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Chapter 2

2. The Radar equation

2.1 Simple form of Radar Equation
Assume the power density of a wave incident on a target located at range R away from the radar
is PDi, the amount of reflected power from the target is
𝑷𝒓 = 𝝈 𝑷𝑫𝒊
When radar transmitting power (Pt) is radiated using a non-directional antenna, the power density
at range R from the antenna is
𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝐷𝑖 ∝
4 𝜋𝑅 2
If the antenna has directivity and the transmitting antenna has gain Gt in some direction, the
power density is
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝑃𝐷𝑖 ∝
4 𝜋𝑅 2
If the target is within range in that direction, the radiated power is
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝑃𝑟 = 𝝈 𝑷𝑫𝒊 = 𝝈
4 𝜋𝑅 2
Where, σ is the effective reflection area of the target in the radar direction.
The reflected radio wave returns to the radar receiving antenna with the following power density
𝑷 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝜎 1
𝑷𝑫𝒓 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝒓 𝟐 = 𝑥
4 𝜋𝑅 2 4 𝜋𝑅 2
And when the effective reflection area of the receiver is Ar the reflection wave power Pr received
by the radar receiving antenna is given by the following equation
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝜎
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑥𝐴
(4 𝜋𝑅 2 )2 𝑟
On the other hand, when the wave length of the transmitting radio waves is 𝜆,the relation between
antenna effective area and antenna gain is given by the following equation
4𝜋𝐴𝑟
𝐺𝑟 =
𝜆2
Hence
𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝐴𝑟 =
4𝜋

Therefore,

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𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 𝜎
𝑃𝑟 =
(4𝜋)3 𝑅4
And when the transmitting antenna is also used as the receiving antenna, then above equation is
rewritten as the following equation.

𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 2 . 𝜆2 𝜎
𝑃𝑟 =
(4𝜋)3 𝑅4

Figure: Simple form of Radar equation.

When the range from the radar increases, and reflected received power Pr becomes smaller than
S min (Minimum detectable Signal, MDS) targets cannot see any more. when the maximum
detection range at this point is defined as Rmax, above equation becomes

𝟒 𝑷 𝑮 𝑮 𝝀𝟐 𝝈
𝒕 𝒕 𝒓
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √
(𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏
This is the simple form of radar equation, transmitting power Pt, antenna gain Gt and Gr, the
wave length of transmission radio waves λ are specific to radars and already known. Therefore,
if the effective reflection area σ and the minimum detectable signal Smin are known for the radar
in use (i.e. is the minimum signal that radar receiver can sense), then the maximum detection
range Rmax of that radar can be obtained.

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2.2 Prediction of range performance

The simple form of radar equation is derived from under the ideal condition of radio wave
propagation, power attenuation in propagation must also be compensated for by considering
these factors, a more precise maximum detection range using the radar equation can be predicted.
The Practical radar equation is given by the following equation;

4 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 𝜎
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
(4 𝜋)3(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵𝐹𝑛 𝐿𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

4 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 𝜎
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
(4 𝜋)3 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Where
Smin = KT0 B Fn (𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑚𝑖𝑛 , And Radar Maximum range also depends up on
𝑐
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑥𝑃𝑅𝐹
Where Gt= Gr (Due to same radar antenna is used for both Transmitter and Receiver)
Lsystem =L0 . La . Lb. Lc . Lt . Lr . Ln . Lother
Rmax : Maximum range with fixed detection (m)
Pt : Peak Transmission Power (W)
Gt, Gr : Antenna gain (ratio)
λ : Free Space wave length (m)
σ : Effective reflection area of target (m2)
Smin : Minimum Detectable Signal.
2.3 Minimum Detectable Signal
Reflected signal Pr decreases in inverse proportion to the forth power of the range. The minimum
received power that the radar receiver can “sense” is referred as Minimum Detectable Signal
(MDS) and is denoted by Smin. given the MDS, the maximum detection range can be obtained.

The minimum value of Pr which can be detected as signals from noise is the minimum detection

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signal Smin.

Pr (Smin) ≥ Receiver Sensitivity.

Therefore, Smin is determined by the ratio between signal power and noise power in receiver
output.

Receiver noise factor F is defined by the followings equation

𝑆𝑖
( )
𝑁𝑖
𝐹= 𝑆0
( )
𝑁0

Where:
Average receiver input signal power is Si
Average receiver noise power is Ni
Average receiver output signal power is S0
Average receiver output noise power is N0
If the receiver frequency bandwidth is B (Hz), the average receiver input noise power Ni is
approximately KT0 B (Watt).
Therefore, Above equation becomes
𝑆
(𝐾𝑇𝑖 𝐵 )
0
𝐹=
𝑆
(𝑁0 )
0

Si = kT0 B F (𝑵𝑺𝟎 )
𝟎

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The minimum of Si is Smin, and therefore

𝑺
Smin = KT0 B F (𝑵𝟎 )min
𝟎

As understood from equation above, the minimum detection signal is proportional to the
frequency bandwidth of receivers. namely receiver sensitivity reduces in proportion to receiver
bandwidth. Therefore, the frequency bandwidth should be the minimum bandwidth necessary to
pass signals. This corresponds to signal spectrum. Hence, (S0/N0)min expresses the minimum S/N
ratio to detect signals from noise energies with the same Frequency components as those
involved in signal energies. where:
S/Nmin = Minimum signal-to-noise ratio needed to process (vice just detect) a signal
F = Noise figure/factor
k = Boltzmann's Constant = 1.38 x 10-23 Joule/K
To = Absolute temperature of the receiver input (Kelvin) = 290K
B = Receiver Bandwidth (Hz)
Example:
INPUTS: Bandwidth = 10000 Hz, Noise Figure = 15.1 dB
OUTPUT: MDS = -118.9 dBm
Minimum Detectable Signal Equation
We know that sensitivity of the RF receiver is the minimum signal strength that can be detected
and the transmitted signal can be reproduced. MDS is another term to represent the same thing.
Following equation or formula is used for MDS (Minimum Detectable Signal) calculator.

