SUMMARY FOR POLICY MAKERS

ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES

OF FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION
OF CLIMATE CHANGE STRATEGIES
AND THE GLOBAL CONTEXT
BACKGROUND REPORT FOR THE FORMULATION OF VIET NAM’S
NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE STRATEGY (NCCS) FOR THE PERIOD 2021 TO 2050

© Patrick McGregor// Unsplash

NOVEMBER 2021
 OUR WORK IS MADE POSSIBLE BY:

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS 4
FOREWORD 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS By CAITLIN WIESEN, Resident Representative of The United
Nations Development Programme in Viet Nam 6

SPM-1: INTRODUCTION 8
SPM-2: RESPONDING TO GLOBAL TRENDS 10
SPM-2.1 The Science of Global Climate Change 10
SPM-2.2 International Climate Change Policy and Viet
Nam’s Legal System 15
SPM-2.3 Climate Change Action and SDGs, Pandemics,
and Social Inclusion 17
SPM-2.4 Climate Change and Global Environmental
Degradation 22
SPM-2.5 GHG Emissions, International Trade and Foreign
Investment 25
SPM-2.6 Geopolitical Considerations 28
SPM-2.7 Hot Topics at COP26 30

SPM-3: INSTRUMENTS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE

STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION 33

SPM-3.1 Public Investments, Public-Private Partnerships and

Accessing Finance 33
SPM-3.2 Carbon Taxes and Carbon Cap-and-Trade 35
SPM-3.3 Subsidies, Incentives and Public Funds 38
SPM-3.4 Insurance 39
SPM-3.5 Sector Planning, Integrated Planning 41
SPM-3.6 Regulation and Enforcement to Enhance Private
Green Investment 43
SPM-3.7 Capacity Building, Training and Awareness Raising 45
SPM-3.8 Research, Science and Technology Development and
Application 46

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 49
DISCLAIMER 50
REFERENCES 51
LIST OF ACRONYMS

ADB Asian Development Bank

AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area
AI Artificial Intelligence
AIIB Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
AR6 Sixth Assessment Report on Climate Change (IPCC 2021)
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BAU Business-as-Usual
BTR Biennial transparency report
CBAM Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (EU)
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CDM Clean Development Mechanism (under the KP)
CE Circular Economy
COPs Conferences of Parties (UNFCCC, CBD)
COVID-19 Corona virus disease that started in 2019
CPEIR Climate Public Expenditure and Investment Review
CPTPP Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific
Partnership
CRTs Common reporting tables
CTF Common tabular formats
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
EbA Ecosystems-based Adaptation
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMs Ethnic Minorities
ESG Environmental, Social, and Governance (standards)
ETF Enhanced Transparency Framework
ETS missions Trading System
EU European Union
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FTAs Free Trade Agreements
G20 Group of 20 developed and large countries
GCF Green Climate Fund
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG Greenhouse gas 4
INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
IoT Internet of Things
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IT Information Technology
LED Light Emitting Diode
LTS Long-Term Strategy
LULUCF Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry
MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
MPI Ministry of Planning and Investment
MRC Mekong River Commission
MRV Measurement, Reporting and Verification
NAP National Adaptation Plan
NbS Nature-based Solutions
NBSAPs National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (CBD)
NCCS National Climate Change Strategy
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution
NIR National inventory report
NGOs Non-governmental organisations
ODA Official Development Assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PA Paris Agreement (UNFCCC)
PV (solar) Photovoltaic
PwD People with Disabilities
R&D Research and Development
RPS Renewable Portfolio Standard
SBI Subsidiary Body for Implementation
SBSTA Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SEDP Socio Economic Development Plan 2021-2025
SPM Summary for Policy Makers
SSPs Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (IPCC, AR6)
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
USA United States of America
USD United States dollar
VRE Variable Renewable Energy
VSDG Viet Nam SDG
WTO World Trade Organization 5
FOREWORD

