Factors Contributing to Healthcare Service Underutilization among

undergraduate Male Students at Babcock University Ilishian Remo Ogun State

Nigeria

Chapter One
1.1 Background of the Study
People use health-care services to diagnose, cure, or ameliorate disease or injury;
to improve or maintain function or to obtain information about their health
status and prognosis (Engineering National Academies of Sciences et al., 2018).
Health-care utilization can be appropriate or inappropriate, of high or low
quality, and of high or low cost (Engineering National Academies of Sciences et
al., 2018). Access to healthcare services is a fundamental determinant of health
outcomes and well-being among university students worldwide. Factors that
contribute to healthcare underutilization include the inability of patients to reach
or afford medical services, the availability of providers who will accept a person's
insurance, ease in making an appointment with a given provider, the ability of a
patient to pay for care, and the difficulty of arranging transportation to and from
healthcare facilities (Engineering National Academies of Sciences et al., 2018).
Evidence on health services underutilization and its associated factors in
poverty-stricken areas remain scarce based on previous literature (Hu et al.,
2021).
A study that had been done in China reviewed literature that stated that most of
the studies focused on investigating various factors associated with health
services underutilization were targeted at specific types of population groups,
such as pregnant women ,dental patients ,men receiving fertility evaluation,
randomly selected household members and hospice patients. However, further
studies in this field merely provided limited evidence on objective factors and
residents’ self-reported factors associated with health services underutilization,
especially among chronic non-communicable disease survivors. (Hu et al., 2021)
Another study in Mozambique found that recommended maternity health care
cascade utilization did not cover 7 out of 10 pregnant women, and unfavourable
factors included low education, low income, and rural residence. The
underutilization of healthcare among males is influenced by various factors,
including cultural, sociodemographic, social, economic, and behavioural barriers.
A study in 2020 highlighted the cultural and sociodemographic factors
contributing to the underutilization of healthcare among young men.
Furthermore, in the study men who did have a primary care visit within that
healthcare system, one third had not been seen within a year of the fertility
evaluation. The same study establishes that young men are at particularly high
risk of not engaging with the healthcare system for routine medical care. The
median age (years) of men presenting for fertility evaluation was mid-30s.
Although young men are, by and large, healthier than older men, population-level
data suggest that men between the ages of 25 and 44 years have an average of
0.5 major co-morbidities, and 11% of these men have multimorbidity, indicating
a significant burden of medical disease. (Halpern et al., 2020)
The underutilization of healthcare among undergraduate males is a complex
issue influenced by various factors. Generally despite the presence of health
centres in most colleges, healthcare utilisation is low among this population. In
terms of gender, young men have been found to access healthcare less frequently.
(Tran & Silvestri-Elmore, 2020).
1.2 Statement of Problem
There is a substantial amount of evidence indicating that men, both within the
general population and among university students, demonstrating the tendency
to engage less with preventive healthcare services, including routine visits to
doctors' clinics (Simons et al., 2023). This evidence underscores the need for a
deeper understanding of the factors influencing healthcare utilization patterns,
particularly among male students in tertiary institutions such as Babcock
University.
Concurrently, despite the presence of medical services within the university
setting, there remains a notable gap in comprehending the underlying reasons
for the underutilization of healthcare services among students, with Babcock
University serving as a pertinent case study (Bamidele et al., 2023). This
underutilization extends beyond mere statistics, potentially resulting in
undiagnosed and untreated health conditions among the student populace.
Notably, prevalent health issues among law undergraduates, such as malaria,
respiratory tract infections, malnutrition, and dysmenorrhoea, underscore the
pressing need to address healthcare access and utilization barriers (Ojo et al.,
2022). These unaddressed health concerns can significantly impact not only
individual well-being but also academic performance and overall campus
dynamics.
The ramifications of healthcare underutilization among male students at Babcock
University are multifaceted and extend far beyond the realm of health outcomes.
Failure to effectively address this issue could exacerbate existing health
conditions, undermine academic performance, and compromise the overall
quality of student life on campus. Consequently, there is an urgent imperative to
explore and address the root causes of healthcare underutilization among male
students comprehensively.
Moreover, existing research indicates a pronounced gender disparity in
healthcare utilization within university settings, with female students
demonstrating higher rates of engagement with healthcare services compared to
their male counterparts (Bamidele et al., 2023). Female students are more
inclined to seek medical attention from general practitioners (GPs) and
psychologists, addressing a wide array of health concerns, including chronic
diseases and mental health issues. This gender disparity underscores the need
for tailored interventions aimed at bridging the gap in healthcare utilization and
promoting equitable access to services among all students.
In light of these considerations, there is a compelling imperative to conduct a
qualitative inquiry into the factors contributing to healthcare underutilization
among male students at Babcock University. By delving deeper into these factors,
researchers can gain valuable insights that inform the development of targeted
interventions and policy initiatives aimed at enhancing healthcare access,
utilization, and overall student well-being. Such initiatives have the potential to
foster a healthier and more inclusive campus environment, where all students
can thrive academically, socially, and personally.
This research aims addresses the specific context of Babcock University and the
need to understand the factors contributing to healthcare underutilization
among male students, as supported by the available research on healthcare-
seeking behaviours and underutilization of healthcare services among specific
populations.
1.4 Research Questions
1. What are the specific barriers and challenges that male students at
Babcock University face in accessing and utilizing healthcare services?
2. How do masculine norms and gender socialization influence the
healthcare-seeking behaviors and underutilization of healthcare services among
male students at Babcock University?
3. What are the individual, interpersonal, and societal factors that contribute
to the underutilization of healthcare services among male students at Babcock
University?
4. What are the perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs of male students at
Babcock University regarding healthcare utilization, and how do these factors
impact their engagement with healthcare services?
5. What are the provider-related predictors of healthcare service utilization
among male students at Babcock University, and how do these predictors
influence their decision to seek medical care?
1.5 General Objective
To comprehensively explore the factors influencing the underutilization of
healthcare services among male students at Babcock University in Ilishan Remo,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
1.6 Specific Objective
to qualitatively investigate the factors influencing the underutilization of
healthcare services among male students at Babcock University in Ilishan Remo,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
This specific objective aligns with the qualitative nature of the inquiry and the
focus on understanding the factors contributing to healthcare underutilization
among the specific population of male students at Babcock University.
1. To understand the specific barriers and challenges that male students at
Babcock University face in accessing and utilizing healthcare services.
2. To describe the masculine norms and how gender socialization influence
the healthcare-seeking behaviors and underutilization of healthcare services
among male students at Babcock University.
3. To explain the individual, interpersonal, and societal factors that
contributes to the underutilization of healthcare services among male students at
Babcock University.
4. To discover the perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs of male students at
Babcock University regarding healthcare utilization, and how do these factors
affect their engagement with healthcare services,
5. To know the provider-related determinants of healthcare service
utilization among male students at Babcock University, and how do these
determinants influence their decision to seek medical care.
1.6Significance/Justification of study
Numerous studies underscore the importance of delving into the intricate factors
that shape healthcare-seeking behaviours and the underutilization of healthcare
services, especially among specific demographic groups. For instance, a
comprehensive study conducted in Nigeria shed light on the multifaceted impact
of various factors such as medical education, prolonged waiting times, financial
constraints, and the lack of accessibility to medical services on individuals'
healthcare-seeking behaviours (Tran & Silvestri-Elmore, 2020). Furthermore,
research focusing on highly religious, heterosexual men has revealed that
adherence to traditional masculine norms and socialization processes can
significantly contribute to the underutilization of medical care among this
demographic (Novak et al., 2019).
These insights highlight the pressing need for a qualitative inquiry specifically
tailored to explore the nuanced factors that contribute to the underutilization of
healthcare services among male students at Babcock University. Such an inquiry
holds immense potential for unravelling the underlying barriers, perceptions,
and provider-related predictors that influence healthcare-seeking behaviours
within this particular context. By gaining a deeper understanding of these factors,
researchers can uncover critical insights that inform the development of targeted
interventions aimed at enhancing healthcare access and utilization among male
students at Babcock University. Moreover, these findings may also have broader
implications for addressing healthcare disparities and promoting better health
outcomes within similar academic settings and beyond.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction
Health-seeking behaviour refers to the actions individuals take to find
appropriate remedies for perceived health problems or illnesses. Influencing
factors include satisfaction with healthcare services, medication availability,
healthcare workers' attitudes, and the cost of care. The study of health-seeking
behaviours in men has been a focal point in various research endeavours,
exploring the connection between masculinity and men's health-seeking
behaviour. Health-seeking behaviour is influenced by factors such as satisfaction
with healthcare services, medication availability, healthcare workers' attitudes,
and the cost of care. Research has focused on exploring the connection between
masculinity and men's health-seeking behaviour, with cultural and societal
factors playing a significant role in influencing men's willingness to seek health
services.(Poudel et al., 2023)(Bamidele et al., 2023)
Some older men may avoid using free health services, such as bowel cancer
screening kits, due to challenges to their sense of masculinity and concerns about
appearing weak or less masculine (Myers et al., 2023) .This is particularly
relevant for Black men, as higher negativity towards medical professionals and
exams is associated with decreased odds of ever completing CRC screening. Men
also tend to seek mental health treatment less often than women, and factors
such as race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, income, relationship status,
depression symptoms, and body mass index can influence their help-seeking
behaviour. A cross-sectional study found that men were less likely than women
to say that they would seek help for mental health problems ((Kantar & Yalçın,
2023)).
Health-seeking behaviours in Nigeria have been studied in various contexts. One
study focused on adult residents of slum communities in Lagos and found that a
significant proportion of respondents with coughs visited patent proprietary
medicine vendors (PPMVs) as their first point of care, indicating poor health-
seeking behaviour (Adepoju et al., 2023). Another study examined the
relationship between family background, perceived self-concept, and health-
seeking behaviour among adolescents. It found that adolescents from lower
social classes had lower autonomy self-concept and were less likely to seek
appropriate medical attention (Agbesanwa et al., 2022). A study in Ogun State
explored how inhabitants sought health information and found that trust in
private hospital doctors and the precision of their diagnoses influenced health-
seeking behaviour (Agbesanwa et al., 2022). Additionally, a study in Rivers State
examined the determinants of health care-seeking behaviour among women and
found that the quality of health care services significantly influenced their
behaviour (Opele et al., 2022).
Understanding non-health-seeking behaviours is essential as it provides deeper
insights into the reasons behind specific health-related decisions and actions. By
analyzing these behaviours, policymakers can formulate effective strategies and
interventions (Haileamlak, 2018). Additionally, understanding non-health-
seeking behaviours can help identify gaps in healthcare access and utilization,
particularly among specific demographic groups. It can also provide insights into
individuals' information-seeking processes, crucial for effective clinical outreach
and education efforts. Furthermore, understanding non-health-seeking
behaviours can help identify barriers and challenges individuals face in accessing
healthcare services, informing decision-making processes regarding patient care
and education. Overall, understanding non-health-seeking behaviours is crucial
for improving healthcare delivery, addressing health needs, and promoting
better health outcomes (SciSpace, n.d.).
This literature review will offer an in-depth understanding of the factors and
reasons for non-health-seeking behaviours among male students in Babcock
University Nigeria. It provides a comprehensive analysis of attitudes and
practices influencing men’s, at a larger population, approach to seeking
healthcare services and treatments, drawing insights from various scholarly
sources. The review sheds light on the multifaceted, complex, and interrelated
sociocultural, economic, and psychological aspects underpinning men's health-
seeking behaviours. To identify the relevant studies addressing the research
questions, a systematic review of literature was conducted.
2.1 Review on Health Seeking Behaviours
Health seeking behaviours (HSBs) are complex and multifaceted phenomena.
They involve various determinants and factors, such as social, cultural, economic,
and environmental ones that can either enhance or constrain individuals'
capacities to access, seek, and utilize health care services. This literature review
section aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the conceptualizations of
HSBs, the different determinants and factors impacting HSBs in low- and middle-
income countries (LMICs), and the role of healthcare policies in addressing
barriers to HSBs. It also seeks to explore the impact of healthcare policies on
HSBs and the factors that may enhance or constrain their impact. To achieve
these objectives, this literature review section will address the following
research questions:
1. What are the different determinants and factors affecting HSBs in LMICs?
2. What is the role of healthcare policies in addressing barriers to HSBs?
3. Does healthcare policy influence HSBs and if so, how?
4. What factors enhance or constrain the impact of healthcare policies on
HSBs?

