950°F 40 for 6th & 7th
are operated in similar conditions (as summarized in Table 2). service) stages.
This case study only discusses the remaining life assessment of
one of them, a seven-stage 14 MW steam turbine.
Field Inspection
Table 2. Turbine Operating Conditions.
Designed Conditions Actual Conditions The turbine upper casing was visually examined. No cracks or
Temperature, °F Inlet Inlet Inlet reportable indications were found. The split-line bolt-holes
(°C) Pressure, Temperature Pressure, were examined with dye-penetrant inspection, which did not
Inlet 1st Stage psig , °F (°C) psig reveal any cracks. The casing was polished at six different spots
Disk (kg/cm2g) (kg/cm2g) shown in Figure 28. The microstructure was observed with a
806 692 (367) 696 (48.9) 797 (425) 710 (50) portable optical microscope, and replicated for documentation
(430) (Figure 29). Microstructure deteriorations, such as carbide
precipitation at grain boundaries and bainite degradation, were
According to the plant logbook, in the past 23 years, the turbine evident. However, the casing did not show any creep voids at
was started/stopped 24 times, which are plotted in Figure 27. any of the spots being examined. Hardness was measured at the

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same spots and the results are listed in Table 4. Table 4. Casing Hardness was Consistent from Spot to Spot.
Brinell Hardness [HB] (converted from
Spo Equotip data)
t 1st 2nd 3rd Averag
ID# Readin Readin Readin e
g g g
A 152 150 155 152
B 151 151 156 153
C 154 151 153 153
D 159 158 159 159
E E 137 141 140 139
(D) F 154 154 154 154
C
Cut-off Microstructure Deterioration of the Casings Material
Sample
In order to study the microstructure deterioration, a fragment of
the sample being cut-off from the casing was reheat treated to
restore the original microstructure for comparison. The reheat
B treatment was done in two steps: normalized at 1685°F (918°C)
for 1 hour and controlled air-cool, then tempered at 1250°F
(677°C) for 2 hrs and air-cool. The controlled air-cool from
austenite temperature was to obtain a similar percentage ratio of
proeutectoid ferrite and bainite as of the original heat treatment.
A F Assuming the casting was 2–3/4 inch (70 mm) thick, a cooling
rate of 54°F per minute (30°C/m) was employed and the
Figure 28. The turbine casing and the replication/cut-off resulted ferrite/bainite ratio simulated the original heat
locations. F represented the hottest spot, while E represented treatment very well.
the coolest spot. D was at the transition radius of steam chest to The reheat treated and service-exposed samples were mounted
casing barrel, which was invisible from this photo. and polished and examined with optical and scanning electronic
microscopes (SEM). Their hardness was also measured. The
findings are summarized in the following.
• Comparing with the restored microstructure,
the service-exposed samples showed
profound carbide precipitation at grain
boundaries and the extent of the precipitation
increased with increasing the service
exposure time (Figure 30).
• Service-exposed samples also showed carbide
precipitation inside the proeutectoid ferrite
phase.
• Evidence of microstructure degradation of the
bainite phase was noticed in the service-
exposed sample, due to the transformation of
cementite (M3C) into different carbides (M2C
& M7C3).
• No creep voids were found in either sample.
0.0025 inch • Hardness was measured as HRB 91 (HB 160)
for service-exposed sample and HRB 93.5
(HB 169) for reheat treated sample,
indicating a slight hardness decrease after a
Figure 29. Micrograph of a replica taken from spot D. long-term exposure at elevated temperature.
Carbides precipitated and partially networked at grain
boundaries. However, no creep voids were observed there. 5%
Nital etched.

