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Extracted from Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation

Author Tony R. Kuphaldt – under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License
R e l a y control systems

The word “discrete” means individual or distinct. In engineering, a “discrete” variable or

measurement refers to a true-or-false condition. Thus, a discrete control system is one designed
to operate on Boolean (“on” or “off”) signals supplied by discrete sensors such as process switches.
A form of discrete control taught in every introductory course on digital electronics involves the
use of circuits called logic gates. These circuits input one or more Boolean signals, and output a
Boolean signal according to a simple rule such as “ A N D ” or “OR”:

AND OR XOR
A B Output A B Output A B Output
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

NAND NOR XNOR

A B Output A B Output A B Output
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

Industrial control systems rarely utilize logic gates in a direct fashion for discrete control
systems, although the fundamental concepts of “AND,” “OR,” and other gate types are universally
applied. Instead, control functions are either implemented using electromechanical relays and/or

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750 C H A P T E R 11. R E L A Y C O N T R O L S Y S T E M S

with programmable digital devices such as P L C s (Programmable Logic Controllers). This chapter
focuses on the practical use of both technologies for industrial discrete control.

An “ A N D ” function is equivalent to series-connected normally-open contacts in a relay control

circuit, because the lamp will energize only if switch A and switch B are actuated:

Voltage source

−
+
A
C A B C
B
logic gate
switch switch
lamp

An “ O R ” function is equivalent to parallel-connected normally-open contacts in a relay control

circuit, because the lamp will energize if switch A or switch B is actuated:

Voltage source

−
+
A C
A
C
B switch
lamp
logic gate
B

switch

The “ N O T ” function is equivalent to a single normally-closed contact in a relay control circuit,

because the lamp will energize only if the switch is not actuated:

Voltage source
−
+

A B A B
logic gate
switch
lamp

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11.1. C O N T R O L R E L A Y S 751

11.1 C o nt ro l relays
An electromechanical relay is an electrical switch actuated by an electromagnet coil. As switching
devices, they exhibit simple “on” and “off” behavior with no intermediate states. Relays are very
useful devices, as they allow a single discrete (on/off) electrical signal to control much greater levels
of electrical power, and/or multiple power or control signals that are otherwise isolated from each
other. For example, a relay may be controlled by a low-voltage, low-current signal that passes
through a delicate switch of some sort (e.g. limit switch, proximity switch, optical sensor), and then
the switching contacts of that relay may be used to control a much higher-voltage, higher-current
circuit, and even multiple circuits given multiple sets of switching contacts.
The electronic schematic symbol for a simple single-pole, single-throw ( S P S T ) relay is shown
here:

SPST relay
(NO contact)

A coil of wire wrapped around a laminated ferrous core provides the magnetic field necessary to
actuate the switch mechanism. This electromagnet coil’s actuating influence on the relay’s contact(s)
is represented by the dashed line. This particular relay is equipped with normally open (NO) switch
contacts, which means the switch will be in the open (off) state when the relay coil is de-energized.
Recall from section 9.1 that the “normal” status of a switch is the resting condition of no stimulation.
A relay switch contact will be in its “normal” status when its coil is not energized. A single-pole,
single-throw relay with a normally-closed ( N C ) switch contact would be represented in an electronic
schematic like this:

SPST relay
(NC contact)

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752 C H A P T E R 11. R E L A Y C O N T R O L S Y S T E M S

In the electrical control world, the labels “Form-A” and “Form-B” are synonymous with
“normally open” and “normally closed” contacts, respectively. Thus, we could have labeled the
S P S T relay contacts as “Form-A” and “Form-B,” respectively:

SPST relay SPST relay

(Form A contact) (Form B contact)

An extension of this theme is the single-pole, double-throw ( S P D T ) relay contact, otherwise

known as a “Form-C” contact. This design of switch provides both a normally-open and normally-
closed contact set in one unit, actuated by the electromagnet coil:

SPDT relay
(Form C contact)

A further extension on this theme is the double-pole, double-throw ( D P D T ) relay contact. This
design of switch provides two sets of Form-C contacts in one unit, simultaneously actuated by the
electromagnet coil:

DPDT relay

D P D T relays are some of the most common found in industry, due to their versatility. Each Form-
C contact set offers a choice of either normally-open or normally-closed contacts, and the two

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sets (two “poles”) are electrically isolated from each other so they may be used in different circuits.
A common package for industrial relays is the so-called ice cube relay, named for its clear plastic
case allowing inspection of the working elements. These relays plug into multi-pin base sockets for
easy removal and replacement in case of failure. A D P D T “ice cube” relay is shown in the following
photographs, ready to be plugged into its base (left) and with the plastic cover removed to expose
both sets of Form-C contacts (right):

These relays connect to the socket with eight pins: three for each of the two Form-C contact set,
plus two more pins for the coil connections. Due to the pin count (8), this style of relay base is often
referred to as an octal base.