Health-seeking behaviours (HSBs) are conceptualized as actions taken by

individuals or communities to prevent, treat, diagnose, or cure illness or disease
using a range of available health services and remedies. The various
conceptualizations of HSBs depend on the context of the individual, community,
or society and may be influenced by cultural, social, economic, and political
factors. Different models of HSBs have been developed to demonstrate the
complexity of health behaviours and to guide interventions aimed at promoting
better health outcomes. A global perspective on HSBs also acknowledges the
importance of understanding cultural and social beliefs, values, and attitudes
towards health and illness.
Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are facing substantial challenges in
improving health outcomes and reducing health disparities due to various
determinants and factors affecting HSBs. Demographic factors such as age,
gender, and education play a critical role in shaping health-seeking decisions, as
do socioeconomic factors such as income, employment, and access to healthcare
services. Cultural factors, including beliefs, perceptions, and preferences, also
influence HSBs and may be particularly relevant in LMICs, where traditional
healers and practices are often sought after. Understanding these determinants
and factors can help identify gaps in health systems and guide the development
of interventions that address barriers to HSBs at the individual and community
levels. (Latunji, 2018)(Budu et al., 2021)
Healthcare policies can potentially address some of the barriers to HSBs in LMICs
by increasing access to and utilization of healthcare services. Such policies may
include strategies to reduce financial barriers, increase the availability of
essential medicines, improve infrastructure and human resources for healthcare,
and increase community participation in health decision-making. However, the
implementation and effectiveness of these policies depend on the local context
and the involvement of stakeholders, such as government agencies, health
providers, and community-based organizations. Barriers to addressing HSBs in
LMICs include limited resources, political instability, weak governance, and
inadequate infrastructure, among others, which may affect the sustainability and
scalability of healthcare policies. (Meadows et al., 2018)
Healthcare policy has a significant influence on the decision-making process of
HSBs by altering the availability, affordability, and accessibility of healthcare
services. Policy interventions can enable individuals to make informed health
decisions and improve health outcomes, particularly in LMICs. For instance, the
rollout of universal health coverage policies in some LMICs has increased the
number of people accessing healthcare services and reduced out-of-pocket
expenditures, resulting in better health outcomes. However, the success of these
policies depends on their implementation, regulation, and evaluation, as well as
the alignment with local norms and values. The complexity of policy
implementation requires the involvement of policymakers, healthcare providers,
and communities, among others, to ensure equitable and efficient healthcare
delivery. (Meadows et al., 2018)
Several factors can enhance or constrain the impact of healthcare policies on
HSBs in LMICs. Improving the quality of healthcare services, promoting health
education, and increasing the availability of healthcare resources can enhance
the positive effects of policies on HSBs. In contrast, weak governance, limited
resources, corruption, and conflicts may hamper the implementation of
healthcare policies and exacerbate health disparities. Overcoming these
constraints requires a multi-sectional approach that involves stakeholders from
different sectors, including health, education, agriculture, and finance.
Policymakers can also address these constraints by promoting innovative
financing mechanisms, embracing digital health technologies, and strengthening
health systems to better deliver equitable and accessible healthcare services to
all. (Ambebila et al., 2020)
Health-seeking behaviours are influenced by a range of determinants and factors,
which are shaped by the local context and culture of LMICs. Healthcare policies
can play a critical role in addressing barriers to HSBs, but their success depends
on their implementation, regulation, and evaluation. The challenges of
implementing effective healthcare policies require a multi-sectional approach
that involves stakeholders from different sectors to ensure equitable and
accessible healthcare services. It is essential to continue to explore and
understand the complexity of HSBs, particularly in LMICs, to optimize the
interactions between healthcare policies and individuals' health-seeking
decisions. Future research may focus on improving the quality of health data,
identifying the most effective interventions, and evaluating the long-term impact
of policies on HSBs. (Ambebila et al., 2020)
2.2 HEALTH SEEKING BEHAVIOURS AMONG MEN: COMPREHENSIVE GLOBAL
PERSPECTIVE OVERVIEW
The significance of researching and comprehending health-seeking behaviours,
especially in men, is becoming more widely acknowledged. This section offers a
thorough synopsis that covers all the facets and subtleties related to this
important subject. It critically looks at societal, economic, and psychological
aspects that affect how males approach getting healthcare services. (Abdullah et
al., 2022) Men's health-seeking behaviour is also influenced by enabling variables
such social support, alternative medicine, and healthcare services and facilities
(DeBate et al., 2022). Men's approach to accessing healthcare services is also
influenced by need factors, such as perceived need for healthcare (Ikhioya &
Akerele, 2021). It's critical to take into account the effects of masculinity, self-
stigma, and social stigma as obstacles to males seeking assistance (Becker & Foli,
2021). Individuals' socioeconomic level and cultural affiliation also have an
impact on the idea of healthcare seeking behaviour ( Lopriore et al., 2021).
Comprehending these variables is crucial in formulating programmes intended to
enhance men's health-seeking conduct and advance gender parity in healthcare.
Health-seeking behaviors among men globally vary widely due to cultural, social,
and economic factors. In some societies, men may be reluctant to seek medical
help due to traditional gender roles that discourage vulnerability or expressions
of weakness. This can lead to delayed diagnosis and treatment of health
conditions. However, there's a growing recognition of the importance of men's
health, leading to increased awareness campaigns and efforts to encourage men
to prioritize their well-being. Factors such as access to healthcare, education, and
awareness also play crucial roles in shaping health-seeking behaviors among
men worldwide. (DeBate et al., 2022)
In review of many literatures health seeking behaviours among men is most
commonly influenced by various factors such as socio-demographic
characteristics, health beliefs, healthcare services and facilities, alternative
medicine, social support, perceived need, cost of healthcare, distance to health
facilities, travelling cost, waiting time, and cultural affiliation. Men's health-
seeking behaviour is influenced by their perception of susceptibility and severity
of health conditions, as well as their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioural control. Men's shorter life expectancies and lower utilization of
health services compared to women contribute to poor health outcomes. (Poudel
et al., 2023) (Abdullah et al., 2022) (Abdullah et al., 2022)(Quao & Kretchy, 2023)
Improving men's health outcomes and offering client-centered services require
an understanding of the factors that influence health-seeking behaviour.
Undoubtedly, the implications and outcomes of these health-seeking behaviours
are extensive and diverse, impacting not only personal health outcomes and
outcomes but also the larger context and range of public health initiatives and
programmes overall. The significance of this section and its thorough analysis
goes beyond the previously mentioned aspects; it also underscores the inherent
and profound implications for healthcare systems and establishments globally, as
well as successfully clearly and demonstratively shows how understanding and
appropriately addressing these complex factors are deemed and crucially
important in fostering and nurturing any positive change, improvement, and
advancement.
Therefore, this part, which is very thorough and well detailed, highlights,
emphasises, and emphasises a wide range of different tactics and approaches
that are intended to positively influence, motivate, and instill proactive and
health-seeking behaviours in men around the world.
First and foremost, Gender equality between males and females is a Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) that the nation must address. However, compared to
women, the health status of men lags. A literature review study identified various
factors influencing men's health-seeking behaviour, including predisposing
factors (socio-demographic, health belief), enabling factors (healthcare services
and facilities, alternative medicine, social support), and need factors (perceived
need).The findings highlighted the importance of addressing gender equality in
healthcare and the need to improve men's health-seeking behaviour. (Arifin et al.,
2018).
The paper section provides insights into the factors that influence men's health-
seeking behaviour, which can be used to develop targeted interventions and
strategies to improve men's health outcomes .A study’s results on literature on
men's health found that 68.2% of the respondents had a high attitude towards
seeking health regarding men's health, while 31.8% had a low attitude. Men from
the service factor were perceived to have the highest attitude compared to
cultural and economic factors. The study emphasizes the importance of
improving the service factor to promote better health-seeking behaviour and
ultimately contribute to a healthier community (Arifin et al., 2018).
Lack of awareness regarding men's health issues leads to men ignoring the
importance of health screening. This highlights the need for improved awareness
and education to promote better health-seeking behaviour among men. It
evidently and conclusively argues and suggests that by cultivating and promoting
an all-encompassing, holistic, and comprehensive approach that seamlessly
integrates, encompasses, and takes into consideration both physical and mental
well-being, a comprehensive and well-structured framework needs to be
established, designed, and initiated to yield, generate, and engender improved
and enhanced engagement, involvement, and participation in preventive
healthcare practices among the male population on a worldwide scale.
It is therefore evidently and permanently possible to set out on a significant,
transformative, and revolutionary journey that aims, aspires, and strives towards
advancing and augmenting men's participation, engagement, and investment in
preventive healthcare practices and activities globally, regardless of geographic
location or cultural background, with the ever-growing understanding,