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 Discussion & Conclusions

Turbine casings usually are normalized and tempered after

being cast. This heat treatment leads to a desirable combination
of strength/hardness and toughness/ductility for the casing
material, 1.25Cr-0.5Mo alloy steel in this case. It also gives an
excellent thermal stability for the casings. The typical
treatment process contains normalizing at 1685°F (918°C)
followed by air-cool then tempering at 1250°F (693°C)
followed by air-cool.
The microstructure after the heat treatment consists of
proeutectoid ferrite plus bainite. Bainite is a metastable
aggregate of ferrite and cementite, which may degrade after
long-term exposure at elevated temperature. The degradation
was observed as a transformation of cementite (M3C) into M2C
and M7C3 carbides (Biss and Wada, 1985). This transformation
will lead to less carbides (in volume percentage) and coarser
carbide particles, which will result in lower strength and
hardness, which may reduce fatigue and rupture strengths of the
material.
0.0005 inch Carbon will also diffuse along the grain boundaries and into the
Service Exposed, 23 Years proeutectoid ferrite phase to form carbides. Carbides at grain
boundaries, especially in networked form, are considered
detrimental because they can result in embrittlement and reduce
rupture ductility of the material. Another grain boundary
damage that is also related to long-term diffusion but was not
seen in this case is creep voids. Creep voids are considered as a
higher-degree of microstructure damage than the carbide
precipitation, and a warning sign of component remaining life.
In the subject turbine casing, no creep voids were evident yet,
so the microstructure deterioration was considered moderate
and not immediately harmful to the casing life. It was
concluded that the casing could be safely used for the following
service period (about 5 years). However, the microstructure
deterioration imposed a concern of the integrity of the casing
material and consequent potential risks on the creep strength
and rupture ductility of the casings. It was reported that 1.25Cr-
0.5Mo low alloy steel could lose its rupture ductility after long-
term exposure at elevated temperature (Demirkol, 1999). This
behavior is so called Rupture Ductility Trough, which is related
to carbides precipitation and may occur before creep voids are
developed.
Therefore, in addition to continually monitoring the
0.0005 microstructure with non-destructive replica techniques in next
turnaround, the authors’ company suggested the ethylene plant
Reheat Treated to conduct a Level III Remaining Life Assessment, which
requires destructive material tests, in order to evaluate the
extent of damage on creep strength and rupture ductility of the
Figure 30. The service-exposed sample(Top) showed partially casing material. The material tests mainly consist of SRT
networked carbides at grain boundaries and degradation in (stress relaxation test) and CDR (constant displacement rate)
bainite (dark phase), comparing with the reheat treated test, which are described in previous section. These two
(restored) microstructure. It can also be seen that carbides mechanical testings can supply information that microstructure
precipitated inside the proeutectoid ferrite (white phase) in examination (replica) cannot.
service-exposed condition. 5% Nital etched.

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CASE STUDY 2 – REMAINING LIFE ASSESSMENT OF Ni-Mo-V turbine rotor steel is approximately 25HRC
STEAM TURBINE ROTOR maximum. This represents a relatively small hardness
decrease considering the rotor’s long-term exposure at
Background elevated temperatures. However a decrease in hardness
indicates that the creep strength of the material has
The author’s company was asked by the end user to assist them deteriorated.
in the assessment of the remaining life of a 44 MW H.P. steam
turbine. The objective of the assessment was to propose
recommendations on the steam turbine’s rotor reuse and long
term serviceability. This was a Westinghouse steam turbine
that has operated for 50+ years at inlet conditions 950FTT and
1250 PSIG. Two replicas 180° apart at the
last stage disk of the rotor on
the downstream face. Two
Field Inspection of HP Rotor replicas total.

The rotor was NDE (Non-Destructive Examination) inspected,

using a liquid fluorescent inspection method, which revealed no
obvious indications. During the course of the NDE inspection
the blades were not removed. Therefore no comment was made
regarding the service condition of the disk roots on the rotor.
A borosonic inspection inside of the shaft bore was performed
which revealed two significantly large indications. Both these
indications were machined out and the follow up borosonic
inspection confirmed that both had been removed.
The rotor was polished at higher (inlet) and lower (exhaust)
temperature locations (Figure 31). Each location was etched
and replications were taken to observe the rotor’s
microstructure under an optical microscope (Figures 32-35).
Microstructural deteriorations, such as carbide precipitation at Two replicas 180° apart at the
curtis disk on both upstream
grain boundaries and bainite degradation, were evident. and downstream face of the
However, the rotor did not show any creep voids at any of the disk. Four replicas total.
locations being examined. Positive Material Identification
(PMI) analysis indicated that the material was a Ni-Mo-V
turbine rotor steel (ASTM A470 Cl. 4).