2.4 Receiver Noise

Noise is a random, usually unwanted signal.

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The noise of a system or network can be defined in three different but related ways:
1. Noise factor (Fn),
2. Noise figure (NF) and
3. Thermal Noise.
These properties are definable as a simple ratio, decibel ratio or temperature, respectively.
2.4.1 Noise Factor
The Noise Factor (Fn), of a device specifies how much additional noise the device will contribute to the
noise already from the source. The noise factor at a specified input frequency, is defined as the ratio of

When 𝑁𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, From the above expression, it can be seen that Gain (G) is directly
proportional to available output Noise power so, if we increase Gain, found increase of available
Noise power (N0).
The noise factor is expressed as a dimensionless ratio.
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐹𝑛 =
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
2.4.2 Noise Figure
Noise Figure (NF) is the Noise factor converted to (dB). It is a measure of degradation of the
signal to noise ratio (SNR), caused by components in the RF signal chain, for a given bandwidth.
It is the increase in noise power of a device from the input to the output that is greater that the
signal gain. In effect, it is the amount of decrease of the signal-to-noise ratio. Like gain, noise

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figure can be expressed either as a ratio or in decibels. A noise figure of a modern receiver is in
technical data sheets generally expressed in decibels, with a typical value between 8 and 10 dB.
We may also think of noise figure as the factor by which a receiver degrades the signal-to-noise
ratio of a signal passing through it.
2.4.3 Thermal Noise
In practice the received signal is corrupted (Distorted from the ideal shape and amplitude) by
thermal noise, interference and clutter. Typical return trace appears as follows:

Threshold detection is commonly used. If the return is greater than the detection threshold a
target a target is declared. A is a false alarm: the noise is greater than the threshold level but there
is no target. B is Miss: a target is present but the return is not detected. Consider a receiver at the
standard temperature, T0 degree Kelvin (K) Over a range of frequencies of bandwidth Bn (Hz)
the available noise power is
𝑁0 = 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵𝑛
Where;

k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38·10-23 Joules/K)

Bn is the bandwidth in Hertz and
T0 is the temperature in Kelvin

The minimum input noise power is at the absolute temperature T0=0°K. At normal operating
temperature (T = 290°K), kT0 is about 4·10-21 Watts/Hz.
2.5 Signal to Noise Ratio
Consider the presence of noise, the important parameter for detection is the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR),
We have;

Si = kT0 B F (𝑵𝑺𝟎 ) and

𝟎

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𝑺𝟎𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 2 . 𝜆2 𝜎
𝑃𝑟 = k𝑇0 𝐵𝑛 𝐹𝑛 ( ) =
𝑵𝟎 (4𝜋)3 𝑅4
𝑆0 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 𝜎𝐺𝑝
=
𝑁0 (4𝜋)3 𝑅4 𝐾𝑇𝐹𝑛 𝐵𝑛 𝐿
Factors have been added for Processing Gain Gp and Loss L. Most radar are designed to that Bn
≈ 1/τ, at this point we will consider only two noise sources:
1. Background noise collected by the antenna (TA)
2. Total effect of all other system Components (Te)
Then System Noise Temperature;
Ts =TA+ Te
The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) in a receiver is the signal power in the receiver divided by the
mean noise power of the receiver. All receivers require the signal to exceed the noise by some
amount. Usually if the signal power is less than or just equals the noise power it is not detectable.
For a signal to be detected, the signal energy plus the noise energy must exceed some threshold
value.
Therefore, just because N is in the denominator doesn't mean it can be increased to lower the
MOS (Minimum operational Sensitivity). S/N is a required minimum ratio, if N is increased,
then S must also be increased to maintain that threshold.
The threshold value is chosen high enough above the mean noise level so that the probability of
random noise peaks exceeding the threshold, and causing false alarms, is acceptably low.
Figure below, shows the concept of required S/N. It can be seen that the signal at time A exceeds
the S/N ratio and indicates a false alarm or target. The signal at time B is just at the threshold,
and the signal at time C is clearly below it. In the sample, if the temperature is taken as room
temperature (To = 290K), the noise power input is -114 dBm for a one MHz bandwidth.
Normally (S/N) min may be set higher than S/N shown in Figure below to meet false alarm
specifications.

Figure; Setting of Exact S/N ratio (Detection Threshold).

The acceptable minimum Signal-to-Noise ratio (or think of it as Signal above Noise) for a

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receiver depends on the intended use of the receiver. For instance, a receiver that had to detect a
single radar pulse would probably need a higher minimum S/N than a receiver that could
integrate a large number of radar pulses (increasing the total signal energy) for detection with
the same probability of false alarms.
S/N EXAMPLE
If we are given that the desired probability of detecting a single pulse (Pd) is 98%, and
we want the false alarm rate (Pn) to be no more than 10-3, then we can see that S/N must
be 12 dB (see Figure below).