significance, and relevance that is derived, acquired, and garnered through this
painstaking, diligent, and thorough in-depth analysis and examination of the
numerous and varied factors that influence, impact, and shape men's health-
seeking behaviours. By fostering and nurturing a nuanced, intricate, and
heightened understanding, realization, and grasp of the contextual complexities,
intricacies, and interconnections that are inherently and inherently at play and
present, and by actively and assertively addressing, confronting, and tackling
them through multifaceted and diverse strategies, approaches, and initiatives, we
unequivocally and undeniably pave the way, create and induce opportunities,
and unlock new avenues that have the potential and capacity to yield and
generate significant, substantial, and remarkable improvements, enhancements,
and advancements in men's health outcomes, results, and consequences. (Gough
& Novikova, 2020)
The significance, importance, and impacts of these accomplishments and
achievements are not limited and confined to mere individual well-being and
prosperity but rather extend, spread, and transcend into the very fabric,
structure, and foundation of society itself, ultimately bolstering, strengthening,
and fortifying the fundamental and underlying pillars of public health and
consequently fostering, cultivating, and nurturing a healthier, more prosperous,
and sustainable future for all members, individuals, and citizens of society at
large. Therefore, and in sheer conclusion, it is both fitting and relevant that we, as
a collective and unified force, strive, endeavour, and unite in pursuit,
preservation, and preservation of this noble, ambitious, and grand goal and
objective, thus ensuring that no man, irrespective of age, background, or context,
is left behind, abandoned, or neglected in the relentless pursuit of optimal health,
well-being, and a life filled with prosperity, satisfaction, and fulfilment.
(Eley et al.2019), (Ortiz-Dowling et al.2019),
Presently, there exists a growing recognition and acknowledgement of the
utmost significance in studying and comprehending health-seeking behaviors,
particularly within the Nigerian context. This specific research aims to provide a
comprehensive and intricate overview, encompassing a global perspective on
this profoundly significant subject matter. It aims to delve into and explore every
facet and intricacy associated with health-seeking behaviors, examining them in
great detail.
Moreover, it critically examines and analyzes a multitude of factors that wield a
profound and substantial influence on individuals' approach towards seeking
healthcare services and treatments in Nigeria. It takes into consideration and
acknowledges the multifaceted, complex, and interrelated sociocultural,
economic, and psychological aspects that inherently intertwine with health-
seeking behaviors. By doing so, it sheds light on the intricate and complex
interplay between gender norms, stereotypes, and health-seeking behaviors,
elucidating the significant impact that these factors possess and exert on shaping
and influencing patterns and behaviors among the Nigerian population.
Additionally, this comprehensive exploration and examination endeavours to
shed light on the importance of traditional health practices, including the beliefs
and practices surrounding traditional medicine, as well as the pivotal role played
by traditional healers within the Nigerian healthcare landscape. Furthermore, it
delves into the modern healthcare system in Nigeria, highlighting the availability
and accessibility of healthcare facilities, as well as the quality of healthcare
services provided.
2.3 Factors Influencing Health-Seeking Behaviours
Numerous factors, such as socioeconomic position, cultural views, access to
healthcare services, and psychological issues, all have an impact on health-
seeking behaviour. For instance, a study of Nigerian university students revealed
that their behaviour in seeking medical attention was influenced by a number of
variables, including the cost of care, the accessibility of pharmaceuticals, and the
attitudes of healthcare professionals.Another study conducted in Nepal found
that the community's health-seeking behaviour was correlated with factors such
as marital status, occupation, education level, source of money, monthly income,
length of illness, and accessibility to healthcare services. Furthermore, a study
conducted among Indonesian medical students discovered that, in contrast to
perceived susceptibility and perceived advantages, perceived severity and
considered barriers were substantially correlated with treatment-seeking
behaviour. Understanding these multifaceted factors can help inform health
education and promotion campaigns to encourage appropriate health-seeking
behavior (Quao & Kretchy, 2023) (Rahman et al., 2023) (Poudel et al.,
2023)(Bamidele et al., 2023).
A study investigates the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and
delayed diagnosis of sickle cell disease (SCD).Accordingly the study revealed that
Low SES individuals are more likely to suffer from the disease, cognitive
problems, and increased mortality. Current guidelines and management
algorithms for SCD do not consider SES's impact on patients. Lower SES is linked
to disproportionate access to healthcare, with income being the most indicative
factor. This demonstrates how socioeconomic status, including economic
barriers i.e people’s inability to afford healthcare services can prevent them from
getting treatment in a timely manner, which can delay diagnosis and make
conditions worse.another factor is an individual’s educational level, more
education is linked to better health literacy, which enables people to make
knowledgeable decisions about their health.Also stable employments hinders or
contributes to the ability of people to seek medical attention when necessary this
is influenced by the regularity and promptness with which they do so, as well as
their access to healthcare coverage and job stability. (Egbunu et al., 2023)
In a review of more studies, it was established that marginalized populations face
significant challenges while seeking healthcare services. Poverty and limited
access to healthcare systems are the primary factors that hinder their capacity to
use health services. (Patel et al., 2023) By understanding the factors that hinder
access to healthcare, healthcare professionals and policymakers can develop
strategies to improve access to care for these populations.
The healthcare system's structure, including the types and levels of healthcare
services, plays a significant role in accessing healthcare for marginalised
populations. The availability of healthcare providers is a crucial factor in
providing access to health services for underprivileged populations. Provider
attitudes significantly impact health-seeking behaviours, with negative attitudes
reducing the use of health services. Cost of care, quality of care, and accessibility
of services are essential determinants of health-seeking behaviour. The inability
to afford care, poor quality of care, and long waiting times are primary barriers to
accessing health services for marginalised populations. (Lawn et al., 2021)
Socioeconomic factors play a significant role in health-seeking behaviours.
Income inequality, lack of education, unemployment, inadequate housing, and
transportation difficulties all contribute to limited access to healthcare for
marginalised populations. Low-income individuals are more likely to have
difficulty accessing healthcare services due to the high cost of care. Job loss and
inadequate housing can lead to increased health problems, and transportation
difficulties significantly hinder access to healthcare services. (Osadolor et al.,
2022)(Abu‐Qarn & Lichtman-Sadot, 2022)
Another factor being, Cultural factors this also has a significant impact on
healthcare utilisation. Beliefs and values related to health and illness shape
individuals' health-seeking behaviours and influence how they access health
services. Perception of the healthcare system and previous experiences with
healthcare providers significantly impact patient engagement in healthcare
services. Language barriers are known to create significant barriers, and
stigmatisation of marginalised populations undermines their proper access to
healthcare services. (Latif, 2020)(Zhang et al., 2022)
Gender and ethnicity play a significant role in healthcare utilisation and have a
significant influence on health-seeking behaviours. Gendered roles, gender
discrimination, and gender norms may cause women to have limited access to
healthcare services. Homogeneity in ethnicity may create significant barriers to
healthcare access due to cultural reasons, including language barriers and
cultural competency issues. Ethnicity may also influence how marginalised
populations view their health and influence healthcare seeking behaviour.
(Manuel, 2017)(Stone, 2023)
Health-seeking behaviours are significantly influenced by age and health issues
(Bamidele et al., 2023). Accessing healthcare services can be extremely difficult
for older folks and people with chronic illnesses, which lowers healthcare usage
(Braveman, 2023) (Bamidele et al., 2023). On the other hand, younger persons
might believe they are in good health, which would lessen their desire to use
medical services (Zhang et al., 2023). The expectations and cultural norms
surrounding ageing and health also influence the behaviours of those who seek
health care. (Acharya et al., 2023)
Geographic location is another significant factor in health-seeking behaviours
(Quao & Kretchy, 2023). Rural areas may lack adequate healthcare infrastructure
and workforce, leading to lower healthcare utilisation. Urban residents may face
other barriers to access healthcare, such as transportation difficulties and long
waiting times (Yerpude & Jogdand, 2022). Population density is associated with
reduced access to healthcare, as increasing population density resource
limitations, leading to higher demand for healthcare services and lower quality of
care in crowded conditions. (Silvanus et al., 2022)
Marginalisation and discrimination also play a significant role in health-seeking
behaviours. Discrimination based on race, finances, and social status can create
significant barriers to accessing healthcare services. Discrimination harms
mental health, creates distrust of healthcare providers and is associated with
lowered engagement in health-seeking behaviours. Addressing discrimination is
essential for promoting health equity and improving the health outcomes of
marginalised populations. (Baker et al., 2023)
Psychological factors play a crucial role in shaping individuals' perceptions of
sickness severity, fear and stigma, and coping mechanisms. Perceptions of
sickness severity are influenced by personal experiences and health education,
while fear and stigma can discourage individuals from seeking medical attention.
Coping mechanisms, such as active problem-solving, avoidance, or denial, also
impact how individuals handle health issues and seek medical attention.All
eventually causing a downgrade in utilization of healthcare services. (Ain & Gul,
2023) (Call, 2023)(Valentine et al., 2022) (O’Connor et al., 2022)