Microstructure Deterioration of the HP Rotor Material

 Metallurgical examination of the rotor’s microstructure

revealed evidence of degradation of the bainite phase of
the material due to its long service at approximately 950°F.
 Evidence of microstructure degradation of the bainite
phase was observed in the replicas, due to the
transformation of cementite (M3C) into different carbides
(M2C and M7C3).
 Microstructural degradation was significantly less at the
last stage due to much lower operating temperatures at this Two replicas 180° apart at
location. the balance drum on
downstream face of the
 The microstructural degradation is best illustrated by balance drum. Two
comparing virgin rotor steel with the replicas from the in replicas total.
service steel (Figures 36).
 No creep voids were evident.
 Hardness measurements taken at the inlet and exhaust
areas of the rotor were found to be approximately 22 HRC
respectively. The expected hardness value of non-service Figure 31. Areas of Metallographic Replication

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Figure 32. Metallographic Replica, on the Downstream Face of
Figure 35. Metallographic Replica, on the Downstream Face of
the balance drum, Showing Slight Bainite Degradation Due to
the Last Stage Disk, Showing Less Degradation When
Prolonged High Temperature Service. Etched in 5% Nital.
Compared to the High Temperature Locations. Etched in 5%
200X
Nital. 200X

Figure 33. Metallographic Replica, on the Upstream Face of

the Curtis Disk, Showing Slight Bainite Degradation Due to
Prolonged High Temperature Service. Etched in 5% Nital.
200X

Figure 36. Comparing virgin Ni-Mo-V rotor steel (top) and the
Figure 34. Metallographic Replica, on the Downstream Face of replica of the upstream face of the curtis disk taken from the
the Curtis Disk, Showing Slight Bainite Degradation Due to service rotor steel. The degradation of the bainite phase is
Prolonged High Temperature Service. Etched in 5% Nital. observed due to the transformation of cementite (M3C) into
200X different carbides (M2C and M7C3).

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Discussion and Conclusions
a) Catalyst Corrosion Testing
Metallurgical examination of the rotor’s microstructure
revealed evidence of degradation of the bainite phase of the In the present investigation a number of tests were done at
material due to its long service at approximately 950°F. Bainite stress levels of 75 ksi and at a temperature of 1350°F. Results
is a metastable aggregate of ferrite and cementite, which may varied with some bars failing before 5 hrs while others did not.
degrade after long-term exposure at elevated temperatures. The Four Waspaloy rupture specimens W1-W4 were tested. Two
degradation was observed as a transformation of cementite failed while the other two did not (Table 5).
(M3C) into M2C and M7C3 carbides. This transformation leads
to less carbides and coarser carbide particles, and results with Table 5. Results of Catalyst Corrosion Testing
lower strength and hardness, and reduces the ductility of the Specimen Catalyst Load Temp. Duration Status Failure Failure Fracture Corrosion
material.
Carbon will also diffuse along the grain boundaries and ID (Mpa) (°C) (hours) Location Mode Morphology Wedge
into the proeutectoid ferrite phase to form carbides. Carbides at
grain boundaries, especially in networked form, are considered corrosion
W1 C1 (V-17) 482.6 700 0.67 Failed notch intergranular Yes
detrimental because they can result in embrittlement and reduce - rupture
rupture ductility of the material. Air 482.6 100 Intact No
Another grain boundary damage mechanism that is also related C3 (V-17) 482.6 30 Intact No
W2 700
to long-term diffusion but was not seen in this case are creep corrosion
C5 (V-66) 482.6 0.12 Failed notch intergranular Yes
voids. Creep voids are considered a higher degree of - rupture
microstructure damage than carbide precipitation, and a 593 5 Intact No
This specimen was sectioned for
warning sign of reduced component remaining life. In the HP W3 C5 (V-66) 482.6 700 5 Intact No
evaluation
rotor, no creep voids were evident yet, so the microstructure 700 24 Intact No
deterioration was considered moderate and not immediately 18 Intact
harmful to the rotor life. It is concluded that, with respect to C6 (V-66) 17.5 Intact
This specimen was not sectioned for
creep damage, the rotor is in undamaged (no creep voids) W4 482.6 700 6.5 Intact
condition. It is recommended the rotor’s microstructure be re- evaluation
C5 (V-17) 23 Intact
evaluated after 5 years. C3 (V-17) 21 Intact