Figure. Monograph of Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio as a Function of Probability of Detection

(Pd) and Probability of False Alarm Rate (Pn)
Thus, (S0/N0) min is the minimum S/N ratio necessary for receivers output. It therefore varies
depending on detection probability Pd and false alarm probability Pn. To detect signal from
noise, the signal power above a certain level is extracted as target signal. The noise above that
threshold level may be misjudged as signals. therefore, lowering this threshold level too much
increases the false-alarm probability Pn. on the other hand, increasing this threshold level too
much decreases the signal detection probability Pd in which the signals just-above level is
detected.
2.6 Integration of Radar pulses
The reason behind to integrate a large number of radar pulses (increasing the total signal energy)
for detection with the same probability of false alarms. A pulse integrator is an improvement
technique to address gains in probability of detection by using multiple transmit pulses. This
gain will be achieved by inserted in receiving path radar signal processor adding radar returns
(thus the word integrator) from different successive pulse periods. Depending on location of the
pulse integrator in the signal processing chain this process is referred to as
1. Coherent integration, or

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2. Non-coherent integration
Coherent Integration
With coherent integration, we insert a coherent integrator, or signal processor, between the
matched filter and amplitude detector as shown in Figure below. The signal processor samples
the return from each transmit pulse at a spacing equal to the range resolution of the radar set
and adds the returns from N pulses. After it accumulates the N pulse sum it performs the
amplitude detection and threshold check.

Thus, for example, if we were interested in a range of 75 Km and had a range resolution of 150 m
the signal processor would form 75,000/150 or 500 samples for each pulse. The signal processor
would then accumulate (add) each of the 500 samples in 500 summers. After the signal
processor, has summed the first N pulses it would begin dropping older pulses off of the
accumulator as new pulses arrive. Thus, the signal processor will add the returns from the most
recent N pulses.
So, coherent integration (pre-detection): performed before the envelope detector (phase
information must be available). Coherent pulses must be transmitted. The SNR increases as N.
Non-Coherent Integration
The Non-Coherent Integrator is placed after the amplitude or square law detector as shown in
Figure below. The name non-coherent integration derives from the fact that, since the signal has
undergone amplitude or square law detection, the phase information is lost. The non-coherent
integrator operates in the same fashion as the coherent integrator in that it sums the returns from
N pulses before performing the threshold check.

So, coherent integration (post-detection integration): performed after the envelop detector. The

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magnitudes of the returns from all pulses are added. SNR increase approximately as √N. Figure
below indicates that received video can be clearly seen as implementation of Radar pulse
integrator.

Figure: An Integration Improvement an example of processing gain.

Range Resolution
The target resolution of a radar is its ability to distinguish between targets that are very close in
either range or bearing. Weapons-control radar, which requires great precision, should be able
to distinguish between targets that are only yards apart. Search radar is usually less precise and
only distinguishes between targets that are hundreds of yards or even miles apart. Resolution is
usually divided into two categories;
1. Range resolution and
2. Bearing resolution.
Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish between two or more targets on
the same bearing but at different ranges. The degree of range resolution depends on the width of
the transmitted pulse, the types and sizes of targets, and the efficiency of the receiver and
indicator. Pulse width is the primary factor in range resolution.
A well-designed radar system, with all other factors at maximum efficiency, should be able to
distinguish targets separated by one-half the pulse width time τ. Therefore, the theoretical range
resolution cell of a radar system can be calculated from the following equation:
𝐶0 𝜏
𝑆𝑟 ≥
2
The following figures show the range resolution for a pulse with of one microsecond. If the
spacing between two aircrafts is too small, then the radar “see” only one target as shown in
Figure below. According to formula written above minimum spacing between target not less
than 150 m for radar pulse width τ= 1μs.

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Figure: Animation: One target includes two aims

And now the other example when the spacing is large enough:

Figure: Animation: two aims and two targets

2.7 Radar cross section of targets
Radar cross section (RCS) is a hypothetical area, that would intercept the incident power at the
target, which if scattered isotropic ally, that would produce same echo power at the radar, as the
actual target and RCS is also measure of how detectable an object is with radar. A larger RCS
indicates that an object is more easily detected. When radar waves are beamed at a target, only a
certain amount is reflected back.

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Figure: Radar Cross Section (RCS or 𝜎)

Electromagnetic waves, with any specified polarization, are normally diffracted or scattered in
all directions when incident on a target. These scattered waves are broken down into two parts.
The first part is made of waves that have the same polarization as the receiving antenna. The
other portion of the scattered waves will have a different polarization to which the receiving
antenna does not respond. The two polarizations are orthogonal and are referred to as the
Principle Polarization (PP) and Orthogonal Polarization (OP), respectively. The intensity of the
backscattered energy that has the same polarization as the radar’s receiving antenna is used to
define the target RCS.
The size and ability of a target to reflect radar energy can be summarized into a single term, σ,
known as the radar cross-section, which has units of m².
The target radar cross sectional area depends of:
1. The airplane’s physical geometry and exterior features,
2. The direction of the illuminating radar,
3. The radar transmitters frequency,
4. The used material types.
2.7.1 Calculation of radar cross section;
Radar cross section (RCS) is the measure of a target's ability to reflect radar signals in the
direction of the radar receiver, i.e. it is a measure of the ratio of backscatter density in the
direction of the radar (from the target) to the power density that is intercepted by the target. Since
the power is distributed on the shape of a sphere, a small part of this (4πr2) can be received by
the radar.
Radar cross section σ is as defined as:
Assume the power density of a wave incident on a target located at range R away from the radar
is PDi, the amount of reflected power from the target is
𝑷𝒓 = 𝝈 𝑷𝑫𝒊……………….1