2.4 Review on Factors and Reasons for Non-Health Seeking Behaviors Among
Men
In examining the factors and reasons behind non-health seeking behaviors
among men, it becomes evident that there are numerous challenges that hinder
their willingness to utilize available health services. One prominent factor is the
detrimental impact on their sense of masculinity, causing concerns about
appearing weak or less like a man (McGraw, 2018). This unique aspect influences
men's decisions to avoid utilizing free health services offered, such as bowel
cancer screening kits.
Furthermore, there is a distinct trend illustrating that men tend to seek mental
health treatment less frequently than women. Multiple factors play a role in this
disparity, including examining the factors and reasons behind non-health seeking
behaviors among men; it becomes evident that there are numerous challenges
that hinder their willingness to utilize available health services. One prominent
factor is the detrimental impact on their sense of masculinity, causing concerns
about appearing weak or less like a man (McGraw, 2018). This unique aspect
influences men's decisions to avoid utilizing free health services offered, such as
bowel cancer screening kits.
Furthermore, there is a distinct trend illustrating that men tend to seek mental
health treatment less frequently than women. Multiple factors play a role in this
disparity, including race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, income, relationship
status, depression symptoms, and body mass index. These facets have a
significant influence on men's help-seeking behaviors (Isabel et al., 2018). For
example, studies have shown that men from certain racial or ethnic backgrounds
may face cultural barriers that discourage them from seeking help for mental
health problems. In some cultures, seeking help for mental health issues is seen
as a sign of weakness or a personal failure. Similarly, men who identify as
LGBTQ+ may fear discrimination or lack of understanding from healthcare
professionals, leading to their reluctance to seek assistance. Age and income can
also impact men's access to mental health services, as younger men may lack
awareness or resources, while lower-income men may face financial constraints
that prevent them from seeking help. Additionally, men in relationships may feel
pressure to appear strong and self-reliant, which can deter them from seeking
help. They may fear that acknowledging their mental health struggles might
burden their partners or cause strain in their relationships. Depression
symptoms and body mass index are also linked to men's help-seeking behaviors,
as individuals with higher levels of depression or obesity may experience feelings
of shame or embarrassment that hinder their willingness to seek assistance
(Isabel et al., 2018).
A cross-sectional study discovered that men, compared to women, expressed less
willingness to seek help for mental health problems (Isabel et al., 2018).
Intriguingly, the study unveiled that men and women favoured seeking help from
friends or relatives rather than healthcare professionals. This preference for
informal support networks may be influenced by societal expectations and
gender norms. Men may feel more comfortable confiding in friends or family
members due to the perception that seeking professional help is a sign of
weakness or vulnerability. The stigma surrounding mental health issues further
exacerbates this reluctance to seek professional assistance. Men may fear being
judged or labelled negatively if they seek help from healthcare professionals,
which can prevent them from reaching out for support.
A comprehensive systematic review and synthesis investigating behaviour
change techniques in interventions targeting men's help-seeking behaviors shed
further light on the subject. The study demonstrated that men's reluctance to
seek help for mental health difficulties stems from socialization into traditional
masculine gender roles (Sagar-Ouriaghli et al., 2019). These deeply ingrained
gender norms perpetuate a perception that seeking help is synonymous with
weakness or vulnerability, deterring men from seeking the necessary care. For
instance, societal expectations often place an emphasis on men being strong,
independent, and self-sufficient. As a result, men may internalize these
expectations and feel reluctant to seek help, fearing that it may compromise their
masculinity and how they are perceived by others.
To effectively address this issue and encourage men to seek healthcare services,
it is vital to consider these factors and develop strategies that challenge
traditional masculine gender roles. By fostering an environment that promotes
help-seeking behaviour and destigmatizes seeking assistance, healthcare
providers can play a pivotal role in encouraging men to overcome these barriers.
For example, healthcare professionals can engage in targeted outreach efforts to
raise awareness about the importance of mental health and combat stigma. By
actively reaching out to men and providing them with information and support,
healthcare professionals can help normalize the act of seeking help and make it
more acceptable for men to reach out. Additionally, incorporating mental health
education and support programs in schools, workplaces, and community settings
can help normalize help-seeking behaviors among men. By providing education
and resources in these environments, men can gain a better understanding of
mental health and feel more empowered to seek help when needed.
Men's non-health seeking behaviors can be attributed to a range of factors,
including societal expectations, cultural barriers, and personal concerns about
masculinity. The negative impact on their masculinity, along with concerns about
appearing weak or less like a man, significantly affects their willingness to utilize
available health services. Additionally, societal factors such as race/ethnicity,
sexual orientation, age, income, relationship status, depression symptoms, and
body mass index contribute to men's reluctances. These factors create barriers
that prevent men from seeking the care they need and deserve.
In summary, it is essential to address the underlying reasons for men's non-
health seeking behaviors thoroughly. By understanding the critical factors
involved, healthcare providers and policymakers can develop effective strategies
to encourage men to seek healthcare services. This literature review aims to shed
light on the challenges and barriers men face in accessing healthcare and propose
potential solutions to address these issues. Through a comprehensive
examination of relevant studies and findings, this review aims to contribute to
the existing body of knowledge on men's health-seeking behaviors. By expanding
our understanding of these factors and reasons, we can strive to create a more
inclusive and supportive healthcare system for men. With continued research
and targeted interventions, we can work towards breaking down the barriers
that prevent men from seeking the care they need and deserve. By challenging
traditional gender roles and promoting help-seeking behaviour, we can create a
society where men feel comfortable seeking the necessary care for their mental
health.
Furthermore, there is a distinct trend illustrating that men tend to seek mental
health treatment less frequently than women. Multiple factors play a role in this
disparity, including race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, income, relationship
status, depression symptoms, and body mass index. These facets have a
significant influence on men's help-seeking behaviors (Isabel et al., 2018). A
cross-sectional study discovered that men, compared to women, expressed less
willingness to seek help for mental health problems (Isabel et al., 2018).
Intriguingly, the study unveiled that men and women favoured seeking help from
friends or relatives rather than healthcare professionals. Only a meagre
percentage of individuals turned to healthcare professionals for assistance
(Isabel et al., 2018).
A comprehensive systematic review and synthesis investigating behaviour
change techniques in interventions targeting men's help-seeking behaviors shed
further light on the subject. The study demonstrated that men's reluctance to
seek help for mental health difficulties stems from socialization into traditional
masculine gender roles (Sagar-Ouriaghli et al., 2019). These deeply ingrained
gender norms perpetuate a perception that seeking help is synonymous with
weakness or vulnerability, deterring men from seeking the necessary care.
To effectively address this issue and encourage men to seek healthcare services,
it is vital to consider these factors and develop strategies that challenge
traditional masculine gender roles. By fostering an environment that promotes
help-seeking behaviour and destigmatizes seeking assistance, healthcare
providers can play a pivotal role in encouraging men to overcome these barriers.
men's non-health seeking behaviors can be attributed to a range of factors. The
negative impact on their masculinity, along with concerns about appearing weak
or less like a man, significantly affects their willingness to utilize available health
services. Additionally, societal factors such as race/ethnicity, sexual orientation,
age, income, relationship status, depression symptoms, and body mass index
contribute to men's reluctances. Consequently, interventions should focus on
challenging traditional gender roles in order to foster an environment that
supports and encourages men to seek the care they require.
In summary, it is essential to address the underlying reasons for men's non-
health seeking behaviors thoroughly. By understanding the critical factors
involved, healthcare providers and policymakers can develop effective strategies
to encourage men to seek healthcare services. This literature review aims to shed
light on the challenges and barriers men face in accessing healthcare and propose
potential solutions to address these issues. Through a comprehensive
examination of relevant studies and findings, this review aims to contribute to
the existing body of knowledge on men's health-seeking behaviors. By expanding
our understanding of these factors and reasons, we can strive to create a more
inclusive and supportive healthcare system for men.
2.5 Effects of Poor Health Seeking Behaviours
Poor health-seeking behaviors can significantly harm individuals, communities,
and healthcare systems. They can lead to delayed diagnosis and treatment,
causing health disorders to progress to advanced stages, limiting treatment
options, and worsening health outcomes. Additionally, these behaviors increase
the disease burden, as individuals who delay healthcare are at a higher risk of
complications, hospitalizations, and impairment due to untreated or poorly
managed conditions. Neglecting preventative care and early intervention can
lead to increased healthcare expenses, as individuals who engage in poor health-
seeking behaviors may require more extensive and costly medical treatments for
diseases that could have been prevented or managed more effectively.
Additionally, untreated health issues caused by poor health-seeking behaviors
can reduce productivity and quality of life, as chronic illnesses, discomfort, and
disability may limit productivity and inhibit participation in social activities,
ultimately diminishing overall quality of life. Health inequities are exacerbated by
disparities in health-seeking behaviors, socioeconomic factors, cultural barriers,
and access-related challenges. These disparities can lead to negative
psychological impacts, such as anxiety, depression, and feelings of helplessness.
Addressing these issues requires multifaceted interventions targeting individual,
social, cultural, and systemic factors influencing healthcare utilization. Strategies
such as promoting health literacy, improving access to healthcare services,
reducing stigma, and fostering patient-centered care are essential for mitigating
the adverse effects of poor health-seeking behaviors and promoting better health
outcomes for all individuals and communities.
Poor health-seeking behaviors can have significant detrimental effects on
individuals, communities, and healthcare systems. Failure to seek timely medical
attention can result in delayed diagnosis of health conditions, leading to the
progression of illnesses to more advanced stages (Bhor, 2023). Poor health-
seeking behaviors contribute to the increased prevalence and severity of
preventable diseases, resulting in higher rates of complications, hospitalizations,
and disability (Bamidele et al., 2023). Neglecting preventive care and early
intervention can lead to higher healthcare costs in the long run Poor health-
seeking behaviors can have significant detrimental effects on individuals,
communities, and healthcare systems. Failure to seek timely medical attention
can result in delayed diagnosis of health conditions, leading to the progression of
illnesses to more advanced stages (Bhor, 2023). Poor health-seeking behaviors
contribute to the increased prevalence and severity of preventable diseases,
resulting in higher rates of complications, hospitalizations, and disability
(Bamidele et al., 2023). Neglecting preventive care and early intervention can
lead to higher healthcare costs in the long run (Solomon et al., 2023). Failure to
seek medical attention for contagious illnesses can facilitate the spread of
infections within communities [4]. Untreated health conditions resulting from
poor health-seeking behaviors can impair individuals' ability to function
optimally in their daily lives, limiting productivity and diminishing overall quality
of life [5]. Disparities in health-seeking behaviors contribute to inequities in
health outcomes across different population groups . Avoidance of healthcare
due to fear, stigma, or psychological barriers can have negative effects on mental
health and well-being . Addressing poor health-seeking behaviors requires
multifaceted interventions that target individual, social, cultural, and systemic
factors influencing healthcare utilization . Promoting health literacy, improving
access to healthcare services, reducing stigma, and fostering patient-centered
care are essential strategies for mitigating the adverse effects of poor health-
seeking behaviors and promoting better health outcomes for all individuals and
communities.