CASE STUDY 3 – REMAINING LIFE ASSESSMENT OF Both W1 & W2 fractures were examined using a scanning
HOT GAS EXPANDER DISK AND BLADES electron microscope (SEM) and the morphology was found to
be intergranular for both fractures (Figures 37-39). Corrosion
A life assessment was performed on a TH140 power recovery wedges were found on the surface at the notch of both
unit for both the disk and rotating Waspaloy blades. The unit specimens (Figure 40).
had been in continuous operation for 10 yrs, accumulating
approximately 85,000 hrs. The operational data revealed that
the unit has run with a inlet temperature of 1296°F with only
one afterburn where the temperature reached 1476°F for 3 days.
This life assessment consisted of:

a) Testing of modified stress rupture specimens in the pressure

of FCC unit catalyst in order to determine if the species trapped
in the catalyst were hazardous to the expander disk and blades.
b) Corrosion testing
c) Perform microstructural evaluation of both the disk and
blades root locations using replication technique
d) Hardness reading at both blade and disk root at both inlet
and exhaust faces.
e) Two blades were destructively tested to perform stress
rupture, stress relaxation testing, constant displacement rate
testing and evaluate evidence of high temperature corrosion
attack. One of the blades was resolutioned and aged so that the
results could be compared against the blade in the serviced
condition. The blades removed from the disk were the original Figure 37. of Specimen W2
blades and had seen approximately 85,000 hrs.

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Figure 38. SEM of Specimen W2 with dominant intergranular
feature
Figure 40. Cross-section of specimen Note the sulfidation
corrosion wedges found on the notch surfaces where the stress
was concentrated.

SEM/EDS indicated that the corrosion product was sulfide.

This sulfide evidence is a strong indication of high temperature
sulfidation corrosion. Figure 41 shows setup for catalyst test.

Figure 41. Setup of Stress-Rupture Rig for Catalyst Testing

Figure 39. Cross-section of the fracture of specimen W2. Since the results were inconclusive that the spent catalyst was
Intergranular secondary cracks, located near the center of axis, contaminated further destructive tests were performed in the
were evident. blades such as SRT and CDR.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

b) Corrosion Testing Hardness readings were taken on both the inlet and exhaust
faces of the disk root (Table 6). The hardness readings were
The depth of the corrosion product was measured by taking consistent at all locations on both faces of the disk and met the
cross-sectional samples along the top inside radius of the blade requirements of the authors’ Waspaloy material specification.
root. The five samples were mounted and polished for This evidence indicates that the disk material had not been
examination under an optical microscope. Corrosion wedges, exposed to excessive heat during operation.
as seen in Figure 42 were found along this inside radius. The
deepest corrosion wedge found at any location along this inside Table 6. Average Hardness Values at Examined Disk Locations
radius is shown in Figure 42, and depth of the corrosion wedge Inlet Face Exhaust Face
is 0.0043 inches (4.3 mils).

Tip of Disk 37.7 HRC 38.2 HRC

Surface
Corrosion Root
Product
Base of Disk 39.4 HRC 40.9 HRC
Root

Disk Body 39.8 HRC 40.1 HRC

d) Microstructural Evaluation

Replicas of the microstructure of the disk were taken from

Subsurface
Corrosion
disk root locations shown in Figure 43 and subsequently
Wedge examined by an optical microscope. The replicas were a rubber
like resin substance attached to backing paper. The
microstructures of the replicas and are consistent at all locations
Base Metal
on both the inlet and exhaust faces of the disk. The average
grain size at all locations on the disk is ASTM 5.5 and
Figure 42. Photomicrograph of deepest corrosion wedge found conforms to the requirements of the authors’ Waspaloy material
in the blade root specification. This is further evidence that the disk material was
not exposed to excessive heat during operation. The
Using a Scanning Electron Microscope (EDS), Energy microstructure indicated there was not evidence of creep
Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) was performed on the damage as there were no voids at the grain boundary triple
corrosion product. The results of the EDS analysis indicate that points (Figures 44-46).
the corrosion product on the surface of the Waspaloy is Nickel
Oxide and Nickel Sulfide while the subsurface corrosion
product is Chromium Oxide and Chromium Sulfide. These
corrosion products are common in Nickel-based alloys which
are under stress in environments containing both Oxygen and
Sulfur.
The rate controlling operation in the high temperature corrosion
process on the disk roots is the diffusion of ions through the
oxide layer that has formed. When diffusion is the rate
controlling step, the depth of the corrosion wedge will increase
at a parabolic rate determined by the equation below.