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754 C H A P T E R 11. R E L A Y C O N T R O L S Y S T E M S

A closer view of one Form-C contact shows how the moving metal “leaf” contacts one of two
stationary points, the actual point of contact being made by a silver-coated “button” at the end of
the leaf. The following photographs show one Form-C contact in both positions:

Industrial control relays usually have connection diagrams drawn somewhere on the outer shell
to indicate which pins connect to which elements inside the relay. The style of these diagrams may
vary somewhat, even between relays of identical function. Take for instance the diagrams shown
here, photographed on three different brands of D P D T relay:

Bear in mind that these three relays are identical in their essential function ( D P D T switching),
despite differences in physical size and contact ratings (voltage and current capacities). Only two
of the three diagrams shown use the same symbols to represent contacts, and all three use unique
symbols to represent the coil.

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11.2 R e l a y circuits
Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as
logic elements much like digital gates (A ND, O R , etc.). A very common form of schematic diagram
showing the interconnection of relays to perform these functions is called a ladder diagram. In a
“ladder” diagram, the two poles of the power source are drawn as vertical rails of a ladder, with
horizontal “rungs” showing the switch contacts, relay contacts, relay coils, and final control elements
(lamps, solenoid coils, motors) drawn in between the power rails.
Ladder diagrams differ from regular schematic diagrams of the sort common to electronics
technicians primarily in the strict orientation of the wiring: vertical power “rails” and horizontal
control “rungs.” Symbols also differ a bit from common electronics notation: relay coils are drawn
as circles, with relay contacts drawn in a way resembling capacitors:

Ladder diagram symbols

NO relay contact NC relay contact Relay coil

Indicator lamp Heating element Solenoid coil

NO pushbutton switch NC pushbutton switch

Electric motor
(3-phase)

motor
Overload heater Fuse

Unlike schematic diagrams where the association between relay coils and relay contacts is
represented by dashed lines, ladder diagrams associate coils and contacts by label. Sometimes you
will find relay contacts labeled identically to the coil (e.g. coil labeled C R 5 and all contacts for that
relay also labeled C R 5 ) while other times you will find suffix numbers used to distinguish individual
contacts within each relay from each other (e.g. coil labeled C R 5 and its three contacts labeled CR5-
1, CR5-2, and CR5-3).
Another notable convention in relay circuits and their ladder diagrams is that each and every
wire in the circuit is labeled with a number corresponding to common connection points. That is,
wires connected together always bear the same number: the common number designates a condition
of electrical commonality (all points bearing the same number are equipotential to each other).
Wire numbers only change when the connection passes through a switch or other device capable of
dropping voltage.

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756 C H A P T E R 11. R E L A Y C O N T R O L S Y S T E M S

An actual ladder diagram of a relay-based motor control system is shown here, complete with
red-line edits showing modifications to the circuit made by an industrial electrician:

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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of relay control circuits for students to grasp is the meaning
of normal as it applies to the status of relay contacts. As discussed previously, the word “normal”
in this context – whether it be the status of hand switches, process switches, or the switch contacts
inside control relays – means “in a condition of rest” or no stimulation. In other words, a “normally-
open” relay contact is open when the relay coil is unpowered and closed when the relay coil is
powered. Likewise, a “normally-closed” relay contact is closed when the relay coil is unpowered and
open when the relay coil is powered.
To illustrate this concept, let us examine a relay control circuit where a pressure switch activates
an alarm light:

L1 L2
Pressure switch
Trip = 50 PSI CR1

CR1-1 Alarm lamp

Here, both the pressure switch and the relay contact (CR1-1) are drawn as normally-closed
switch contacts. This means the pressure switch contact will be closed when the applied pressure is
less than its trip point (50 PSI), and the relay switch contact will be closed when the relay coil is de-
energized.