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σ denotes the target cross section. Define PDr as the power density of the scattered waves at the
receiving antenna. It follows that
𝑷
𝑷𝑫𝒓 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝒓 𝟐……………….2
Equating Eqs. (1) and (2) yields
𝑷𝒓 𝝈 𝑷𝑫𝒊
𝑷𝑫𝒓 = 𝟐
=
𝟒𝝅𝑹 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐
σ = 4 π R2 [ PDr / PDi] ……….3
and in order to ensure that the radar receiving antenna is in the far field (i.e., scattered waves
received by the antenna are planar), Eq. (3) is modified
𝑃𝐷𝑟
𝜎 = 4 𝜋𝑅 2 lim ⌈ ⌉
𝑅→∞ 𝑃𝐷𝑖
2.8 Transmitter Power
2.8.1 Peak- and Average Power
The useful power of the transmitter is that contained in the radiated pulses and is called the PEAK
POWER of the system. Power is normally measured as an average value over a relatively long
period of time. Because the radar transmitter is resting for a time that is long with respect to the
operating time, the average power delivered during one cycle of operation is relatively low
compared with the peak power available during the pulse time.
A definite relationship exists between the average power dissipated over an extended period of
time and the peak power developed during the pulse time. The PULSE REPETITION TIME, or
the overall time of one cycle of operation, is the reciprocal of the pulse repetition rate (PRR).
Other factors remaining constant, the longer the pulse length, the higher will be the average
power; the longer the pulse repetition time, the lower will be the average power.
𝜏 𝜏
𝑃𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 . 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ(𝜏) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑅𝑇 (𝑇)
𝑇 𝑇

Figure: Relationship of peak and average power

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Figure: Duty cycle, peak- and average power

For a radar having a pulse length of 2 microseconds and a pulse repetition rate (PRF)of 500
cycles per second (pulse repetition time = 2,000 microseconds), the
𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ (𝜏) 2𝜇𝑠
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑇) = 2000𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐=0.0001

Likewise, the ratio between the average power and peak power may be expressed in terms of the
duty cycle.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
In the foregoing example assume that the peak power is 200 kilowatts. Therefore, for a period
of 2 microseconds a peak power of 200 kilowatts is supplied to the antenna, while for the
remaining 1998 microseconds the transmitter output is zero. Because average power is equal to
peak power times the duty cycle,
Average power = 200 kw x 0.001 = 0.2 kilowatt
High peak power is desirable in order to produce a strong echo over the maximum range of the
equipment. Low average power enables the transmitter tubes and circuit components to be made
smaller and more compact. Thus, it is advantageous to have a low duty cycle. The peak power
that can be developed is dependent upon the interrelation between peak and average power, pulse
length, and pulse repetition time, or duty cycle.
2.8.2 Duty cycle
The product of pulse width (pw) and pulse-repetition frequency (prf) in the above formula is
called the duty cycle of a radar system. Duty cycle is the fraction of time that a system is in an
“active” state. In particular, it is used in the following contexts: Duty cycle is the proportion of
time during which a component, device, or system is operated. Suppose a transmitter operates
for 1 microsecond, and is shut off for 99 microseconds, then is run for 1 microsecond again, and
so on. The transmitter runs for one out of 100 microseconds, or 1/100 of the time, and its duty
cycle is therefore 1/100, or 1 percent. The duty cycle is used to calculate both the peak power
and average power of a radar system.
2.9 Pulse repetition frequency and range ambiguities
2.9.1 Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

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The Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) of the radar system is the number of pulses that are
transmitted per second (Unit in Hz).
Radar systems radiate each pulse at the carrier frequency during transmit time (or Pulse Width
PW), wait for returning echoes during listening or rest time, and then radiate the next pulse, as
shown in the figure. The time between the beginning of one pulse and the start of the next pulse
is called pulse-repetition time (PRT or PRI, Unit in Sec) and is equal to the reciprocal of PRF as
follows:
1
PRT =
𝑃𝑅𝐹

Figure: Radar pulse relationships

If the distance to a target is to be determined by measuring the time required for one pulse to
travel to the target and return as a reflected echo, it is necessary that this cycle be completed
before the pulse immediately following is transmitted. This is the reason why the transmitted
pulses must be separated by relatively long non-transmitting time periods. Otherwise,
transmission would occur during reception of the reflected echo of the preceding pulse. Using
the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving, the relatively weak reflected echo would
be blocked by the relatively strong transmitted pulse.
With the antenna being rotated, the beam of energy strikes a target for a relatively short time.
During this time, a sufficient number of pulses must be transmitted in order to receive sufficient
echoes to produce the necessary indication on the radarscope. With the antenna rotating at 15
revolutions per minute, a radar set having a PRR of 800 pulses per second will produce
approximately 9 pulses for each degree of antenna rotation. The PERSISTENCE of the radar
scope, i.e., a measure of the time it retains images of echoes, and the rotational speed of the
antenna, therefore, determine the lowest PRR that can be used.
𝑃𝑅𝐹 𝑥 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 =
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒
Note: This equation is elaborated at the end of this chapter.
Pulse Length (Width)
Pulse length is defined as the duration of the transmitted radar pulse and is usually measured in
microseconds. The minimum range at which a target can be detected is determined largely by