Equation: X2 = [ kp * t ] / 2

In this equation, X is the depth of the corrosion wedge, t is the

time, and kp is the parabolic rate constant. Knowing the
maximum corrosion wedge depth is 4.3 mils after Figure 43. Diagram illustrating the locations of the disk from
approximately 85,000 hours of operation, the constant kp for which replicas were taken. Areas were examined on both the
this equation is 4.35 x 10-4 mils2/hour. inlet and exhaust faces of the disk

c) Hardness Testing

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 e) Blade Examination

Two of the Waspaloy blades that had seen 85,000 hrs were
taken out of service for destructive testing. One of the blades
was resolution treated and aged in accordance to the authors’
Waspaloy heat treatment procedure and sectioned for
mechanical and metallurgical examination. The other blade
referred to “as service condition” was tested in a similar
manner to the reheat treated blade.
Sections from the root of the “as service condition blade”
and the “reheat treated blade” were sectioned and polished for
examination under an optical microscope. Photomicrographs of
the microstructure of these blade roots are shown in Figures 47
& 48. The photomicrographs show that the average grain size
of both blade roots is ASTM 4 which is slightly larger than the
average grain size of the disk, however, this grain size still
Figure 44. Inlet Face – Tip of Disk Root. meets the authors’ material specification requirements. Again,
Photomicrograph taken from Replica no evidence of creep damage or exposure to temperatures
beyond the designed service temperature could be found.

Figure 45. Exhaust Face – Tip of Disk Root.

Photomicrograph taken from Replica
Figure 47. Photomicrograph of Service Condition Blade Root

Figure 46. Inlet and Exhaust Face.

Photomicrograph taken from Replica.
Figure 48. Photomicrograph of Re-Heat Treated Blade Root

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

There is a slight difference between the grain boundaries of the Table 7. Stress Rupture Testing Results
as-serviced blade and the re-heat treated blade under higher
Stress Rupture Testing
magnification. The grain boundaries of the service condition
1350°F at 75,000 psi stress
blade, shown in the photomicrograph in Figure 49, reveal that
Time to % Fracture
the grain boundaries are not completely discrete at all locations.
Fracture Elongation Location
There is also evidence that carbides are precipitating at the
Service 40.44 23% Smooth
grain boundaries. These observations are illustrated by
Condition hours
comparison to the microstructure of the re-heat treated blade,
Blade
which is shown in the photomicrograph in Figure 50. The grain
Reheat 70.34 9% Smooth
boundaries of the re-heat treated blade are more discrete and
Treated hours
there are fewer precipitates present at the grain boundary
Blade
locations.

Stress Relaxation Testing (SRT) and Constant Displacement

Rate Testing (CDR)

The traditional approach to creep design involves long time

testing and incorporates microstructural evolution in the test
measurements. Stress relaxation tests (SRT) and constant
displacement rate (CDR) tests can be used to evaluate these
microstructural changes in samples which have been exposed to
service conditions. For determination of the creep strength in a
short time testing, a stress vs. creep rate response is determined
from an SRT test and the fracture resistance can be determined
from a CDR test.
Figure 49. Photomicrograph of Grain Boundary on Service
Creep Strength Evaluation
Condition Blade Root
As previously mentioned, the creep rate data can be determined
from an SRT test. A strain is placed on the specimen and is
held constant, and the stress in the specimen relaxes as the
elastic strain is replaced by inelastic creep strain. At a constant
strain, the creep rate of the sample is equal to the total strain
minus the elastic strain. The stress vs. time response during
relaxation may be differentiated and divided by the elastic
modulus to give the creep rate, which can then be plotted
against the stress. By comparison to standard results, changes
in state induced by heat treatments or service exposure can be
evaluated.