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758 C H A P T E R 11. R E L A Y C O N T R O L S Y S T E M S

When analyzing the operation of a relay control system, it is helpful to have some way to
temporarily denote the conductive status of switch contacts and the energization status of relay
coils (i.e. a notation we might sketch using pencil on a diagram to help us follow the operation of
the circuit). A symbology I recommend is the use of arrow and “ X ” symbols to represent power flow
and no power flow (respectively). These symbols clearly denote component status while avoiding
confusion with the symbols used to denote normal status of switch contacts1.
In this next diagram, we assume the applied pressure is less than 50 PSI, leaving the pressure
switch in its “normal” (closed) state:

L1 L2
Pressure < 50 PSI
Pressure switch
Trip = 50 PSI CR1
(Relay coil
energized)

CR1-1 Alarm lamp

(Alarm lamp
de-energized)

Since the pressure is insufficient to actuate the pressure switch, its contact remains in the
“normal” state (closed). This sends power to relay coil CR1, thus actuating contact CR1-1 and
holding it in the open state. With CR1-1 contact open, the alarm lamp receives no power. In this
example we see the pressure switch in its “normal” state but the relay in the actuated state.

1 A n unfortunately common tendency among novices is to sketch slash marks through relay contact symbols in

order to show when they happen to be closed. T h is is a very bad habit, and should be discouraged at all times!
Diagonal lines drawn through a contact symbol are supposed to denote the contact to be normally-closed, not closed :
it shows that a switch contact will be in the closed (conducting) state when it is at rest. What we actually need is
a different kind of symbol to show when a contact is closed during any arbitrary condition we may imagine. When
someone uses this same symbology to denote a contact that happens to be closed during some condition, it needlessly
confuses the concepts of closed versus normally-closed.

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11.2. R E L A Y C I R C U I T S 759

Using arrow and “ X ” symbols again to represent the presence or absence of power in this circuit,
we will now analyze its status with an applied switch pressure greater than 50 PSI:

L1 L2
Pressure > 50 PSI
Pressure switch
Trip = 50 PSI CR1
(Relay coil
de-energized)

CR1-1 Alarm lamp

(Alarm lamp
energized)

Now that there is sufficient fluid pressure applied to the switch to actuate it, its contact is forced
into the actuated state which for this “normally-closed” switch is open. This open condition de-
energizes relay coil CR1, allowing relay contact CR1-1 to spring-return to its normal status (closed),
thus sending power to the alarm lamp. From this analysis we see that the lamp fulfills the function
of a high pressure alarm, energizing when the applied pressure exceeds the trip point.

Where students typically find themselves confused is assuming the switch contact will be in the
same state it is drawn in. This is not necessarily true. The way switch contacts are drawn merely
reflects their normal status as defined by the switch manufacturer, which means the status of the
switch when there is no (or insufficient) actuating stimulus present. Whether or not the switch
will actually be in its normal state at any given time is a question of whether or not a sufficient
stimulus is present to actuate that switch. Just because a switch is drawn normally-closed does not
necessarily mean it will be closed when you go to analyze it. All it means is that the switch will be
closed when nothing actuates it.

This exact same principle applies to relay ladder-logic programming in electronic control systems
called P L C s (Programmable Logic Controllers). In a P L C , a digital microprocessor performs the
logic functions traditionally provided by electromechanical relays, with the programming for this
microprocessor taking the form of a relay diagram (also called a “ladder-logic” diagram).

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760 C H A P T E R 11. R E L A Y C O N T R O L S Y S T E M S

Here, we will emulate the exact same high-pressure alarm circuit using an Allen-Bradley
MicroLogix 1000 P L C instead of a relay coil:

W i r i n g d iagram:

PLC input terminals

Pressure switch
Trip = 50 PSI 24V DC I/0 I/1 I/2 I/3 DC I/4 I/5
COM COM
DC OUT

Power
Run Allen-Bradley
Fault MicroLogix 1000
Force PLC

85-264 VAC

VAC VAC VAC VAC

L1 L2/N O/0 O/1 O/2 O/3
VDC VDC VDC VDC

PLC output terminals

Alarm lamp
L1

L2

Lad d er -logic p rogram:

Suppose a fluid pressure of 36 P S I is applied to the pressure switch. This is less than the switch’s
trip setting of 50 PSI, leaving the switch in its “normal” (closed) state. This sends power to input
I : 0 / 2 of the P L C . The contact labeled I : 0 / 2 drawn in the ladder-logic program of the P L C acts like
a relay contact driven by a coil energized by input terminal I : 0 / 2 . Thus, the closed pressure switch