BY CAITLIN WIESEN
Resident Representative, UNDP Viet Nam

At the Climate Change Summit held at COP26, Glasgow, United Kingdom, the
Prime Minister Pham Minh Chinh declared that Viet Nam is committed to
achieving Net-Zero carbon emissions by 2050 as well as participating in all key
global pledges at COP26. The net-zero emissions by 2050 is an ambitious target,
but achievable with the strong leadership of the Government

It is now time to align policies, legal framework, strategies, plans, investments to

achieve these new climate targets. UNDP, in collaboration with development
partners, and other stakeholders, is working closely with the Department of
Climate Change, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment in preparing a
new National Climate Change Strategy for the period 2021-2050, with the vision
to 2100. The new Climate Change Strategy needs to foster innovation,
technology transfer, cooperation and resource harmonization in two important
ways. The first is in making a just transition across key sectors (energy generation
and consumption – electricity, industry, agriculture, transportation, and
construction) for emission reduction; Secondly, ensuring that climate adaptation
solutions are prioritized through climate finance and development investments
to protect the most vulnerable people who are at the frontline of the battle
against the impacts of climate change and disasters.

This report is part of UNDP’s technical support package to the formulation of

the new Climate Change Strategy. It includes latest analysis and
recommendations on policy actions that Viet Nam should consider prioritizing to
achieve the national climate targets, in line with the Paris Agreement, and to
join global efforts to reduce global warming below 1.5oC by the end of this
century. The report provides valuable lessons and case studies from various
developing and developed countries and economies who are making progress
and in transforming their economies to become carbon neutral by 2050 or
sooner.

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The report also provides critical recommendations and priorities for young
Vietnamese who are passionate and aspire to define a greener development
pathway for Viet Nam. Youth are the leaders of Viet Nam's future, and we hope
our analysis offers some innovative thoughts where young people can lead and
take action in realizing relevant policy choices and priorities they want for their
future.

Finally, it is a pleasure to share this report with all of you. This is one of UNDP's
commitments to support the Government of Viet Nam in delivering on its
Climate Promise. UNDP would like to thank all the donors of our Global Climate
Promise Programme and NDC Global Support Programme in making this work
possible. Our special thanks to the Green Climate Fund, which provided financial
contribution in mobilizing expertise for this assignment.

We look forward to our continued partnership with all stakeholders in

supporting Viet Nam in taking stronger steps to reach its ambitions for a green
and sustainable future, where no one is left behind.

CAITLIN WIESEN,
Resident Representative, UNDP Viet Nam

7
 the formulation of the National
SPM-1. INTRODUCTION
Adaptation Plan (NAP) (SR Viet Nam
2020a, 2020b, 2020c). The Ministry of
The Intergovernmental Panel on Natural Resources and Environment
Climate Change (IPCC) has (MONRE) requested the United Nations
demonstrated with greater confidence Development Programme (UNDP) and
than ever that climate change is the German international development
happening, that it is caused by agency (GIZ) to support the
greenhouse gas (GHG) in the formulation of the NCCS through
atmosphere, and that immediate several background reports, including
reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) is this report on international experience
required to prevent the worst effects of climate change strategies in the
(IPCC 2021). Viet Nam is very global change context. This report
vulnerable to climate change, as the reviews (a) climate change trends and
effects are intensifying, so it must pay forecasts, (b) international climate
much attention to climate change change agreements, (c) international
adaptation. For the same reason it has issues affecting global climate change
a high stake in global greenhouse gas (globalisation, geo-political trends and
(GHG) emissions reduction. security, pandemic risks, and global
environmental degradation), and (d)
The Government of Viet Nam has National Climate Change Strategies
developed a series of national climate from developed and developing
change policies since 2008. It has countries and their results, weaknesses
submitted its updated Nationally and success factors.
Determined Contribution (NDC) to the
United Nations Framework Convention This summary for policy makers (SPM)
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2020. focuses on the recommendations to
It has started formulation of the Viet Nam’s NCCS based on analysis of
National Climate Change Strategy international trends and examples of
2021-2050 with outlook to 2100 (NCCS), LTSs of other countries. It looks at
which is Viet Nam’s long-term strategy adaptation and mitigation targets, and
(LTS) on climate change. policy instruments that can be used to
implement Viet Nam’s NCCS. We have
The NCCS will build on various attempted to make the
analytical efforts, including a review of recommendations appropriate to the
the Intended Nationally Determined Vietnamese situation, noting that
Contribution (INDC), preparation of the many might also be considered by
updated NDC, and work done towards other countries.
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©Luciano Mortula // ShutterStock
SPM-2. RESPONDING TO GLOBAL TRENDS