2.5 Existing Interventions

Existing interventions targeting health-seeking behaviors encompass a variety of
approaches that address different factors influencing individuals’ decisions to
seek healthcare. Health education and promotion campaigns aim to raise
awareness about preventive care, early detection of illnesses, and the importance
of seeking timely medical attention (Foster et al., 2023). School-based health
education programs empower young people to make informed decisions about
their health (Sanghvi et al., 2023). Improving healthcare accessibility includes
expanding infrastructure in underserved areas, establishing mobile clinics,
telemedicine services, and community health centers [(Guthold et al., 2023)].
Subsidized healthcare programs and insurance schemes enhance affordability
and reduce financial barriers to accessing medical care (Muflih et al., 2023).
Cultural sensitivity training and outreach involve culturally tailored health
interventions and community-based initiatives to promote health-seeking
behaviors within diverse populations (Braveman, 2023)Integrating mental
health services into primary care settings reduces stigma and improves access to
mental healthcare . Technology and innovation play a role through mobile health
applications, telehealth platforms, and social media for health promotion and
dissemination of accurate health information . Policy and advocacy efforts focus
on addressing systemic barriers to healthcare access and improving healthcare
quality .
2.5Theoretical Framework
This study will use the Andersen-Newman Behavioral Model. This modelfocus
onidentifying factors that influence the use of health services, particularly it
posits that healthcare underutilization is influenced by three set of factors:
Predisposing Factors, Enabling Factors & Need Factors.
In this model predisposing factors refers to individual characteristics that exist
prior to onset of illness or the need for healthcare services.In context of this
study these factors will include:
Gender Norms and Stereotypes: Societal Expectations of masculinity may
discourage male students from seeking healthcare, thereby leading to
underutilization
Lack of Health Literacy: Male students may have limited knowledge about
healthcare services available on campus, symptoms, or preventive measures
affecting their willingness to seek medical help
Stigma associated with help-seeking; There may be a perception among male
students that seeking healthcare is assign of weakness and vulnerability. This
thereby leading to avoidance of services
In this same model Enabling Factors encompasses resources and support
systems that facilitate or impede healthcare utilization among male students in
this study these factors may include financial constraints, availability of
healthcare services, social support
Finally need factors represents the perceived or evaluated need for healthcare
services including factors such as perceived invincibility, denial of symptoms or
delay of symptoms, fear of diagnosis or treatment etc.
In summary this model will help in elucidating the multifaceted nature of
healthcare service underutilization among Babcock undergraduate male students
on campus by considering predisposing, enabling and need factors. Addressing
these factors through this research will help in implementing targeted
interventions for the nearest future
Figure 1 Andersen-NewmanBehavioural Model Diagram (ANBM)

Chapter 3
Introduction
This chapter presents the research design and methodology employed in
exploring factors contributing to healthcare underutilization among
undergraduate male students at Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, and Ogun
State, Nigeria. The chapter begins with a description of the study area, followed
by an outline of the study population, sample size determination, sampling
procedure, data collection methods, validity and reliability measures, data
collection procedure, data management, data analysis techniques, and ethical
considerations.
3.1 Research Design
This research will be applying a Qualitative Research Design with the aim of
exploring and understanding in depth the nuances involved in this health seeking
behaviours and potentially uncover factors that quantitative methods might
overlook.
3.2Description of the Study Area
Ogun State, situated in southwestern Nigeria, was established on February 3,
1976, carved out of the former Western State. Covering an area of 16,762 square
kilometres and hosting an estimated population of 3.8 million, it has its capital in
Abeokuta and is characterized by tropical rainforests with wooden savannas in
the northwest. Ogun shares borders with Oyo and Osun to the north, Lagos to the
south, Ondo to the east, and the Republic of Benin to the west.
Known for having the highest number of registered universities in Nigeria, Ogun
State is home to various ethnic groups, including the Egba, Ijebu, Remo, Egbado,
Awori, and Egun. The predominant language is Yoruba, spoken in numerous
dialects. The state comprises 20 local government areas and notable cities like
Abeokuta, Ijebu-Ode, Sagamu, Ikenne Remo, Ijaro, Ijebu-Igbo, Aiyetoro, among
others.
Ilishan Remo, located within Irepodun district in Ikenne Local Government of
Ogun State, is positioned in the rainforest climatic region. Noteworthy for being
the birthplace of Chief Obafemi Awolowo and philosopher Prof. John Olubi
Sodipo, it is the setting for Babcock University.
Babcock University, a Seventh-day Adventist institution founded in 1959, is
situated in Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State. With a semi-urban location between
Sagamu and Odogbolu, it consists of two campuses: the main campus in Ilishan
and a mini campus in Iperu. The university, owned by the Seventh-day Adventist
Church in Nigeria, is private, Christian, and co-educational, accommodating over
13,000students across eleven schools, one university, and ten female halls of
residence and approximately ten male halls of residence .This geographical area
will serve as the focal point for the research at hand.
3.3 Study Population
The study population comprises undergraduate male students enrolled at
Babcock University. These students represent diverse socio-economic
backgrounds, academic disciplines, and geographical regions within Nigeria and
beyond.
Inclusion criteria
The inclusion criteria for this study include:
1. Male undergraduates residing on campus in Babcock University.
2. Registered students at Babcock University.
3. Registered students on campus hostels in Babcock University.
Exclusion criteria
The exclusion criteria for this study include:
1. Postgraduate students residing at Babcock University
2. Non- registered students at Babcock University
3. Off-campus students at Babcock University
3.4 Sample Technique/Sampling Procedure
The sampling technique employed for this study will be purposive sampling,
specifically criterion sampling, which involved selecting participants who met
specific criteria relevant to the research objectives. Participants were selected
based on their enrolment as undergraduate male students at Babcock University
and their willingness to participate in the study.

3.5 Sample Size & Sample Size Determination

As stated before the sampling technique employed for this study is purposive
sampling, specifically criterion sampling. Participants are selected based on their
enrolment as undergraduate male students at Babcock University and their
willingness to participate in the study.
Figure 2 Registered Male Students on Campus Hostels as of 2024 February
HostelNumber of Blocks Block Categorization/hostel Hostel Package
Total Rooms / hostel Population/ room(Average can be less)
Rooms /block Total Population of registered students/hostel
(as of February 2024)
Neal Wilson 6 A-F Premium 125 6 A - 18 B-
24 C - 15 D - 22 E - 24 F - 22
526
Gideon Troopers 6 Medical block A-C
Non Medical block D-F Classic 137 2 A -40 B – 40
C- 42 D - 44 E-47 F - 44 481
Samuel Akande 4 Ground Floor-GF
First Floor-FF
Second Floor-SF
Top Floor-TF Classic 128 4 32 per block 457
Nelson Mandela 4 Ground Floor-GF
First Floor-FF
Second Floor-SF
Top Floor-TF Premium 192 6 32 per block 466
Welch 3 A-C Premium 107 6/extension rooms
4/average room A – 40
B - 50
C - 17 384
Bethel Splendour 4 A-D Classic 160 4 A-30
B-D-33 516
Winslow 6 A-F Classic 2559 2/extension room
4/average room A-45
B – 45
C - 42
D - 38
E - 41 + 1 extension room
F - 41 + 1 extension room 843
Topaz 4 A-D Premium 144 5 36/per block 463
Emerald 12 A-L Classic 240 4 20/per block 619

Total Resident Hostels=9 Total Male Population=4,755

3.6 Data Collection Method/Instrument for Data Collection

Qualitative data will be collected through in-depth interviews conducted with the
selected participants

3.8 Data Analysis

For this study several types of data analysis could be suitable. However, given the
qualitative nature of in-depth interviews, thematic analysis is the most
appropriate method for analysing the data. Thematic analysis involves
identifying patterns or themes within the interview transcripts to gain insights
into participants' perspectives and experiences. Here's why thematic analysis is
well-suited for this topicThematic analysis is the most suitable method for
analysing in-depth interviews, as it captures complexity, is flexible, and allows
for iterative identification of themes. It provides rich descriptive insights into
factors influencing healthcare utilisation among male students, prioritising
participant perspectives. Thematic analysis also allows for a contextual
understanding of the challenges and barriers unique to the university setting in
Ogun State, Nigeria, allowing researchers to explore the lived realities and
perceptions of male students regarding healthcare utilization
3.9Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability of the data will be ensured through the use of established
qualitative research methods, including member checking, peer debriefing, and
triangulation of data sources. The interview guide will be assessed for clarity,
relevance, and appropriateness of the questions and reviewed by my supervisor.
3.10Data Collection Procedure
Data collection will be scheduled and conducted as face-to-face interviews with
participants in a private and comfortable setting conducive for open
communication. Interviews will be audio-recorded with participants' consent
and transcribed verbatim for analysis
3.11Data Management
Data management will involve organizing, coding, and storing the interview
transcripts securely to maintain confidentiality and privacy.
3.12 Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are going to paramount throughout the research process.
Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement
in the study. Participants will be assured of confidentiality, anonymity, and their
right to withdraw from the study at any time without repercussion. The study
protocol will be reviewed and approved by the Institutional BUHERC Board of
Babcock University to ensure compliance with ethical standards and guidelines.

CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS

This chapter presents a detailed analysis of this qualitative research findings
aimed at addressing the research questions focused on understanding the
barriers and challenges faced by male students in accessing and utilising
healthcare services at Babcock University. Additionally, the chapter provides
insights into the influence of masculine norms and gender socialisation on
healthcare-seeking behaviours, factors contributing to underutilisation,
perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and provider-related predictors of healthcare
service utilisation among male students.it will state clearly coding and analysis
strategies used.
4.1 Data Analysis Strategy
Upon completion of the interviews, I began by transcribing both the in-person
and online interviews using online transcription tools, ensuring that every
participant’s response was accurately captured. Additionally, I conducted
verbatim transcription to maintain the integrity of the participants’ words and
expressions.
Once the transcripts were ready, I employed the First Cycle In Vivo Coding
Method to analyse the data. This involved closely examining each interview
transcript to identify common keywords and phrases that related to the research
questions. I then categorised these into themes and patterns, recording my
observations in detailed memos.
I then progressed to the Second Cycle Pattern Coding Method, which entails me
further refining the codes by recognising similarities among them and
consolidating them into sub-categories or broader themes. I utilised thesaurus
tools to ensure consistency and accuracy in my coding process.
Throughout this iterative process, I continually reviewed and triangulated the
coded data, comparing it with me journaled memos to ensure its reliability. I also
applied the Axial Coding Method to explore the relationships between the
identified themes, synthesising the data to uncover deeper insights.
I then narrated the findings of my analysis, drawing connections between the
themes and the research questions. I considered the implications of the study
and made recommendations for future research or practice based on my insights.
my overall approach to data analysis involved a thorough and systematic
examination of the interview transcripts, guided by my beginner-level
understanding of research methodologies and coding techniques.