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the pulse length. If a target is so close to the transmitter that the echo is returned to the receiver
before the transmission stops, the reception of the echo, obviously, will be masked by the
transmitted pulse. For example, a radar set having a pulse length of 1 microsecond will have a
minimum range of 150 meter or 164 yards. This means that the echo of a target within this range
will not be seen on the radarscope because of being masked by the transmitted pulse.
Many radar sets are designed for operation with both short and long pulse lengths. Many of these
radar sets are shifted automatically to the shorter pulse length on selecting the shorter-range
scales. On the other radar sets, the operator must select the radar pulse length in accordance with
the operating conditions. Radar sets have greater range capabilities while functioning with the
longer pulse length because a greater amount of energy is transmitted in each pulse. While
maximum detection range capability is sacrificed when using the shorter pulse length, better
range accuracy and range resolution are obtained. With the shorter pulse, better definition of the
target on the radar-scope is obtained; therefore, range accuracy is better.
Receiving Time
Generally, the receiving time is the time between the transmitters pulses. The receiving time is
always smaller than the difference between the pulse repetition period and the length of the
transmitters pulse. It is sometimes also limited by a so-called dead time, in which the receiver is
already switched off just before the next transmitting pulse.
In some radars between the transmitting pulse and the receiving time there is a short recovery
time of the duplexer. This recovery time occurs when the duplexer must switch off the receiver
response to the high transmitting power.
Dead Time
If the receiving time ends before the next transmitting pulse, the result is a dead time. During the
dead time are carried out system test loops in modern radars generally. Radars that use a phased-
array antenna, urgently need such a dead time. For within this time, the phase shifters of the
antenna must be reprogrammed to prepare the antenna for the next direction of the antennas
beam. This can take up to 200 microseconds, why then the dead time takes quite large values
compared with the receive time.
2.9.2 Range ambiguities
The pulse repetition frequency largely determines the maximum range of the radar set. If the
period between successive pulses is too short, an echo from a distant target may return after the
transmitter has emitted another pulse. This would make it impossible to tell whether the observed
pulse is the echo of the pulse just transmitted or the echo of the preceding pulse. This produces
a situation referred to as range ambiguity. The radar is unable to distinguish between pulses, and
derives range information that is ambiguous (unreliable).

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Figure: A second Sweep Echo in a distance of 400 Km.

it is best to strike a target with as many pulses of energy as possible during a given scan. Thus,
the higher the PRF the better. A high PRF improves resolution and range accuracy by sampling
the position of the target more often. Since PRF can limit maximum range, a
compromise is reached by selectively increasing the PRF at shorter ranges to obtain the
desired accuracy of measurements. The maximum unambiguous range (Rmax) is the longest range
to which a transmitted pulse can travel and return to the radar before the next pulse is transmitted.
In other words, Rmax is the maximum distance radar energy can travel round trip between pulses
and still produce reliable information. The relationship between the PRF and Rmax determines the
unambiguous range of the radar. The greater the PRF (pulses per second), the shorter the
maximum unambiguous range (Rmax) of the radar.
The maximum unambiguous range of any pulse radar can be computed with the formula:
𝑐
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑥𝑃𝑅𝐹
where c equals the speed of light.
Numerical: 1
Q) What are the Peak power and Duty cycle of Radar whose average Transmitter power
is 200W, Pulse width of 1μs and a pulse repetition frequency of 1000 Hz? [ 2074 Ashwin]
Solution:
Given
Pulse Width (τ)= 1μs = 1x 10 -6 s
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)= 1000 Hz.
We have;
1 1
𝑃𝑅𝑇 (𝑇) = = = 1𝑥10−3 𝑠
𝑃𝑅𝐹 1000
Average Transmitter Power (Pt) =200 W
Now, we have
𝜏
𝑃𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑇

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1𝑥10−6
200 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘
1𝑥10−3
200 𝑥1𝑥10−3
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 = = 200 𝐾𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡.
1𝑥 10−6
Numerical :2
Q) Use the radar equation to determine the required transmit power for the TRACS
RADAR is given 𝑷𝑹 𝑴𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕, 𝑮 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 , 𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝒎, 𝒑𝒓𝒇 = 𝟓𝟐𝟒, 𝝈 =
𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝟐 .[2074 Ashwin]
Solution:
We have,

And
𝑐
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑥𝑃𝑅𝐹
Now Above Formula Becomes;
4 ..
3 𝑐
4 (4𝜋) 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 (
2. 𝑃𝑅𝐹 )
3
(4𝜋) 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑇𝑥 = =
𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜎𝜆2 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜎𝜆2
4 .
3𝑥108
(4𝜋)3 𝑥1𝑥10−13𝑥(
. 2𝑥524 ) 1.98𝑥10−10 𝑥6.71𝑥1021
𝑃𝑇𝑥 = = =31.39x106 Watt
200𝑥200𝑥20𝑥0.232 42320
Where; Gt =Gr (Because Same antenna is used for both Tx and Rx)
Numerical: 3
The Radar is operating with a 3-cm wavelength, 500 KW peak power, and 10 -12 W
minimum detectable. If the radar antenna has an effective area of 6 m2 and the cross section

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of the target id 10 m2, the calculate the maximum radar Range.

