Solid and Fluid Mechanics

Introduction to Solid Mechanics

Stress and Strain
Stress-Strain Diagram
Universal Testing Machine

Problems in Stress, Strain, Elongation, Displacements

G. Vinayagamurthy Dr. Eng.,

School of Mechanical Engineering
VIT Chennai
 Applied Mechanics & Thermal Engineering
• Mechanics- Mechanics is the science which
describes and predicts the conditions of rest or
motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Mechanics of Solids / Materials/ Fluids

Compression Tension (stretched) Bending Torsion (twisted) Shearing

 Applied Mechanics
• Categories of Mechanics
- Rigid bodies Mechanical vibrations
- Statics
- Dynamics
Deformation of solids
- Deformable bodies Bending of Beams
- Fluids

Mechanics of Fluids and measurements

Turbines and Pumps
• Review of fundamentals
• Space - associated with the notion of the position of a point P given in terms
of three coordinates measured from a reference point or origin.

• Time - definition of an event requires specification of the time and position at

which it occurred.

• Mass - used to characterize and compare bodies, e.g., response to earth’s

gravitational attraction and resistance to changes in translational motion.

• Force - represents the action of one body on another. A force is characterized

by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e., a force is a vector
quantity.

In Newtonian Mechanics, space, time, and mass are absolute concepts,

independent of each other. Force, however, is not independent of the other
three. The force acting on a body is related to the mass of the body and the
variation of its velocity with time.
 Properties of Solids
• The concept of physical
“strength” means the
ability of an object to
hold its form even when
force is applied.
• To evaluate the properties
of materials, it is
sometimes necessary to
separate out the effects of
design, such as shape and
size.
 Unit – I : Deformation of solids
Concepts : Stress and Strain
Stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that
neighbouring particles of a continuous material exert on each other.
Force One pascal is equal to one newton of force per
Stress  square meter of area (1 N/m2).
Area
Sectional Area

Compression Tension (stretched) Bending Torsion (twisted) Shearing

 Force
Stress 
Area

• A thicker wire can support

more force at the same
stress as a thinner wire
because the cross section
area is increased.
 Tensile strength

• The tensile strength is the stress at which a

material breaks under a tension force.

 The tensile strength

also describes how
materials break in
bending.
Concepts : Stress and Strain
Strain = Measure of deformation

L L
Strain 
L L

• Elasticity measures the ability of a material to

stretch.
• The strain is the amount a material has been
deformed, divided by its original size.
 Properties of solids
• The modulus of elasticity
plays the role of the
spring constant for solids.
• A material is elastic when
it can take a large
amount of strain before
breaking.
• A brittle material breaks
at a very low value of
strain.
Modulus of Elasticity
 Problems- Stress for solids

• Calculating stress for solids is similar to using

Hooke's law for springs.
• Stress and strain take the place of force and
distance in the formula:
Modulus of
elasticity (pa)
Stress (Mpa) s=Ee
Strain
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test
machine
pical tensile
pecimen

extensometer specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.)
 Behavior of a Elastic material
Elastic Limit: The point beyond which permanent deformation will result when the
load is removed.

Proportional limit: The point beyond which stress is no longer

proportional to strain.
 Typical response of a metal

• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

engineering stress
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
strength

Necking

engineering strain
 Review of concepts
L Tensile /
Strain  compressive
L

Shear Strain = tan Ф = NN’ / NP

Volumetric Strain = Change in Vol.

Original Vol.
A steel bar is 900 mm long; its two ends are 40 mm and 30
mm in diameter and the length of each rod is 200 mm. The
middle portion of the bar is 15 mm in diameter and 500
mm long. If the bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of
15 kN, find its total extension.

Take E = 200 GN/m2

A member LMNP is subjected to point loads as
shown in fig.
Calculate
1.Force P necessary for equilibrium
2.As a deformable body, find its total elongation of
the bar
Take E = 200 GN/m2
A straight unifrm bar AD is clamped at both ends and
loaded as shown in Fig. Initially the bar is stress free.
Determine the stresses in all the three parts (Ab, BC,
CD) of the bar if the cross-sectional area of the bar is
1000 mm2
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)

•Elastic materials always spring back into shape when released.

They also obey HOOKE’s LAW.