SPM-2.1: The Science of Global Climate Change

The period between 2011-2020 was the immediate, rapid and large-scale
warmest decade on record, and 2016, reductions in GHG emissions (IPCC
2019, and 2020 were the three 2021). However, recent data from the
warmest years ever observed (WMO UNFCCC show that current global
2021). Climate change is already commitments to reduce future
impacting the global population, emissions as provided in NDCs and
everywhere. There were exceptional long-term strategies (LTSs) will likely
droughts, heatwaves, floods, and lead to 2.7oC average warming by 2100
storms in 2020 and the first half of compared to the pre-industrial era
2021, which coincided with the COVID- (UNFCCC 2021e) (see Table 1 for targets
19 pandemic. Global average of selected countries). This is roughly
temperatures were higher in recent equivalent to “shared socio-economic
years compared to the warmest multi- pathway 2-4.5” (SSP2-4.5), a medium
century period in the past 100,000 level global emissions scenario. As
years (Figure 1). This is because shown in Figure 2, this will lead to an
humankind has increased atmospheric ice-free Arctic in the second half of the
GHG to unprecedented levels, century and severe ocean acidification
especially carbon dioxide (CO2) and and raises the risk of dramatic sea level
methane (CH4). rise in the coming centuries.

Climate change is impacting Viet Nam

strongly, and future effects depend on
how fast the world will be limiting
emissions (Figure 2). The IPCC has
shown that the effects of climate
change will be severe even if the world
achieves the Paris Agreement (PA)
target of 2oC maximum average global
warming, and preferably no more than
1.5oC warming. The effects will be least
severe if warming would be limited to
1.5oC (IPCC 2018), but this requires ©Bruce Rolff // ShutterStock

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 Figure 1. History of global temperature change and causes of recent warming

Source: IPCC 2021, Figure SPM.1

Viet Nam has been severely affected by In the run-up to COP26 and at COP26
climatic shocks and stresses, shown by in late 2021 additional commitments
measuring effects on human lives and to reduce long-term GHG emissions
GDP over the past decades. These have been made by several countries.
shocks and stresses are getting worse However, the emissions mitigation
because of climate change even if the efforts and plans are still insufficient
PA targets of 1.5 or 2oC maximum and for UNFCCC Parties to jointly make
average warming would be achieved. it possible to achieve global net-zero
Viet Nam’s high level of vulnerability emissions, by 2050 or soon thereafter,
means that it must continue to requires additional efforts. The
strengthen climate change adaptation, countries with the largest historical
which is our first recommendation for emissions must make most efforts to
the NCCS. Viet Nam is already reduce emissions, by more than
investing, for example in coastal currently planned. Developing
protection, and plans are shown in the countries with substantial and often
NAP. But ambitious adaptation growing emissions, such as Viet Nam,
requires international support to must make the best possible efforts to
developing countries, as highlighted in limit their emissions growth and to
Viet Nam’s updated NDC. It should plan for emissions reduction as soon as
actively participate in the UNFCCC possible. Viet Nam might adopt an
discussions on a global adaptation ambitious target date for GHG
goal, which will help national planning emissions peaking and for “net-zero”
and monitoring. emissions and indeed, at COP26, Prime

11
Minister Pham Minh Chinh announced Viet Nam's commitment to net zero by
2050 (Table 1):

Figure 2. Human activities affect all the major climate system components,
with some responding over decades and others over centuries

Source: IPCC 2021, Figure SPM.8.