Solution:
Given:
𝜆 =0.03 m
Peak Power (W)= 500,000W
Minimum Detectable signal Smin=10-12 W
Antenna Effective Area, Ar=6 m2
Cross section of the target, σ=10 m2
Rmax=?
We have;
4 𝜋 𝐴𝑟 4𝜋𝑥6
𝐺𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟 = = = 83775.80
𝜆2 0.032
4 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 𝜎 4 500,000 𝑥 83775.802 𝑥 0.032 𝑥 10
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ (4 𝜋 ) 3 𝑆 𝐿 =√
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (4 𝜋)3 𝑥 1𝑥10−12 𝑥 1

=355185.33 m=355.185 Km=191.75 NM

Note: (1 NM= 1852 Km)
Numerical :4
Q) What do you mean by maximum unambiguous Range? Calculate the range of target if
the if the time required for radar signal is 6 ms for round Trip.
2.10 System Losses
System loss, Ls (a number greater than one), is inserted in the denominator of the radar
equation.it is the reciprocal of efficiency (number less than one). The two terms (loss and
efficiency) are sometimes used interchangeably.
1. Microwave plumbing loss; There is always loss in transmission line that connects
antenna to the transmitter and receiver due to rotatory joint in order to transmit signal
from stationary part to the air via rotatory radar antenna.
2. Transmission line loss: loss in wave guide, coaxial cable and connecters.
3. Duplexer loss; The loss due to a gas duplexer that protects the receiver from the high
power of the transmitter is generally different on transmission and reception.
4. Antenna loss; Loss due to antenna affects antenna gain.
5. Phase array loss; Some phased array radars have additional transmission line losses due
to the distribution network that connects the receiver and transmitter to each of the many
elements of the array. This loss affects in antenna gain.
6. Radome loss; Loss introduce by the Radome will depend on the type of radar frequency.

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7. Beam shape loss; The antenna gain that appears in the radar equation is assumed to be a
constant equal to the maximum value. But in reality, the train of pulses returned from a
target by a scanning antenna is modulated in the amplitude by the shape of antenna beam,
shown in figure below one output pulse has the maximum antenna gain G, that which
occurs when the peak of the antenna beam is in the direction of target. Thus, the
computation of probability of detection have to take account of an amplitude modulated
train of pulses rather than constant amplitude pulses.

Figure: Loss due to Beam shape

8. Scanning loss; when the antenna scans rapidly enough, relative to the round-trip time of
echo signal, the antenna gain in the direction of the target on transmit might not be the
same as that on receive. This result additional loss called scanning loss. example; second-
Time Around echo due this observed false target.
9. Signal processing loss;
10. Operator loss;
11. Equipment degradation loss; BIT (built in test) indicates if any deviation in system
parameters.
12. Propagation effects loss;
2.11 Propagation effects
Factors due to Propagation effects influencing Radar Performance.
1. Effects of Sea surface on radiation beam
With radar waves being propagated in the vicinity of the surface of the sea, the main lobe of the
radar beam, as a whole, is composed of a number of separate lobes as opposed to the single lobe-
shaped pattern of radiation as emitted in free space. This phenomenon is the result of interference
between radar waves directly transmitted and those waves which are reflected from the surface
of the sea.
2. Effects of Surface Reflection/Ground clutter on radiation beam
The vertical beam width of the radar antenna should be widened to some extent to simultaneously
monitor all the aircraft at high angles. Therefore, the reflected signals from mountains and city

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areas (Ground Clutter), which are detrimental to detecting aircrafts targets, are received on a
strong level. To detect aircraft targets by eliminating as much ground clutter as possible, the
sharp cut-off pattern is used to sharply cut the lower side of vertical radiation pattern.
3. Effects of Multipath on radiation beam
“Multipath” effect, Reflection of energy from the lower part of the radar beam off of the earth’s
surface, Radar signal strength can vary significantly, Reflections from the ground interfering
with the main radar beam, result is an interference effect, Multipath causes elevation coverage
to be broken up into a lobed structure, A target located at the maximum of a lobe will be detected
as far as twice the free-space detection range, At other angles the detection range will be less
than free space and in a null no echo signal will be received.

4. Atmospheric factors affecting the radar horizon

The radar horizon
The effect of the atmosphere on the horizon is a further factor which should be taken into account
when assessing the likelihood of detecting a particular target and especially where the coastline
is expected. Generally, radar waves are restricted in the recording of the range of low-lying
objects by the radar horizon. The range of the radar horizon depends on the height of the antenna
and on the amount of bending of the radar wave. The bending is caused by diffraction and
refraction. Diffraction is a property of the electromagnetic wave itself. Refraction is due to the
prevailing atmospheric conditions. There is, therefore, a definite radar horizon.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of a wave as it passes an obstruction. Because of diffraction there is
some illumination of the region behind an obstruction or target by the radar beam. Diffraction
effects are greater at the lower frequencies. Thus, the radar beam of a lower frequency radar
tends to illuminate more of the shadow region behind an obstruction than the beam of radar of
higher frequency or shorter wavelength.
Refraction
Refraction affects the range at which objects are detected. The phenomenon of refraction should
be well-known to every navigation officer. Refraction takes place when the velocity of the wave
is changed. This can happen when the wave front passes the boundary of two substances of
differing densities. One substance offers more resistance to the wave than the other and therefore
the velocity of the wave will change. Like light rays, radar rays are subject to bending or