•This is the law of spring which states that deformation is directly

proportional to the force. F/x = stiffness = kN/m

•The stiffness is different for the different material and different sizes of the
material. We may eliminate the size by using stress and strain instead of
force and deformation:

•If F and x is refer to the direct stress and strain , then

F A FL 
F  A x  L hence 
x L
and 
Ax 
 •The stiffness is now in terms of stress and strain only and this
constant is called the MODULUS of ELASTICITY (E)

E FL 

Ax 

• A graph of stress against strain will be straight line with

gradient of E. The units of E are the same as the unit of stress.

ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS

•If a material is stretched until it breaks, the tensile stress has
reached the absolute limit and this stress level is called the
ultimate tensile stress.
STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

Elastic behaviour
The curve is straight line trough out most of the region
Stress is proportional with strain
Material to be linearly elastic
Proportional limit
The upper limit to linear line
The material still respond elastically
The curve tend to bend and flatten out
Elastic limit
Upon reaching this point, if load is remove, the
specimen still return to original shape
 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
Yielding
 A Slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will
result in breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently.
This behaviour is called yielding
The stress that cause = YIELD STRESS@YIELD
POINT
Plastic deformation
Once yield point is reached, the specimen will
elongate (Strain) without any increase in load
Material in this state = perfectly plastic
 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
• STRAIN HARDENING
– When yielding has ended, further load applied, resulting in a curve that rises
continuously
– Become flat when reached ULTIMATE STRESS
– The rise in the curve = STRAIN HARDENING
– While specimen is elongating, its cross sectional will decrease
– The decrease is fairly uniform
• NECKING
– At the ultimate stress, the cross sectional area begins its localised region of
specimen
– it is caused by slip planes formed within material
– Actual strain produced by shear strain
– As a result, “neck” tend to form
– Smaller area can only carry lesser load, hence curve donward
– Specimen break at FRACTURE STRESS
SHEAR STRESS 
•Shear force is a force applied sideways on the material (transversely
loaded).

When a pair of shears cut a material

When a material is punched

When a beam has a transverse load

Shear stress is the force per unit area carrying the load. This
means the cross sectional area of the material being cut, the
beam and pin.
F
•Shear stress,   and symbol is called Tau
A
The sign convention for shear force and stress is based on how it
shears the materials as shown below.
 SHEAR STRAIN 
The force causes the material to deform as shown. The shear strain
is defined as the ratio of the distance deformed to the height

x
L
. 
Since this is a very small angle , we can say that :

Shear strain

x
 
L
( symbol called
Gamma)
MODULUS OF RIGIDITY (G)

•If we conduct an experiment and measure x for various values of F,

we would find that if the material is elastic, it behave like spring and
so long as we do not damage the material by using too big force,
the graph of F and x is straight line as shown.

F
The gradient of the graph is constant so  cons tan t
x

and this is the spring stiffness of the block in N/m.

•If we divide F by area A and x by the height L, the relationship is

still a constant and we get
 •If we divide F by area A and x by the height L, the relationship is
still a constant and we get
F
A  F x L  FL  con tan t
x A x Ax
L
F
 F L FL 
Where A then x    con tan t
A x Ax 
x
 
L

This constant will have a special value for each elastic material
and is called the Modulus of Rigidity (G). 
G

ULTIMATE SHEAR STRESS

If a material is sheared beyond a certain limit and it becomes

permanently distorted and does not spring all the way back to its
original shape, the elastic limit has been exceeded.

If the material stressed to the limit so that it parts into two, the
ultimate limit has been reached.

The ultimate shear stress has symbol 

and this value is used
to calculate the force needed by shears and punches.
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
 
Ao
M
2R Note:  = M/AcR here.
 Common States of Stress
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F

Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).
 Common States of Stress
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
q > 0

z > 0 h< 0
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft Nf = F
= = 2 Ao
Ao m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or kgf/cm2 or psi
• Typical tensile
specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length
Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial
loading:  x
x   y z  0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y  z  0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
   z
longitudin al strain x x
Material Poisson‘s ratio
Rubber [6] 0.48- ~0.5
Indium [11] 0.45
Gold 0.44
Lead 0.44
Copper [7] 0.37
Aluminum 0.35
Concepts of Strength, Stiffness, Stability and Ductility
A bar of length l and cross section area (b*d)
is subjected to an axial pull P. E-Young;s
modulus. Poison’s ratio = 1/m; Find change
in volume.