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11.2. R E L AY C I R C UI T S 761

contact energizes input terminal I : 0 / 2 , which in turn “closes” the normally-open contact symbol
I : 0 / 2 drawn in the ladder-logic program. This “virtual” contact sends virtual power to a virtual coil
labeled B3:0/0, which is nothing more than a single bit of data in the P L C ’ s microprocessor memory.
“Energizing” this virtual coil has the effect of “actuating” any contact drawn in the program bearing
the same label. This means the normally-closed contact B3:0/0 will now be “actuated” and thus
in the open state, not sending virtual power to the output coil O:0/1. With virtual coil O:0/1
“unpowered,” the real-life output O:0/1 on the P L C will be electrically open, and the alarm lamp
will be unpowered (off).
If we apply a fluid pressure of 61 P S I to the pressure switch, the normally-closed pressure switch
contact will be actuated (forced) into the open state. This will have the effect of de-energizing P L C
input I : 0 / 2 , thus “opening” the normally-open virtual contact in the P L C program bearing the
same label. This “open” virtual contact interrupts virtual power to the virtual coil B3:0/0, causing
the normally-closed virtual contact B3:0/0 to “close,” sending virtual power to virtual coil O:0/1.
When this virtual output coil “energizes,” the real-life output channel of the P L C activates, sending
real power to the alarm light to turn it on, signaling a high-pressure alarm condition.
We may simplify this P L C program further by eliminating the virtual control relay B3:0/0 and
simply having input I : 0 / 2 activate output O:0/1 through a “normally-closed” virtual contact:

The effect is the same: the P L C output O:0/1 will activate whenever input I : 0 / 2 de-energizes
(whenever the pressure switch is opened by a high pressure), turning on the alarm lamp in a high-
pressure condition. In a low-pressure condition, the energized input I : 0 / 2 forces the virtual
normally-closed contact I : 0 / 2 to open, thus de-energizing the P L C ’ s output O:0/1 and turning the
alarm lamp off.

Programmable Logic Controllers have not only greatly simplified the wiring of industrial logic
controls by replacing multitudes of electromechanical relays with a microprocessor, but they have
also added advanced capabilities such as counters, timers, sequencers, mathematical functions,
communications, and of course the ability to easily modify the control logic through programming
rather than by re-wiring relays. The beauty of ladder-logic programming is that it translates the
technician’s understanding of traditional relay control circuits into a virtual form where contacts
and coils interact to perform practical control functions. A key concept to master, however, is the
association of real-life conditions to switch status based on the “normal” representation of those
switch contacts, whether the switches be real (relay) or virtual ( P L C ) . Once this vital concept is

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mastered, both hard-wired relay control circuits and P L C programs become possible to understand.
Without mastering this vital concept, neither relay control circuits nor P L C programs may be
understood.

11.3 Interposing relays

In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as
interposing devices between mismatched sensors, controllers, and/or control devices. A very simple
example of a relay used to interpose between mismatched devices is shown in the following circuit
diagram, where a delicate toggle switch is used to control a bank of high-power lights for an off-road
vehicle:

30 amp fuse

Dashboard
High-power lights
toggle switch
1 amp fuse

12 V
battery Vehicle chassis
SPST relay
ground
(NO contact)
Vehicle chassis
ground
Vehicle chassis
ground

In this circuit the relay performs no logic function whatsoever. Rather, it merely “amplifies” the
signal sent by the dashboard toggle switch to send or halt power to the bank of high-power lights.
Without the relay, a much heavier-duty toggle switch would have to be installed in the dashboard
of this vehicle to safely and reliably make and break the light circuit.
Another example of an interposing relay found in automotive applications is the use of a
“solenoid” in the electric starting motor circuit for an internal combustion engine. The “start”
control switch is typically actuated by the driver turning a key, that switch mounted on the steering
column or dashboard of the vehicle. The starting motor, meanwhile, typically draws hundreds of
amps of current as it labors to start up the engine. A keyswitch capable of making and breaking
hundreds of amps of current would be enormous, and in fact dangerous to locate in the cab of the
vehicle. The “solenoid” relay connected between the keyswitch and the starting motor relocates that
danger, and allows a relatively delicate keyswitch to safely activate the high-power motor.

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11.3. I N T E R P O S I N G R E L AY S 763

An industrial example of an interposing relay between mismatched devices is shown here, where
a D C output proximity switch must trigger an input channel to a Programmable Logic Controller
( P L C ) rated for 120 volts A C :

PLC input terminals

Commutating
diode

24V DAC
C I/0 I/1 I/2 I/3 DAC
C I/4 I/5
COM COM
DC OUT

"Sinking" proximity switch SPST relay

+V (NO contact) Power
Brn
Run Allen-Bradley
Output Fault MicroLogix 1000
Blk
+ 24VDC Force PLC
Sensor − power source
circuit 85-264 VAC

Ground L1 L2/N
VAC VAC VAC VAC
VDC O/0 VDC O/1 VDC O/2 VDC O/3
Blu

To 120 VAC
power source

Again, the relay in this system performs no logic function, but merely allows the proximity
switch to drive one of the P L C input channels. Directly connecting the proximity switch to one of
the input channels of the P L C is not a practical option, because this particular P L C input requires
120 volts A C to activate, and our proximity switch operates on 24 volts D C . The mismatch between
switch voltage and P L C input voltage requires us to use the relay to “interpose” between the switch
and P L C . When the proximity switch senses an object nearby, its output activates, which in turn
energizes the relay coil. When the relay contact magnetically closes, it completes a circuit for 120
volts A C to reach input channel 0 on the P L C , thereby energizing it.