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refraction in the atmosphere resulting from travel through regions of different density. However,
radar rays are refracted slightly more than light rays because of the frequencies used. If the radar
waves actually traveled in straight lines or rays, the distance to the horizon grazed by these rays
would be dependent only on the height of the antenna, assuming adequate power for the rays to
reach this horizon. Without the effects of refraction, the distance to the RADAR HORIZON
would be the same as that of the geometrical horizon for the antenna height
Refracting of beams as it passes through atmosphere causes angle measurements errors. The
density and humidity of the atmosphere at the ground surface are not constant. In an atmosphere
with high humidity or high density, radio waves are bent more than in a dry and low-density
atmosphere.
For example, when only a weak wind blows during the day and the atmospheric temperature Is
reversed, irregular propagation is likely to occur. When radio waves propagate above a water
Surface where a lot of water vapor is generated, irregular propagation frequently occurs because
the rate of temperature and humidity changes is high.
The distance to the radar horizon, ignoring refraction can be expressed in the following formula.
Where h is the height of the antenna in feet, the distance, d, to the radar horizon in nautical
miles, assuming standard atmospheric conditions, may be found as follows:
𝑑 = 1.22√ℎ

Figure: Refraction
With the distances to the geometrical or ordinary horizon being 1.06 √ℎ and the distance to the
visible or optical horizon being 1.15√ℎ . We see that the range of the radar horizon is greater
than that of the optical horizon, which again is greater than that of the geometrical horizon. Thus,
like light rays in the standard atmosphere, radar rays are bent or refracted slightly downwards
approximating the curvature of the earth (see figure above).
The distance to the radar horizon does not in itself limit the distance from which echoes may be
received from targets. Assuming that adequate power is transmitted, echoes may be received
from targets beyond the radar horizon if their reflecting surfaces extend above it. Note that the
distance to the radar horizon is the distance at which the radar rays graze the surface of the earth.
Sub-refraction
The distance to the radar horizon is reduced. This condition is not as common as super-refraction.
Sub-refraction can occur in polar regions where Arctic winds blow over water where a warm
current is dominant. If a layer of cold, moist air overrides a shallow layer of warm, dry air, a

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condition known as SUB-REFRACTION may occur (see figure below). The effect of sub-
refraction is to bend the radar rays upward and thus decrease the maximum ranges at which
targets may be detected. Sub-refraction also affects minimum ranges and may result in failure to
detect low lying targets at short range. It is important to note that sub-refraction may involve an
element of danger to shipping where small vessels and ice may go undetected. The officer in
charge of the watch should be especially mindful of this condition and extra precautions be
administered such as a reduction in speed and the posting of extra lookouts.

Figure: Sub-Refraction
Super-refraction
The distance to the radar horizon is extended. In calm weather with no turbulence when there
is an upper layer of warm, dry air over a surface layer of cold, moist air, a condition known
as SUPER-REFRACTION may occur (see figure below). For this condition to exist, the
weather must be calm with little or no turbulence, otherwise the layers of different densities will
mix and the boundary conditions disappear. The effect of super-refraction will increase the
downward bending of the radar rays and thus increase the ranges at which targets may be
detected. Super-refraction frequently occurs in the tropics when a warm land breeze blows over
cooler ocean currents. It is especially noticeable on the longer-range scales.

Figure: Super-Refraction
Extra Super-refraction or Ducting
Most radar operators are aware that at certain times they are able to detect targets at extremely
long ranges, but at other times they cannot detect targets within visual ranges, even though their
radars may be in top operating condition in both instances.
These phenomena occur during extreme cases of super-refraction. Energy radiated at angles of
1° or less may be trapped in a layer of the atmosphere called a SURFACE RADIO DUCT. In
the surface radio duct illustrated in figure below, the radar rays are refracted downward to

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the surface of the sea, ‘reflected upward, refracted downward again within the duct, and so
on continuously.

\
Figure: Ducting
The energy trapped by the duct suffers little loss; thus, targets may be detected at exceptionally
long ranges. Surface targets have been detected at ranges in excess of 1,400 miles (1 mile=1.609
Km & 1NM = 1.852 Km) with relatively low-powered equipment.
There is a great loss in the energy of the rays escaping the duct, thus reducing the chances for
detection of targets above the duct. Ducting sometimes reduces the effective radar range. If the
antenna is below a duct, it is improbable that targets above the duct will be detected. In instances
of extremely low-level ducts when the antenna is above the duct, surface targets lying below the
duct may not be detected. The latter situation does not occur very often.
5. Weather factors affecting the radar horizon
The usual effects of weather are to reduce the ranges at which targets can be detected and to
produce unwanted echoes on the radarscope which may obscure the returns from important
targets or from targets which may be dangerous to one’s ship. The reduction of intensity of the
wave experienced along its path is known as attenuation.
Attenuation is caused by the absorption and scattering of energy by the various forms of
precipitation. The amount of attenuation caused by each of the various factors depends to a
substantial degree on the radar wavelength. It causes a decrease in echo strength. Attenuation is
greater at the higher frequencies or shorter wavelengths.
Attenuation by rain, fog, clouds, hail, snow, and dust
The amount of attenuation caused by these weather factors is dependent upon the amount of
water, liquid or frozen, present in a unit volume of air and upon the temperature. Therefore, as
one would expect, the affects can differ widely. The further the radar wave and returning echo
must travel through this medium then the greater will be the attenuation and subsequent decrease
in detection range. This is the case whether the target is in or outside the precipitation. A certain
amount of attenuation takes place even when radar waves travel through a clear atmosphere. The
affect will not be noticeable to the radar observer. The effect of precipitation starts to become of
practical significance at wavelengths shorter than 10cm. In any given set of precipitation
conditions, the (S-band) or 10cm will suffer less attenuation than the (X-band) or 3cm.