Fracture Resistance Evaluation

CDR testing may be used as a means to accelerate the

development of notch sensitivity found in long time creep
Figure 50. Photomicrograph of Grain Boundary on Re-Heat rupture testing of notched samples. The CDR testing of a
Treated Blade notched sample can be used for fracture resistance evaluation in
this short time test at temperatures and strain rates where the
Stress Rupture Testing alloy is most vulnerable to fracture. The constant displacement
rate across the notch ensures that once a crack initiates, the
Stress rupture testing was performed on samples taken from crack will grow under control until a critical crack length for
service condition blades as well as the reheat treated blade root. brittle fracture is exceeded. The displacement at the time of
The stress rupture bars were standard smooth/notch bars in failure and the extent of unloading at failure provide measures
accordance with ASTM E292 specimen #4. The results of the of the fracture resistance of the alloy.
stress rupture testing are shown in Table 7.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

Experimental Procedure and Results required to induce 1% creep on the material was calculated.
Using the estimated times for 1% creep, a Larson-Miller
Standard tensile specimens taken from both the service parameter curve was constructed. This curve is shown in
condition blade and the re-heat treated blade were taken. The Figure 51. The Larson-Miller curves again demonstrate the
SRT test specimens had a 1 inch gauge length and were 0.160 slight reduction in creep strength of the service-condition
inches in diameter. The CDR test specimens had the same material in comparison to the re-heat treated material for the
dimensions with a 60° notch in the center of the gauge length. 600°C and 700°C samples.
The test matrix is given below. Samples tested under similar
conditions, such as SRT 1 and SRT 4, were taken from
identical locations in both the service condition blade and the
re-heat treated blade (Table 8).

Table 8
Service Condition Blade
SRT 1 SRT from 0.4% total strain and 1.3% total strain
at 600°C
SRT 2 SRT from 0.4% total strain and 1.3% total strain
at 700°C
SRT 3 SRT from 0.4% total strain and 1.3% total strain
at 800°C
CDR1 600°C
CDR 2 650°C

Re-Heat Treated Blade

Figure 51. Stress vs. Larson Miller Parameter for 1% Creep of
SRT 4 SRT from 0.4% total strain and 1.3% total strain
Service Condition Blade and Re-Heat Treated Blade
at 600°C
SRT 5 SRT from 0.4% total strain and 1.3% total strain Figure 52 gives a comparison of the creep rate curves at various
at 700°C stresses for both the re-heat treated material and the service
SRT 6 SRT from 0.4% total strain and 1.3% total strain condition material against standard Waspaloy samples. As seen
at 800°C in Figure 52, although the creep rate curves of the service
CDR 3 600°C condition material is lower than that of the re-heat treated
CDR 4 650°C material, the creep rate curves of the service condition material
is approximately the same as the standard Waspaloy samples at
The strain levels of 0.4% total strain and 1.4% total strain were 600°C and 700°C and even higher than the standard samples at
selected to so that the SRT tests would be conducted just 800°C.
beyond the elastic limit of the material and at a plastic strain of
1%. This testing produces comparative relaxation data for the
unrestrained condition at 0.4% total strain and a comparison
basis with long time creep data to 1% creep strain at 1.4% total
strain.
The test procedure involved loading the SRT tests to the
prescribed strain levels and holding at that strain for 20 hours at
temperature. During the holding time, the stress relaxes as the
elastic strain is replaced with inelastic creep strain. After
holding for 20 hours, the stress on the samples was reduced to
approximately 1.5 ksi and held constant for 2 hours while the
samples contracted due to recoverable time-dependant anelastic
strain. The stress at various times during the relaxation of the
samples was recorded.
Using the elastic modulus of the material which was
measured during the loading of the test, the stress vs. time
response was fitted with a fourth order polynomial which was
differentiated to convert to a stress vs. creep rate curve. The Figure 52. log Stress vs. Creep Rate Curves Comparing the
data obtained from this testing covers approximately five Service Condition Blade and the Re-Heat Treated Blade with
decades of time. From the stress vs. creep rate curves, the time Standard Waspaloy Samples