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 Table 1. Emissions reduction targets of selected countries

Sources: https://www.visualcapitalist.com/race-to-net-zero-carbon-neutral-goals-
by-country/ http://m.koreaherald.com/amp/view.php?
ud=20211008000703&__twitter_impression=true&s=03 and others

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 Set a target date for national GHG key sectors and mechanisms to
emissions peaking and subsequent monitor progress.
national emission reduction. An
example of this is China (2030), as At COP26 Viet Nam also committed to
most developed countries have reducing methane emissions by 30
already reached peak emissions. For percent, limiting deforestation and
Viet Nam this will mean that sector phasing out coal power in the 2040s.
plans must be made consistent
with the national peaking target, For Viet Nam to achieve peak
especially energy sector plans. This emissions and emissions neutrality, a
will require a comprehensive, multi- dramatic expansion of variable
sector and well-coordinated renewable energy (VRE) and energy
approach following on from the storage capacity will be needed, as
work done for the updated NDC. well as electrification of e.g., transport.
The target date of 2050 for This might include measures such as
becoming emissions-neutral is in battery energy storage (BES); green
line with many other countries. The hydrogen for energy storage and heavy
EU, South Africa, Japan, Bangladesh industry; pumped storage (hydro-
and Laos are among the countries electricity); carbon capture and storage
with the same target date while, techniques; and others. These include
China and Brazil have set it for expensive measures that are currently
2060. This ambitious target for Viet being researched, and as they will
Nam will require short-, medium- mature, carbon pricing measures could
and long-term milestones for all the make them attractive (see further in
section SPM-3).

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©Canva
SPM-2.2: International Climate Change Policy and
Viet Nam’s Legal System

As a member of the UNFCCC, Viet Nam actions. This would follow

has demonstrated its responsibility to experiences of several other
contribute to the reduction of GHG countries, including Japan (Box 1),
emissions through the intended NDC China, the UK and the Philippines.
in 2016 and the updated NDC in 2020. Develop laws, strategies and plans
Viet Nam's updated NDC has identified in different sectors that help GHG
contributions in terms of GHG emission emissions reduction and/or increase
reduction and climate change resilience, articulating solutions
adaptation that are consistent with such as: (a) Nature-based Solutions
Viet Nam's Socio-Economic (NbS) in coastal and riverbank
Development Plan (SEDP). protection, mountain slope
management; (b) green carbon and
Like several other countries, Viet Nam protection of the sea; (c) regulation
is encouraged to apply a number of on land use planning, construction
policy solutions in the National Climate and urban planning, including
Change Strategy for the 2021-2050 “sponge cities” to deal better with
period, as follows. floods and drought; (d)
Continue to actively engage with environmental impact assessment
the international processes under in which climate change is fully
the UNFCCC and related initiatives, mainstreamed; (e) electrification of
such as the Nitric Acid Climate road vehicles, ships and rail
Action Group (NACAG). transport; (f) circular economy and
Formulate a separate law on reduced plastic pollution; (g) risk
climate change adaptation and transfer solutions such as disaster
emission reduction to ensure full risk insurance; and (h) a revised law
and comprehensive on electricity and/or a law on
implementation of Viet Nam’s renewable energy. Thailand is an -
international commitments under example that has integrated
the UNFCCC, unify goals and mitigation goals as well as the
solutions for all sectors, and assign responsibilities of relevant agencies
roles and responsibilities to in energy, transport, industry and
ministries, localities and other waste management in the NDC
stakeholders in the implementation implementation roadmap for the
monitoring and evaluation of period 2021-2030, including
climate change policies and sectoral mitigation targets.
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 Box 1. Japan’s Climate Change Act

In 2018, Japan’s National Diet passed the Climate Change Adaptation

Act. This established a comprehensive Adaptation Programme,
including:
1. Clear roles of national and local governments, private sector
operators, and citizens to promote climate change adaptation efforts;
2. Commitment that the NAP shall promote adaptation in all sectors,
and develop methodologies for monitoring and evaluation the
progress of adaptation efforts;
3. Mandate the Ministry of the Environment to revise climate change
impact assessments and NAP every five years, while the National
Institute for Environmental Studies operates the Climate Change
Adaptation Platform (A-PLAT) as a centre for climate change
information and monitoring.
4. It promotes adaptation measures through reliable scientific
information such as developing agricultural products with high-
temperature-resistant varieties, setting up fishing grounds based on
the changes of fish distribution, maintaining embankment and flood
control facility, developing flood risk maps and promoting heat illness
prevention measures.