4.2 Data Analysis and Coding

Primary Level Coding:
The initial coding phase involved the use of online transcription tools to
transcribe the interview data verbatim. The process of Structural coding was
utilized to organize the raw data collected during the interviews. The data was
initially labeled using memo-codes, which included categories such as
Perceptions of Healthcare Services, Barriers to Accessing Healthcare, Influence of
Masculine Norms and Gender Socialization, Factors Contributing to
Underutilization, Perceptions, Attitudes, and Beliefs, and Provider-Related
Predictors of Healthcare Service Utilization. These categories were derived from
the research questions and served as the foundation for further analysis.
During the second-level coding process, Pattern coding was employed to group
similar memo-codes into broader themes or categories. This meta-code was used
to identify patterns and relationships within the data. Themes such as Positive
Experiences with Healthcare Services, Dissatisfaction with Healthcare Services,
Financial Constraints, Lack of Awareness, Influence of Masculine Norms, Peer
Influences, Communication Issues, and Accessibility Challenges emerged from
this process. These themes encompassed the various aspects of male students’
perceptions and experiences with healthcare services at Babcock University.
Secondary Level Coding:
The second-level coding phase involved analyzing the relationships between the
themes resulting from the primary level coding. Pattern coding was used to
further categorize the themes into three meta-codes: Service Quality,
Accessibility, and Perceptions and Attitudes. Service Quality encompassed
themes related to the quality of care received, including Positive Experiences
with Healthcare Services and Dissatisfaction with Healthcare Services.
Accessibility included themes such as Financial Constraints, Lack of Awareness,
and Accessibility Challenges. Perceptions and Attitudes included themes related
to the influence of Masculine Norms, Peer Influences, and Communication Issues.
Table 2: Secondary Level Coding
Meta-Code Themes
Service Quality Positive Experiences with Healthcare Services
Dissatisfaction with Healthcare Services

Accessibility Financial Constraints

Lack of Awareness
Accessibility Challenges

Perception And Attitude Influence of Masculine Norms

Peer & Family Influences

Communication Issues

Triangulation:
Triangulation was used to corroborate the findings of the data analysis by
comparing the resulting combined upper-level understanding with the raw data.
This process involved coding and recoding the initial raw data to ensure that the
themes and categories derived from the analysis were fit and appropriate. Any
new labels or categories that emerged during the coding process were carefully
considered and integrated into the existing framework. This iterative process
helped to ensure the validity and reliability of the data analysis.

4.3 Analysis Review

4.3.1 Perceptions of Healthcare Services
Upon analysis, a nuanced understanding of male students’ perceptions of
healthcare services emerged. While some reported positive experiences, such as
successful surgeries and efficient treatment for minor ailments, others expressed
dissatisfaction with aspects such as long waiting times, perceived lack of
confidentiality, and inadequate facilities. The variation in experiences
underscores the importance of addressing service quality and accessibility to
improve healthcare utilisation among male students.
In delving deeper into the perceptions of healthcare services among male
students at Babcock University, the analysis revealed a rich tapestry of
experiences and perspectives. On one hand, there were accounts of positive
encounters with the healthcare system, where students reported successful
surgeries and efficient treatment for minor ailments.
These positive experiences likely contribute to a sense of trust and confidence in
the healthcare services available on campus.However, alongside these positive
narratives, there were also instances of dissatisfaction and frustration. One
recurring theme was the issue of long waiting times, which many students cited
as a significant deterrent to seeking healthcare.
The perception of prolonged wait times not only reflects concerns about
efficiency and convenience but also raises questions about the overall
accessibility of healthcare services.
Moreover, concerns about confidentiality emerged as another key consideration
shaping students' perceptions of healthcare services. Some students expressed
apprehension about the privacy of their medical information and the
confidentiality of their interactions with healthcare providers. This apprehension
about confidentiality was further compounded by students’ concerns about the
potential stigma associated with seeking mental health support. Many students
expressed worries about their confidentiality being breached, particularly
regarding sensitive issues such as drug use confrontation, mental health
concerns or sexually transmitted infections (STIs). This fear of judgment or
disclosure could act as a significant barrier to seeking necessary healthcare
services, especially for those grappling with mental health challenges or
reproductive health issues.
Additionally, the perception of a lack of privacy extended beyond just the
confidentiality of medical information. Some students also highlighted
discomfort with the physical layout of healthcare facilities, expressing concerns
about the lack of private consultation rooms or partitions within shared spaces.
This lack of privacy during consultations may deter students from seeking care
for sensitive issues or discussing personal health concerns openly with
healthcare providers. The issue of confidentiality emerged as a multifaceted
concern that encompasses both the protection of medical information and the
need for private and confidential healthcare interactions. Addressing these
concerns is crucial for fostering a supportive and trusting environment within
healthcare facilities, where students feel comfortable seeking care for a wide
range of health issues without fear of judgment or breach of confidentiality.
This highlights the importance of maintaining patient confidentiality and
fostering a supportive and non-judgmental environment within healthcare
facilities.Additionally, the analysis uncovered grievances regarding inadequate
facilities, suggesting that the physical infrastructure of healthcare facilities may
not always meet the needs and expectations of the student population. Issues
such as overcrowded waiting areas or limited medical equipment may contribute
to a sense of dissatisfaction and hinder the overall quality of care provided.
The variation in experiences and perceptions of healthcare services among male
students at Babcock University underscores the complexity of the healthcare
landscape on campus.
Addressing concerns related to service quality, accessibility, confidentiality, and
infrastructure is essential for improving healthcare utilization and ensuring that
students receive the care they need in a timely and supportive manner. By
acknowledging and responding to these nuanced perceptions, healthcare
providers and administrators can work towards creating a more inclusive and
responsive healthcare environment for male students.
4.3.2 Barriers to accessing healthcare
The in-depth examination of barriers to accessing healthcare services among
male students at Babcock University uncovered a range of challenges that hinder
their ability to seek medical care when needed. Financial constraints emerged as
a predominant barrier, echoing the earlier findings that some students struggle
to afford medical treatment and medication despite the partial coverage
provided through school fees. This financial burden can significantly impact
students’ health-seeking behaviour, potentially leading to delayed or forgone
medical care.
Moreover, the lack of awareness about available services and how to access them
was identified as another significant barrier. Despite the inclusion of medical
insurance in the school fees, some students remain unaware of the scope of
coverage or where to access healthcare services on campus. This points to gaps
in communication and health education efforts, suggesting a need for targeted
initiatives to enhance students’ understanding of available resources and how to
navigate the healthcare system effectively.
Interestingly, while many participants highlighted barriers to accessing
healthcare services, some interviewees reported the absence of perceived
obstacles. These individuals attributed their ease of access to factors such as
proximity to healthcare facilities and financial support from family members.
Understanding the factors contributing to this perception of ease of access is
crucial for discerning the contextual factors that facilitate healthcare utilization
among certain segments of the student population. By identifying and leveraging
these facilitators, policymakers and healthcare providers can work towards
improving overall healthcare service delivery and accessibility for all male
students at Babcock University.
Also, while exploring the research question concerning the barriers and
challenges encountered by male students at Babcock University in accessing and
utilizing healthcare services, the qualitative analysis unearthed a multifaceted
landscape. Financial constraints emerged as a prominent barrier, compounded
by the fact that the school offers partial medical insurance for selected
medications and services within the framework of the school fees. Despite this
provision, students still face challenges in affording healthcare, indicating that
the partial coverage may not sufficiently mitigate financial barriers.
The analysis revealed a significant lack of awareness among male students about
the available healthcare services, despite the inclusion of medical insurance in
the school fees. This finding suggests a potential gap in communication and
outreach efforts regarding the scope and availability of healthcare resources.
Even with access to partial medical coverage, students may be deterred from
utilising healthcare services if they perceive the available medications and
services to be rarely available, inconveniently too expensive or of insufficient
quality. This highlights the importance of not only improving access to healthcare
but also ensuring the adequacy and reliability of the services provided.
The qualitative analysis shed light on the nuanced experiences of male students
at Babcock University in navigating healthcare access and utilisation. Despite the
provision of partial medical insurance within the school fees, students still
encounter barriers related to affordability, awareness, and perceptions of service
quality. Addressing these challenges is essential for improving healthcare service
utilisation and promoting the well-being of undergraduate male students.
4.3.3 Influence of Masculine Norms and Gender Socialisation
The analysis uncovered the complex influence of masculine norms and gender
socialisation on healthcare-seeking behaviours among male students. While
some participants admitted to feeling pressure to conform to traditional
masculine ideals that discourage help-seeking behaviour, others reported a more
progressive attitude towards healthcare, emphasising the importance of self-care
and proactive health management. However, it is essential to note that despite
these differing attitudes, societal expectations of masculinity may still play a role
in shaping healthcare utilisation patterns among male students.
while some interviewees perceived equality in access to healthcare services
regardless of gender, others acknowledged the existence of gender bias in
healthcare delivery, highlighting the need for further exploration of gender
disparities in healthcare utilisation and access among college populations. The
findings revealed a spectrum of attitudes and experiences, reflecting the diverse
ways in which traditional masculine ideals influence individuals’ approaches to
healthcare.
Some participants acknowledged feeling pressure to conform to traditional
masculine norms that discourage help-seeking behaviour. These norms often
emphasise self-reliance, stoicism, and the avoidance of vulnerability, which can
act as barriers to seeking healthcare services. In this context, the reluctance to
seek help may stem from fears of appearing weak or dependent, leading some
male students to downplay or ignore their health needs.
Conversely, other participants expressed a more progressive attitude towards
healthcare, prioritising self-care and proactive health management. These
individuals recognised the importance of seeking medical attention when needed
and were more open to discussing health-related concerns. Their attitudes
suggest a shifting paradigm wherein masculinity is redefined to encompass
qualities such as emotional intelligence and self-awareness, challenging
traditional stereotypes of male stoicism.
However, despite these varying attitudes, societal expectations of masculinity
continue to exert influence on healthcare utilisation patterns among male
students. The pressure to conform to rigid gender norms may lead some
individuals to delay seeking care until their health issues escalate, exacerbating
the problem of underutilisation of healthcare services.
the analysis revealed differing perceptions regarding gender equality in access to
healthcare services. While some interviewees believed that healthcare services
were equally accessible regardless of gender, others recognised the existence of
gender bias in healthcare delivery. These disparities underscore the need for
further exploration of gender dynamics in healthcare utilisation and access
among college populations.