An important detail in this relay circuit is the inclusion of a commutating diode in parallel with
the relay coil, the purpose being to dissipate the coil’s stored energy upon de-energization when the
proximity switch turns off. Without this diode in place, the coil’s “kickback” voltage (which may
reach hundreds of volts in potential) will destroy the proximity switch’s output transistor.
Note how this commutating diode appears to be connected “backwards” with regard to the
polarity of the 24 volt D C power source: cathode toward the source’s positive pole and anode
toward the source’s negative pole. This is intentional, as we do not wish to have the diode conduct
when power is applied to the relay coil through the proximity switch2. The diode only turns on
when the polarity reverses, which is what happens when the proximity switch turns off and the
relay coil’s magnetic field collapses (now acting as a source rather than as a load). As the relay coil
2 If
the diode were connected the other way, it would pass current whenever the proximity switch turned on, shorting
past the relay coil and most likely damaging the proximity switch in doing so!

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temporarily outputs a “reverse” voltage, the diode gives that coil a continuous path for its current
while dropping a low voltage (about 0.7 volts D C ) , dissipating the coil’s stored energy in the form
of heat at the diode.

Interposing relays are also used to connected mismatched P L C outputs and control devices. In
this application, the mismatch may be in terms of voltage ratings and/or current ratings. As with
the input interposing circuit shown previously, the task of the relay in an output interposing circuit
is to be controlled by the P L C ’ s output channel, and in turn direct power to a field device that is
itself incompatible with the P L C ’ s output.
The following diagram shows an example of an interposing relay connected to a P L C output
channel:

24V DAC
C I/0 I/1 I/2 I/3 DAC
C I/4 I/5
Three-phase
DC OUT
COM COM contactor

Power
Run Allen-Bradley
Fault MicroLogix 1000 120 VAC

Force PLC coil

PLC output terminals

85-264 VAC
DC (sourcing) DC
VAC VAC VAC VAC
L1 L2/N VDC O/0 VDC O/1 24V+
VDC O/2 O/3
VDC O/34 O/5 24V-

24VDC +
power source −

SPST relay
To 120 VAC Commutating
diode (NO contact)
power source

In this circuit the P L C ’ s transistor outputs can only handle 24 volts D C , and at fairly low
current. The three-phase contactor3 coil requires 120 volts A C at modest current levels to function,
and so the relay interposes between the P L C ’ s low-voltage and low-current output channel and the
relatively high-voltage and high-current demands of the contactor’s coil. Once again we see the use
of a commutating diode to dissipate the relay coil’s stored energy whenever the P L C de-energizes
it, so that the resulting “kickback” voltage does not damage the fragile transistor output circuitry
within the P L C .

3 A “contactor” is nothing more than a very large electromechanical relay, and itself is a form of interposing device.

Its purpose is to make and break three-phase A C power to a heavy load (e.g. an electric motor) at the command of
a much smaller electrical signal, in this case a 120 volt A C signal sent to the coil of the contactor.

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11.4 R e v i e w of fundamental principles

Shown here is a partial listing of principles applied in the subject matter of this chapter, given for
the purpose of expanding the reader’s view of this chapter’s concepts and of their general inter-
relationships with concepts elsewhere in the book. Your abilities as a problem-solver and as a life-
long learner will be greatly enhanced by mastering the applications of these principles to a wide
variety of topics, the more varied the better.

• Amp lification : the control of a relatively large signal by a relatively small signal. Relevant
to the role of relays as interposing devices.

• Interposing: the use of a relay as an intermediary between electrically incompatible devices.

• “ N o r m a l ” switch status: the “normal” status of a switch contact as defined by the

manufacturer is its resting condition (minimum stimulus).
• “ S e a l - in ” circuit: when an electrical relay uses one of its own switch contacts to continue
its own coil energization after the initial triggering event has passed. Relevant to all manner
of relay control circuits.

References
Summers, Wilford I. and Croft, Terrell, American Electrician’s Handbook, Eleventh Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N Y , 1987.

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