Eliminate all subsidies and Integrate indicators on climate

(indirect) support measures for change adaptation and emission
production and consumption of reduction into 5-year socio-
fossil fuels such as diesel, kerosene, economic development plans and
LPG, and coal, as repeatedly agreed corresponding plans of ministries
in international fora linked to the and local authorities. This will help
UNFCCC and for example the Group monitor, evaluate and implement
1
of 20 (G20 ). Generate carbon climate change policies. The
prices through adoption of a climate change Monitoring,
domestic carbon-cap-and trade Reporting and Verification (MRV)
system and/or (increased) carbon system should align with this, and
taxes. (see further section SPM-3.2) with monitoring of progress on the

1
Group of 20 developed and large countries
16
 (Viet Nam) Sustainable Strengthen Viet Nam’s transparency
Development Goals (SDGs), system (MRV of GHG emissions in
gathering knowledge of how social particular) as well as means of
groups such as youth, women, implementation including public as
elderly, People with Disabilities well as private finance, for example
(PwD) and Ethnic Minorities (EMs) through international cooperation
are affected by climate change and based on Article 6 of the Paris
are assisted by climate change Agreement.
responses.

SPM-2.3: Climate Change Action and SDGs, Pandemics,

and Social Inclusion

Sustainable Development Goals

The 17 SDGs adopted by the United land). Overall, Viet Nam ranked 51 out
Nations Member States in 2015 have of 165 countries, and has done well
been “Vietnamized” into 115 Viet Nam compared to countries with the same
SDG (VSDG) targets in the “National GDP and conditions.
Action Plan for Implementation of
Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Although Viet Nam’s CO2 emissions
Development” (SR Viet Nam 2018). have been modest in the past, they are
SDG1 (no poverty), SDG7 (affordable rising fast and plans in for example the
and clean energy) and SDG11 power sector suggest that emissions
(sustainable cities and communities) will continue to rise for decades to
are on-track, but the SDG15 (life on come. The global situation means that
land) score reduced in the latest Viet Nam must make the greatest
international dashboard (Sachs et al., possible effort to mitigate emissions,
2021). Climate action (SDG13), scores for example by improving energy
high but is stagnating. The lowest efficiency and expanding renewable
performance is in SDG9 (industry, energy, which relates to SDG7 (energy)
innovation and infrastructure), SDG14 and SDG13 (climate change). Viet
(Life Below Water) and SDG15 (life on Nam’s low performance on SDG9
17
(Industry, Innovation and zoonotic virus in recent history, but it is
Infrastructure) is a reason to redouble not the only recent zoonotic disease
efforts on that. We recommend that outbreak. More zoonotic diseases can
science and technology must be given be expected, because of proximity of
priority if Viet Nam wants to gain a people and animals, whereas risks are
leading position in technologies of the enhanced by climate change effects.
future (Industry 4.0, IT equipment, The responses to pandemics and
Artificial Intelligence, electric vehicles, climate-related disasters should
renewable energy, etc.), and benefit reduce multiple risks at once. There
from that. have indeed been many calls to
address green growth, climate change
Pandemics
and biodiversity protection as part of
public investment in COVID-19 recovery
The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted
(“build back better”). However, such
analysis of the risks posed by
spending has been limited to
pandemics/zoonotic diseases and their
developed and large developing
links with climate change effects and
countries, and the “green” part of
responses. The compounding impacts
pandemic recovery spending has
of extreme weather events, illness and
remained limited in all but a few
death because of the virus, mobility
countries.
restrictions because of COVID-19
responses and, in some countries,
economic mismanagement, political
unrest or war, have caused economic
downturns, loss of employment,
disruptions of agriculture, and a severe
increase of food insecurity. In countries
without affordable universal health
coverage, existing inequalities have
been reinforced. In Viet Nam, GDP
growth dropped to 3.9% in 2020,
which can be related mainly to the
pandemic and was compounded by
drought and salinisation in the Mekong
River Delta and extreme floods in the
Central region.