4.3.4 Factors Contributing to Underutilisation

An in-depth examination into the factors contributing to healthcare service
underutilisation among male students at Babcock University unveiled a
multitude of influences spanning individual, interpersonal, and societal realms.
Participants in the study consistently pointed to perceptions of problem severity
and external pressures as significant drivers behind their tendency to delay
seeking healthcare until their health issues reached a critical stage. This
illuminates a pervasive pattern where individuals may underestimate the
urgency of seeking medical attention until symptoms escalate to a severe or
intolerable level. Addressing this perception is imperative to in-still a proactive
approach to healthcare among male students, emphasising the necessity of early
intervention and preventive care strategies.
Furthermore, the analysis has shed light on the pivotal role of social networks
and peer influences in shaping healthcare-seeking behaviours among male
students. Participants articulated how peer norms and attitudes towards
healthcare could either facilitate or impede their own health-related decision-
making processes. Positive peer influences, such as friends encouraging one
another to seek timely medical attention or engaging in discussions about health-
promoting behaviours, were identified as potential catalysts for healthcare
service utilisation. Conversely, negative peer influences, such as stigma
surrounding illness or a reluctance to seek help due to fear of judgment, could act
as formidable barriers to accessing healthcare services.
These findings underscore the paramount importance of considering the broader
social context within which healthcare behaviors unfold. Interventions designed
to foster positive health behaviors among male students must take into account
the intricate interplay of social dynamics within the college community. This may
entail cultivating supportive peer networks, implementing peer-led health
education initiatives, and fostering an environment that fosters open dialogue
about health-related concerns.

Moreover, the study’s findings elucidate the need for tailored interventions that
address the unique challenges faced by male students in accessing and utilizing
healthcare services. Strategies aimed at enhancing healthcare service utilization
among this demographic should be grounded in a comprehensive understanding
of the individual, interpersonal, and societal factors that shape their healthcare-
seeking behaviors. By addressing these factors holistically, healthcare providers
and policymakers can endeavor to ensure equitable access to healthcare services
and promote the holistic well-being of male students at Babcock University.
additional nuances regarding factors contributing to healthcare underutilization
among male students such as some participants highlighting that their parents
preferred personal doctors and healthcare providers over utilizing the services
provided by the university. This preference for personal healthcare providers
may stem from a sense of familiarity, trust, or perceived quality of care.
the study also uncovered a subset of participants who expressed skepticism
towards conventional medical practices, instead favoring traditional remedies or
relying on prayers for healing. This underscores the importance of recognizing
and addressing cultural beliefs and practices that may influence healthcare-
seeking behaviors among male students. Efforts to promote healthcare utilization
should therefore encompass culturally sensitive approaches that respect and
acknowledge diverse belief systems and health-seeking practices within the
student population.
4.3.5 Perceptions Attitudes and Beliefs

Analysis of perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs regarding healthcare utilisation

among male students provided valuable insights into their healthcare-seeking
behaviours. While some participants exhibited positive attitudes towards seeking
professional help when needed, others displayed skepticism regarding the
effectiveness of healthcare services and expressed a preference for self-
medication. These findings underscore the importance of understanding the
underlying beliefs and attitudes that shape healthcare-seeking behaviors among
this demographic.
One prevalent theme that emerged from the analysis was the issue of
accessibility and convenience. Many students expressed frustration with long
waiting periods and rule-bound protocols when seeking healthcare services for
relatively minor ailments such as headaches and coughs. This sentiment reflects
a desire for more streamlined and efficient processes, particularly for less critical
conditions. Some students suggested the use of alternative mediums, such as
telemedicine or walk-in clinics, as a means of addressing these concerns and
reducing barriers to accessing care.
 there was a notable emphasis on the importance of improving communication
between healthcare providers and male students. Participants highlighted the
need for clearer information about available healthcare services, including
details about coverage, treatment options, and appointment scheduling.
Enhancing communication channels could help alleviate misconceptions and
uncertainties surrounding healthcare utilization, ultimately encouraging more
proactive engagement with healthcare services.
the analysis of perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs regarding healthcare utilization
among male students at Babcock University highlights the importance of
addressing barriers to access, improving communication channels, and dispelling
misconceptions through targeted health education initiatives. By incorporating
these insights into healthcare policies and practices, institutions can work
towards fostering a more supportive and accessible healthcare environment for
undergraduate male students.
4.3.6 Provide related predictors.
Evaluation of provider-related predictors of healthcare service utilisation
revealed varying levels of satisfaction with healthcare service providers among
male students. Some participants expressed satisfaction with the quality of care
received and praised healthcare providers for their professionalism and
competence,others reported dissatisfaction with various aspects of their
encounters.

One prevalent issue highlighted by participants was communication. Many

students emphasized the importance of clear and effective communication from
healthcare providers, expressing frustration when information was not
adequately conveyed or when they felt their concerns were not properly
addressed. This lack of communication could lead to misunderstandings,
mistrust, and ultimately deter students from seeking healthcare when needed.
Another significant concern voiced by participants was the perceived lack of
empathy from healthcare providers. Some students felt that healthcare providers
were dismissive of their concerns or showed a lack of understanding and
compassion, which negatively impacted their overall healthcare experience. This
lack of empathy can erode trust in the healthcare system and discourage students
from seeking timely care.
Furthermore, issues related to accessibility were raised, with students
expressing difficulties in accessing healthcare services when needed. Long
waiting times and challenges in scheduling appointments were common
complaints, highlighting the need for improvements in service delivery to ensure
timely access to care.
Confidentiality and privacy in healthcare settings also emerged as important
considerations for male students. Some participants expressed concerns about
the confidentiality of their medical information and the privacy of their
healthcare encounters. Addressing these concerns is crucial for building trust
and ensuring that students feel comfortable seeking healthcare without fear of
their personal information being compromised.
Additionally, there were complaints about the perceived rudeness of some
service providers and their tendency to diagnose or prescribe treatment for
malaria even when it may not be the most accurate diagnosis. This issue speaks
to potential gaps in diagnostic practices and highlights the importance of
evidence-based medicine and individualized patient care.By addressing these
provider-related predictors, healthcare facilities can work towards improving
healthcare service utilization among undergraduate male students at Babcock
University.
4.3.7 Recommendations of improvements

Based on the insights gathered from the interviews, comprehensive

recommendations for improving healthcare service utilisation among male
students were developed. These recommendations include:
1. Enhancing Communication and Information Dissemination: Implement
strategies to improve communication between healthcare providers and male
students. This includes providing clear and detailed information about available
healthcare services, coverage options, and appointment scheduling procedures.
Utilising multiple communication channels such as email, social media, and
campus posters can help ensure that students are well-informed about their
healthcare options.
2. Training on Empathetic Patient Care: Offer training programs for
healthcare providers to enhance their communication skills and cultivate
empathy in patient interactions. Emphasise the importance of actively listening
to students’ concerns, addressing their needs with compassion, and fostering a
supportive healthcare environment.
3. Reducing Waiting Times: Implement measures to reduce waiting times
and streamline appointment scheduling processes. This may involve increasing
staffing levels, optimising appointment scheduling systems, and improving the
efficiency of clinic operations to minimise delays and enhance the overall patient
experience.
4. Enhancing Confidentiality and Privacy: Strengthen protocols and
procedures to ensure the confidentiality and privacy of student medical
information. This includes implementing strict data protection measures,
training staff on the importance of patient confidentiality, and providing private
consultation spaces for sensitive discussions.
5. Addressing Rudeness and Diagnostic Practices: Develop protocols to
address instances of rudeness or unprofessional behaviour among healthcare
providers. Provide training and support to help healthcare professionals
cultivate a respectful and non-judgmental approach towards patient care.
Additionally, encourage evidence-based diagnostic practices to ensure accurate
and tailored treatment recommendations for students.
6. Expanding Healthcare Facilities and Services: Evaluate the current
infrastructure and capacity of healthcare facilities on campus and consider
expanding services to meet the growing needs of the student population. This
may involve increasing the availability of medical equipment, expanding clinic
hours, or introducing new specialty services to address specific health concerns.
7. Promoting Mental Health Support Services: Increase awareness and access
to mental health support services on campus. Develop targeted outreach
initiatives to reduce stigma surrounding mental health issues and encourage
students to seek help when needed. Provide comprehensive counselling and
therapy services to address a wide range of mental health concerns among male
students.
8. Improving Financial Assistance Programs: Enhance financial assistance
programs to help alleviate the burden of healthcare costs for students. This may
involve expanding the coverage of medical insurance plans, providing subsidies
for essential medications, or offering financial aid packages specifically for
healthcare expenses.
9. Implementing Telemedicine and Remote Consultation Services: Explore
the feasibility of implementing telemedicine and remote consultation services to
improve access to healthcare for students, particularly those residing off-campus
or facing mobility challenges. This technology-driven approach can facilitate
timely access to medical advice and support, reducing barriers to healthcare
utilisation.
10. Promoting Health Education and Prevention Programs: Develop and
implement health education and prevention programs targeting male students to
promote proactive health management and disease prevention. Focus on topics
such as nutrition, exercise, stress management, and sexual health to empower
students to take charge of their well-being and make informed healthcare
decisions.
By implementing these recommendations, the University can create a more
inclusive, accessible, and supportive healthcare environment for male students,
ultimately improving healthcare service utilisation and promoting overall
student health and well-being.
4.4 Conclusion and Summary
This chapter described the comprehensive nalysis of this specific qualitative
research findings that were conducted to explore the barriers and challenges
faced by male students in accessing and utilizing healthcare services at Babcock
University. The analysis delved into various aspects, including the influence of
masculine norms and gender socialization on healthcare-seeking behaviors,
factors contributing to underutilization, perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and
provider-related predictors of healthcare service utilization among male
students.
The data analysis strategy employed a systematic approach, beginning with
transcription of interviews and progressing through iterative cycles of coding
and analysis. Both primary and secondary level coding methods were utilized to
identify themes and patterns within the data. Triangulation was employed to
validate the findings and ensure the reliability of the analysis.
Primary level coding revealed themes such as perceptions of healthcare services,
barriers to accessing healthcare, influence of masculine norms, and factors
contributing to underutilization. Secondary level coding further categorized
these themes into meta-codes, such as service quality, accessibility, and
perceptions and attitudes.
The analysis uncovered nuanced perceptions and experiences among male
students regarding healthcare services at Babcock University. While some
students reported positive experiences, others expressed dissatisfaction with
aspects such as long waiting times, perceived lack of confidentiality, and
inadequate facilities. Financial constraints and lack of awareness were identified
as prominent barriers to accessing healthcare services.
Moreover, the influence of masculine norms and gender socialization on
healthcare-seeking behaviors was evident, with some students feeling pressure
to conform to traditional ideals of masculinity that discourage help-seeking
behavior. However, there were also instances of more progressive attitudes
towards healthcare, emphasizing the importance of self-care and proactive
health management.
Provider-related predictors of healthcare service utilization revealed varying
levels of satisfaction with healthcare providers among male students.
Communication issues, perceived lack of empathy, and concerns about
confidentiality and privacy emerged as significant factors influencing students’
interactions with healthcare providers.
Based on the analysis, several recommendations were proposed to improve
healthcare service utilization among male students, including enhancing
communication and information dissemination, training on empathetic patient
care, reducing waiting times, enhancing confidentiality and privacy, addressing
rudeness and diagnostic practices, expanding healthcare facilities and services,
promoting mental health support services, improving financial assistance
programs, implementing telemedicine and remote consultation services, and
promoting health education and prevention programs.
In conclusion, the analysis provides valuable insights into the barriers and
challenges faced by male students in accessing and utilizing healthcare services
at Babcock University. By addressing these challenges and implementing the
proposed recommendations, Babcock University can create a more inclusive and
supportive healthcare environment for male students, ultimately promoting their
overall health and well-being.