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 rupture data from the service condition material and can be
The test procedure for the CDR specimens involved used to determine the remaining stress rupture life of disk.
heating the samples to 600°C and 650°C because Waspaloy The SRT testing of the service condition material was
material displays a ductility minimum at these temperatures. A performed at 600°C, 700°C and 800°C, yielding Stress vs.
constant displacement rate of 7x10-5 mm*sec-1 was then Predicted Time to 1% Creep data at these three temperatures.
applied. The displacement across the notch at the time of The average inlet temperature of the unit was reported to be
fracture and the amount of unloading before the fracture both 1297°F (702°C). Using the SRT data for the service condition
give a measurement of the fracture resistance of the material. material at 700°C in Figure 23 along with a very conservative
Stress readings were taken at 1 second intervals for these tests, value for the mean stress at the disk root, the disk will reach 1%
and the amount of unloading recorded is a measure of the crack creep after 3x106 hours of operation. This disk has currently
size prior to fast fracture. The results of this testing for both the experienced 85,000 hours of operation, which is only 3% of the
re-heat treated samples and the service condition samples are 1% rupture life. Since this calculation was based on the inlet
given in Figure 53. temperature of the unit, the time to 1% creep is an extremely
conservative value because the disk root will be exposed to
lower temperatures than the inlet temperature.
Only one significant afterburn was reported by the
customer, where the inlet temperature of the expander reached
1467°F (797°C) for 3 days. By using the Stress vs. Time to 1%
Creep data in Figure 21 for the service condition material tested
at 800°C and using the same conservative mean stress value at
the disk root, a time of 2,340 hours is necessary before the disk
experiences 1% creep deformation. The disk may have seen
this temperature for up to 72 hours, which equals 3% of the 1%
rupture life under these conditions. Again, this is a very
conservative value since the expander disk root will be exposed
to a lower temperature than the inlet temperature. By using the
Life Fraction Rule which states the fraction of the remaining
rupture life used up under various conditions may be added up
to determine to total amount of rupture life that has been
expended, a total of 6% of the 1% creep rupture life of the disk
has been used.

Conclusions & Recommendations

Examination of the disk microstructure taken from replicas

Figure 53. CDR Results at 600°C and 650°C for Service reveal a consistent grain size between the disk roots and the
Condition Blade and Re-Heat Treated Blade body of the disk on both the inlet and exhaust faces. No
evidence of creep damage or exposure to temperatures beyond
It is clear from the results in Figure 27 that the re-heat treated the service temperature could be found. The hardness at all
material has significantly greater notch displacement at the time locations was also consistent which provides further proof that
of fracture than the service condition material at both testing the disk was not exposed to excessive temperatures.
temperatures. The re-heat treated material also demonstrated a Two blades were taken from the unit for further
much greater amount of unloading at 650°C than the service examination and destructive testing, and one of these blades
condition material. The notch displacements of the re-heated was re-solution treated and aged before testing. A comparison
material were comparable to standard Waspaloy samples. of the microstructures between the blades shows a less discrete
Although the service condition material has less notch ductility grain boundary of the service condition blade as well as
than the re-heat treated material, stress rupture testing indicated possible evidence of precipitates forming at the grain
that the service condition material is not notch sensitive as the boundaries. The re-heat treated blade had a longer time to
stress rupture sample fractured in the smooth location. rupture than the service condition blade during stress rupture
testing, however, both blades meet the stress rupture
Remaining Rupture Life requirements of Elliott MS-487A and both samples fractured in
the smooth location.
From the data generated during the Stress Relaxation
Testing, a graph of Stress vs. Time to 1% Creep was obtained Stress Relaxation Testing (SRT) showed that there has
and is displayed in Figure 23. This graph provides stress been a slight reduction in the creep strength in the service

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

condition blade in comparison to the re-heat treated blade. The
creep strength of the service condition blade still compares well
to standard Waspaloy SRT samples tested under the same
conditions at the service temperature of the unit. Constant
Displacement Rate (CDR) testing reveals that the service
condition blade does display a reduction in notch ductility in
comparison to the re-heat treated blade, however the stress
rupture test indicated that the material was not severely notch
sensitive due to the failure occurring in the smooth section of
the specimen.
Stress rupture testing in the presence of catalyst provided
showed that the Waspaloy was not subject to corrosive attack
by any impurities in the catalyst during the test.
Cross-sectional samples taken from the inside radius of the
top blade root of the service condition blade revealed that a
sulfide corrosion wedge had formed. This corrosion wedge had
a depth of 0.0043 inches, and fracture mechanics performed on
the blade root show that this corrosion wedge will not reach a
critical depth of 0.150 inches during the life of unit if
conditions remain constant.
The conclusion from the remaining life assessment testing
is that the disk is suitable for future service under the current
operation conditions of the unit. The current condition of the
disk does not indicate a significant reduction in the creep
strength of the material or any significant changes to the
microstructure.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

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