COVID-19 is the most impactful

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©Canva
To address the challenges, Viet Nam’s
Social Inclusion
decision makers should consider to:
Ensure that COVID-19 recovery
The Paris Agreement (PA) and other
spending contributes to green, low-
documents under the UNFCCC show
emissions and climate-resilient
that the rights of ethnic minorities
goals;
(EMs), children/youth, People with
Conduct interdisciplinary, cross-
Disabilities (PwD) and climate-
sectoral risk assessments, including
vulnerable groups should be
planning for low-probability, high-
considered. The Sendai Framework has
impact events (climate extremes,
for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030
pandemic, other disasters);
provided similar guidance for disaster
Ensure comprehensive MRV and
risk reduction. The Preamble of the PA
access to quality data to
says:
understand compounding risks of
“[…] Parties should, when taking action
pandemics, climate change and
to address climate change, respect,
other disasters, to enable an
promote and consider their respective
integrated risk reduction approach
obligations on human rights, the right
in decision making and socio-
to health, the rights of indigenous
economic development planning
peoples, local communities, migrants,
processes;
children, persons with disabilities and
Address structural inequalities, to
people in vulnerable situations and
reduce exposures and
vulnerabilities for multiple risks. For the right to development, as well as

example, climate change action can gender equality, empowerment of

reduce air pollution with major women and intergenerational equity.”

environmental-health benefits and Article 7 of the PA on adaptation

reduced health treatment costs. recognises the importance of

Displacement can be prevented by vulnerability as well as the importance

creating green local employment of traditional knowledge of certain

opportunities and improved social groups. At COP 25 (2018) Parties

resilience, such as a stimulus with agreed on a 5-year enhanced Lima

efficient drip irrigation and LED work programme on gender and its

lighting equipment. gender action plan. This is to advance

Support enterprises to enhance

their business continuity while
considering multiple risks, such as
pandemics and climate risks.

19
©danhvc // ShutterStock
with priorities such as (i) capacity can take in contributing to the targets
building, knowledge management and of the NDCs “the platform also
communication; (ii) gender balance, facilitates the undertaking of stronger
participation, and women’s leadership; and more ambitious climate action by
(iii) coherence; (iv) gender responsive indigenous peoples and local
implementation; and (v) monitoring communities that could contribute to
and reporting. In accordance with a the achievement of the nationally
decision at COP 21 (2015), the Local determined contribution of the Parties
Communities and Indigenous Peoples concerned.”
Platform (LCIPP) was established in
June 2021. It has three functions: 1.
Many countries have included social
Knowledge, 2. Capacity for
inclusion in their NDC, NAP and/or LTS,
engagement, and 3. Climate change
for example Bangladesh, India,
policies and actions. Under the latter it
Indonesia, Nepal, Philippines (Box 2),
articulates the roles that EM groups
USA (Box 3), and Thailand.

Box 2. The Philippines and Social Inclusion

1. The Philippines’ National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) (2011-

2028) shows strong inclusion of women, youth, EMs and PwD,
highlighting critical aspects of social inclusivity of the climate change
strategies: “Adaptation measures shall be based on equity, in
accordance with common but differentiated responsibility; special
attention must be given to ensure equal and equitable protection of
the poor, women, children and other vulnerable and disadvantaged
sectors.”
2. The empowerment of women is the overarching goal of the NCCAP,
both for adaptation and mitigation efforts (NCCAP, 2011).
3. The Philippines NDC (2021) stresses “meaningful participation” of
target groups in policymaking as well as implementing climate
actions, including women, children, youth, persons with diverse
sexual orientation and gender identity, differently abled, indigenous
peoples, elderly, local communities, civil society, faith-based
organizations, and the private sector.
4. “The People’s Survival Fund to respond to adaption needs of local
communities” received an annual allocation of 20 million USD since
2015. It funds local climate change adaptation projects that are not