Chapter Five: Discussion and Conclusion

5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a comprehensive discussion and synthesis of the
qualitative findings concerning healthcare underutilisation among male students
at Babcock University. Through an in-depth analysis of the data collected, this
section aims to elucidate the key factors influencing healthcare utilisation
patterns within this specific demographic group. By exploring these findings in
relation to existing literature and theoretical frameworks, we aim to provide
insights that contribute to a deeper understanding of healthcare-seeking
behaviours and the underutilisation of healthcare services among male students.
Additionally, this chapter discusses the practical implications of the findings for
healthcare providers, policymakers, and university administrators, as well as
outlines potential avenues for future research in this area.
5.2 Summary of Findings and Research Questions
This research has revealed several key findings regarding the barriers and
challenges faced by male students at Babcock University in accessing and
utilising healthcare services. Themes such as masculine norms, socialisation
processes, individual attitudes and beliefs, interpersonal dynamics, and provider-
related factors emerged as significant contributors to healthcare underutilisation
among male students.
5.2.1 Research Question 1: What are the specific barriers and challenges that
male students at Babcock University face in accessing and utilising healthcare
services?
The analysis in this research unveiled a multitude of barriers impeding male
students’ access to healthcare services. Financial constraints, limited awareness
of available services, societal norms surrounding masculinity and health, and
logistical obstacles such as transportation emerged as significant impediments.
These findings underscore the imperative for targeted interventions aimed at
comprehensively addressing these multifaceted barriers
5.2.2 .Research Question 2: How do masculine norms and gender socialisation
influence healthcare-seeking behaviours and the underutilisation of healthcare
services among male students at Babcock University?
The influence of masculine norms and socialisation processes on male students’
healthcare-seeking behaviours was profound. Stigma associated with seeking
help, reluctance to display vulnerability, and societal expectations of self-reliance
were notable influencers. Recognising and addressing these influences are
imperative for developing interventions that promote equitable access to
healthcare among male students .
5.2.3 Research Question 3: What individual, interpersonal, and societal factors
contribute to the underutilisation of healthcare services among male students at
Babcock University?
Individual attitudes and beliefs were found to shape healthcare utilisation
patterns significantly. Factors such as perceived invincibility, fear of judgment,
and skepticism towards medical interventions emerged as key determinants.
Understanding and addressing these individual-level factors are essential for
fostering a positive attitude towards healthcare utilisation.
5.2.4 Research Question 4: What are the perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs of
male students at Babcock University regarding healthcare utilisation, and how do
these factors impact their engagement with healthcare services?
Interpersonal relationships within peer groups and with healthcare providers
played a crucial role in healthcare utilisation. Peer influence, familial
expectations, and patient-provider communication emerged as crucial factors.
Enhancing interpersonal dynamics and communication channels within the
healthcare system are vital for overcoming barriers to healthcare utilisation.
5.2.5 Research Question 5: What provider-related predictors influence
healthcare service utilisation among male students at Babcock University, and
how do these predictors affect their decision to seek medical care?
Provider-related factors significantly influenced healthcare service utilisation
among male students. Perceived trustworthiness of healthcare professionals,
quality of care, and availability of tailored services were identified as critical
determinants. Improving provider-patient communication, training healthcare
professionals in gender-sensitive care, and enhancing service accessibility are
essential steps towards promoting healthcare utilisation.
5.3 Discussion
Interpreting these findings in light of existing literature and theoretical
frameworks, we discuss the implications for understanding healthcare-seeking
behaviours and underutilisation of healthcare services among male students. The
discussion delves into the complex interplay of sociocultural, economic, and
institutional factors that shape healthcare utilisation patterns and highlights the
need for targeted interventions to address these barriers effectively.
It became evident that male students at Babcock University encounter a lot of
challenges when attempting to access and utilise healthcare services. These
challenges range from various sources, including financial constraints, limited
awareness of available services, and societal expectations surrounding
masculinity. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive
interventions that address both individual-level barriers and systemic issues to
promote equitable healthcare access among male students.
One of the notable insights from the analysis is the significant influence of
masculine norms and socialization processes on male students’ healthcare-
seeking behaviors. The stigma associated with seeking help, reluctance to display
vulnerability, and pressure to embody traditional notions of self-reliance all
contribute to the underutilization of healthcare services among male students.
This highlights the importance of addressing gender norms and promoting help-
seeking behaviors through targeted interventions and educational programs.
Individual attitudes and beliefs play crucial roles in shaping healthcare utilization
patterns among male students. Factors such as perceived invincibility, fear of
judgment, and skepticism towards medical interventions reflect deeply ingrained
beliefs that hinder male students from seeking necessary medical care.
Interventions aimed at challenging these beliefs and fostering a positive attitude
towards healthcare utilization are essential to overcoming this barrier.
Interpersonal relationships, both within peer groups and with healthcare
providers, also influence healthcare utilization among male students. Peer
influence, familial expectations, and the quality of patient-provider
communication emerged as key factors shaping healthcare-seeking behaviors.
Strengthening interpersonal dynamics and improving communication channels
within the healthcare system can help alleviate barriers to healthcare utilization
and encourage male students to seek medical care when needed.
This research analysis identified several provider-related predictors of
healthcare service utilization among male students. The perceived
trustworthiness of healthcare professionals, quality of care provided, and
availability of tailored services emerged as critical factors influencing their
decisions to seek medical care. This highlights the importance of fostering
positive patient-provider relationships, ensuring culturally competent care, and
improving the accessibility of healthcare services to promote healthcare
utilization among male students.
Therefore,addressing the barriers and challenges faced by male students in
accessing and utilizing healthcare services requires a multifaceted approach that
encompasses individual-level interventions, changes to institutional policies, and
shifts in societal norms. By understanding the factors influencing healthcare-
seeking behaviors among male students and implementing targeted strategies to
address these factors, Babcock University can work towards creating a
healthcare environment that is inclusive, accessible, and responsive to the needs
of all students.

5.4 Theoretical Contributions

In this study, my exploration into the role of masculine norms and gender
socialization in shaping healthcare-seeking behaviors among male students has
yielded insightful findings. By delving into these theoretical concepts, I've gained
a nuanced understanding of how traditional gender roles influence patterns of
healthcare utilization. The study underscores the importance of considering
gender dynamics in healthcare provision, emphasizing the need to challenge and
redefine rigid masculine norms that may impede male students' access to
healthcare services.Moreover, the findings highlight the diverse experiences and
perspectives within the male student population. While certain masculine norms
may discourage help-seeking behaviors among some male students, others
navigate healthcare utilization differently based on individual attitudes, beliefs,
and interpersonal relationships..
Recognizing and acknowledging this diversity is crucial for tailoring
interventions that effectively address the barriers faced by male students in
accessing and utilizing healthcare services.Additionally, the study underscores
the pivotal role of provider-related factors in influencing healthcare service
utilization among male students. Through qualitative analysis, I've identified the
significance of perceived trustworthiness, quality of care, and service
accessibility in shaping male students' decisions to seek medical care.
These insights underscore the importance of fostering positive patient-provider
relationships, enhancing communication channels, and improving the cultural
competence of healthcare services to better meet the needs of male students.In
essence, my theoretical contributions deepen the understanding of the complex
interplay between masculine norms, gender socialization, and healthcare-seeking
behaviors among male students. By elucidating these dynamics, the study
provides valuable insights for developing targeted interventions aimed at
promoting healthcare utilization and improving the overall health outcomes of
male students in academic settings.
5.5 Practical Implications
The practical implications derived from this study resonate across various
stakeholders, encompassing healthcare providers, policymakers, and university
administrators vested in augmenting healthcare access and utilization among
male students. To address these implications effectively, several
recommendations emerge:
The creation of culturally sensitive healthcare services tailored to the unique
needs and preferences of male students is imperative. This involves not only
ensuring that healthcare providers are trained in gender-sensitive care but also
establishing environments that foster trust and inclusivity.Secondly, the
implementation of targeted health education programs is essential for promoting
health literacy and encouraging proactive healthcare-seeking behaviors among
male students. These programs should aim to debunk myths surrounding
masculinity and health, while also emphasizing the importance of preventive
care and regular check-ups.Thirdly, policymakers need to spearhead initiatives
aimed at addressing structural barriers to healthcare access. This may include
advocating for the expansion of healthcare coverage, improving transportation
options to healthcare facilities, and increasing the availability of affordable
healthcare services on university campuses.
By heeding these recommendations, stakeholders can collectively work towards
creating a healthcare ecosystem that is responsive to the unique needs of male
students, ultimately fostering a culture of health and well-being within academic
settings.
5.6 Future Research Directions
Establishing from the findings of this study, future research endeavors could
delve deeper into various factors that influence healthcare utilization among
male students. Specifically, investigating the roles of peer influences, stigma, and
the accessibility of healthcare facilities could provide valuable insights into the
complexities of healthcare-seeking behaviors among this demographic.Moreover,
longitudinal studies represent a promising avenue for exploring the sustained
effects of targeted interventions on healthcare utilization patterns and health
outcomes among male students.
By tracking changes over time, researchers can assess the effectiveness of
interventions in promoting long-term health-seeking behaviors and improving
overall health outcomes within university settings.Additionally, exploring the
intersectionality of gender with other demographic factors, such as race,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status, could offer a more
comprehensive understanding of healthcare disparities and inform the
development of more tailored interventions aimed at promoting equitable access
to healthcare among diverse male student populations.
.Overall, future research endeavors should continue to explore the multifaceted
nature of healthcare utilization among male students, employing diverse
methodologies and frameworks to uncover nuanced insights that contribute to
the advancement of knowledge in this field.
5.7 Conclusion:
In wrapping up this study, I’ve gained valuable insights into the multifaceted
nature of healthcare underutilization among male students at Babcock
University. Through the exploration, I’ve uncovered significant factors that
shape healthcare utilization patterns within this specific context. By identifying
these barriers and proposing targeted interventions, I can confidentially
suggests a move towards creating a more inclusive and equitable healthcare
environment that meets the diverse needs of all students.