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Rain
In the case of rain, the particles which affect the scattering and attenuation take the form of water
droplets. It is possible to relate the amount of attenuation to the rate of precipitation. If the size
of the droplet is an appreciable proportion of the 3cm wavelength, strong clutter echoes will be
produced and there will be serious loss of energy due to scattering and attenuation. If the target
is within the area of rainfall, any echoes from raindrops will further decrease its detection range.
Weaker target responses, as from small vessels and buoys, will be undetectable if their echoes
are not stronger than that of the rain. A very heavy rainstorm, like those sometimes encountered
in the tropics, can obliterate most of the (X-band) radar picture. Continuous rainfall over a large
area will make the center part of the screen brighter than the rest and the rain clutter, moving
along with the ship, looks similar to sea clutter. It can be clearly seen on long range scales. This
is due to a gradual decrease in returning power as the pulse penetrates further into the rain area.
Fog
In most cases fog does not actually produce echoes on the radar display, but a very dense fogbank
which arises in polar regions may produce a significant reduction in detection range. A vessel
encountering areas known for industrial pollution in the form of smog may find a somewhat
higher degree of attenuation than sea fog.
Clouds
The water droplets which form clouds are too small to produce a detectable response at the 3cm
wavelength. If there is precipitation in the cloud then the operator can expect a detectable echo.
Hail
With respect to water, hail which is essentially frozen rain reflects radar energy less effectively
than water. Therefore, in general the clutter and attenuation from hail are likely to prove less
detectable than that from rain.
Snow
Similar to the effects of hail, the overall effect of clutter on the picture is less than that due to
rain. Falling snow will only be observed on the displays of 3cm except during heavy snowfall
where attenuation can be observed on a 10cm set.
The strength of echoes from snow depends upon the size of the snowflake and the rate of
precipitation. For practical purposes, however, the significant factor is the rate of precipitation,
because the water content of the heaviest snowfall will very rarely equal that of even moderate
rain.
It is important to keep in mind that in areas receiving and collecting snowfall and where the snow
is collecting on possible danger targets it may render them less detectable. Accumulation of snow
produces a limited absorption characteristic and reduces the detection range of an otherwise
strong target.
Dust
There is a general reduction in radar detection in the presence of dust and sandstorms. On the
basis of particle size, detectable responses are extremely unlikely and the operator can expect a
low level of attenuation.

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6. Fading
Fading is the variable phenomenon of received power, caused by the changes in the condition of
the radio waves propagation path, To indicate specifically the diminishing condition of the
electrical field in reception, the phenomenon is named fading.
7. Radar Jamming
Electric Counter measurers (ECM), Mostly executed in time of war, is one which disturb the
radar operation of a hostile country ECM was classified into two categories active and passive.
The Radar jamming is typical active ECM and define as aggressive introduction of frequency
radiation into the radar devices of hostile country. The interfered effects produced radiation may
clutter large portions of the radar area, and some cases render the screen unusable.
Chaff, typical passive ECM, is thin strips of operation, or other metal cut into pieces, which
released from aircraft at high altitude, the strips flow slowly to the ground and resulting echoes
cause large area of indicators to became intensified or cluttered. Such clutter easily discernible
to a radar controller.
8. Electronic Radar interference
Interference from other radar installations operating from similar frequency may be encountered.
When two or more radar installations are in close proximity. When this interference encountered,
nearby radar installation should be advised to check frequency calibration and their equipment.

What are the appropriate Antenna Rotation Speed in case of primary Radar?
Radar system are designed to produce a particular number of echoes from the aircraft due to the
time the beam takes to sweep across the target. PRF and scanning rate must be chosen such a
way that, for a given beam width, an adequate number of pulses strike the target and returned
echoes to produce a positive indication on the radar scope. The number of strikes depends upon
the PRF and the time the aircraft is in the beam. i.e.,
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑅𝐹 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚
The time for which a point lies within a scanning beam is the time for the antenna to rotate
through one beam width, so that;
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 =
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠⁄
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( 𝑆𝑒𝑐 )
𝑃𝑅𝐹 𝑥 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Therefore,𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒

For Example, Let

PRF = 900 pps
Beam width = 1.3°
(𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟓)
Scan rate = 15 Revolutions/min = 𝑫𝒆𝒈⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟔𝟎

Then

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(𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏.𝟑 𝒙 𝟔𝟎)

Number of strikes = = 𝟏𝟑 𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒏
(𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟓)

In This example, 13 strikes per scan would be made. If they were reflected, the 13 echoes would
be received and displayed as an arc on the PPI screen, to obtain a clear and stable blip on the
screen, at least 5 to 6 echoes per scan from target shall be reached to the antenna. To secure these
minimum strikes per scan, ASR has antenna rotation speed of 15 to 30 RPM and ARSR 5 to 10
RPM.
What are the different Types of radar?
Radars are of two types pulsed and continuous wave radar. Pulsed radar has its carrier pulse
modulated used for detecting stationary objects continuous radar uses direct sine wave for
transmitting and is used for moving targets there are types such as weather, and aircraft.
Types of Radar

Figure Types of Radar

Old Questions
1. Derive the fundamental range equation governed by minimum receivable echo
power (Smin).
2. What do you understand by maximum unambiguous range? Calculate the range of
target if the time required for radar signal is 8ms for round trip.
3. Substantiate (Validate) the requirements of Duplexer in efficient radar system.
Describe the terms noise figure and Noise Temperature in radar receivers.
4. What are the peak power and duty cycle of radar whose average transmitter power
is 200-Watt, pulse width 1μs and pulse repetition frequency of 1000 Hz.

*End of CHAPTER 2*

Prepared By;
Er.Hemant Yadav
Msc.in Engineering
remhemant@outlook.com