20
 funded by other agencies, based on 3 criteria: a) poverty incidence (40%);
b) exposure to climate risk (30%); and c) presence of biodiversity areas
(30%). The members of the fund include representatives of women’s
groups, non-governmental organisations, business, academia, and the
departments of Finance and Budget and Management.

Viet Nam should follow good practice

on social inclusion of other countries in
the NCCS. More specifically the
following is recommended:
1. Ensure that youth, women, EMs
and PwD are involved in the
formulation process of climate
policies.
2. The Principles or Preamble, Goals,
Outcomes and/or Outputs of
Climate Strategies should refer to
women, youth, EMs and PwD.
3. Climate action budget should be
allocated to Government agencies
and social-political organizations
promoting the participation and
empowerment of
women/youth/EMs/PwDs.
4. The use of the designation
‘vulnerable groups’ should be based
on national and disaggregated
realities.
5. Mainstream and include youth,
women, EMs, and PwD in the
Goals/Outcomes/Outputs of climate
policies
6. Include a dedicated section on the
roles and contributions of women,
youth, EMs and PwD to Leave No
One Behind in the NCCS.
21
©Youth4Climate // UNDP
 Box 3. The USA and Social Inclusion

1. The USA highlights consultation with youth and EMs in its updated
NDC (2021) and Clean Power Plan (2015). It has applied an inter-
agency process across the federal government and consulted a range
of other stakeholders, including groups representing tens of millions
of advocates and activists including youth.
2. The USA’s Infrastructure Bill frames PwD accessibility as a cross-
cutting issue in a transition towards low-carbon modes of
transportation and infrastructure, by recalling the Americans with
Disabilities Act throughout the document.
3. The USA’s Clean Power Plan (2015) gives guidance on the term
“vulnerable”:

The [Environmental Protection] agency uses the terms

‘‘vulnerable’’ and ‘‘overburdened’’ in referring to low-income
communities, communities of colour, and indigenous populations
that are most affected by, and least resilient to, the impacts of
climate change.
This community-based definition of vulnerability considers
historical injustices (such as location to power plants,
disproportionate impact from air pollution) that limit ethnic
minority communities’ ability to adapt to climate change.

SPM-2.4: Climate Change and Global Environmental

Degradation

Biodiversity

Article 6 of the Convention on Parties to the CBD have submitted

Biological Diversity (CBD), states that National Biodiversity Strategies and
each Party must develop national Action Plans (NBSAPs). These are
strategies, plans or programmes and emphasising institutional, legal and
integrate the conservation and financial tools for implementation.
sustainable use of biological diversity
into sector policies. This should show Many countries are at a preliminary stage
how the country intends to fulfil the of mainstreaming biodiversity, some are
objectives of the CBD. Since 2010, 176 setting targets for mainstreaming with
22
connecting biodiversity action with cannot be restricted by territorial
climate change responses (UNEP, boundaries because it is able to
2018). According to Viet Nam’s migrate through water bodies, disperse
“National Biodiversity Strategy to through air, and be transported to
2020, with a vision to 2030” (2015) it remote locations through human
intends to protect and sustainably use intervention. Various health conditions
biodiversity resources to provide the such as thyroid dysfunction, obesity,
basis for sustainable development in diabetes, and reproductive impairment
the context of climate change. This have been attributed to plastic
document was submitted to the CBD. pollution. Plastic has wildlife and
environmental impacts and increases
Several CBD as well as UNFCCC related vulnerability of ecosystems as the
agreements refer to Ecosystems-based effects of climate change are
Adaptation (EbA) and Nature-based increasing (Iroegbu et al. 2021). The
Solutions (NbS). These are expected to fishing industry is increasingly affected,
have adaptation, mitigation, which signifies millions of direct and
biodiversity conservation co-benefits. indirect livelihoods and jobs in e.g.,
Several countries have reflected EbA Viet Nam.
and NbS in NBSAPs and climate
change policies such as NDCs, In almost every country, multiple
including Viet Nam. It is recommended groups are campaigning against plastic
that the NCCS refers to those policies pollution. In addition, governments,
and intentions, stressing that they world leaders, and other stakeholders
should be implemented in for example participate in discussions, conventions,
coastal zones and mountainous and resolutions in efforts to find
regions. solutions for plastic pollution. There is
however a lack of commitment by
Plastic Pollution and Circular
governments and global plastic
Economy economy stakeholders to address the
challenges. The threat of plastic
Plastic is largely derived from fossil pollution is not abating, and
fuels, so reducing the production and remediation will require renewed
consumption of plastics will have effort. Viet Nam’s Government issued a
climate change mitigation advantages. policy in 2020 to address marine
Plastic pollution is a global challenge, debris.
a pervasive, near-unmanageable threat
to living and non-living systems. To address the unsustainable use of all
Similar to GHGs and persistent organic sorts of (natural) resources the notion
pollutants (POPs), plastic pollution 23
 of circular economy (CE) is gaining
International River Management
recognition in many countries. Going
Challenges: the Mekong & Red
beyond efficiency improvements, CE
rivers
looks at the full lifecycles of products,
optimising efficiency (“reduce”), re-use
The flow patterns of the Mekong and
of resources and components, recovery
the Red rivers are affected by climate
of components, and recycling. The CE
change and the construction and
should contribute to reducing GHG
operation of reservoirs in the
emissions from extraction, production,
mainstream and tributaries in all
and consumption of materials,
riparian countries, including Viet Nam,
optimising the energy efficiency and
China, Laos for both rivers, and
use of renewable energy in these
Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia for
processes. Viet Nam has included CE in
the Mekong river. Hydro-electricity,
the new Law on Environmental
agriculture, clean water supply and
Protection.
biodiversity are threatened by sub-
optimal management, whereas climate
It is recommended that the
change and sea level rise demand
Government of Viet Nam reinforces its
modification of management
policies on plastic manufacture,
strategies to reduce risks to farmers
recycling and consumption in the
and human settlements in Viet Nam
context of climate change, including
and other riparian countries. These
with commitments to be made in the
major rivers are also important
NCCS. This is a core part of its pursuit
transport routes.
of a circular economy and will help
achieve multiple co-benefits. It is also
Hydroelectric dams and water
recommended to continue to develop,
diversion in the upstream of the
implement and monitor circular
Mekong river satisfy national water and
economy policies that are socially
electricity demand, but downstream
inclusive and that are cross-sectoral to
countries are affected by reduced and
address the challenges of increased
fluctuating water flow and reduced
natural resource extraction and waste
(fertile) suspended particles and
in sectors such as agriculture,
sediment. The Mekong Delta is facing
construction and industry.
flood and drought risks, with the latter
accompanied be deep saline water
intrusion. Major river floods such as
those in 2000, 2001 and 2011 cause loss

24
©Freepik
of life and property, and droughts with multilateral and bilateral diplomatic
salinity intrusion and water shortages channels.
such as in 1998, 2016 and 2020 in the
Mekong Delta are threatening socio- Of the Red - Thai Binh River Basin
economic development. Climate nearly half is located in China, a
change appears to increase drought fraction in Laos and just over half in
risks in the dry season whereas Viet Nam. There is also an uneven
extreme rainfall is predicted to water flow distribution during the year,
increase in the wet season, across the with many hydroelectric dams in China
river basin. The Mekong Delta also and Viet Nam’s northern mountains
faces occasional tropical storms region, causing water shortages in the
combined with storm surges (e.g., dry season. Climate change is a cause
1997), as well as coastal erosion and of decreased rainfall and also affects
riverbank erosion that are enhanced by the river flow in the dry season. The
sea level rise, changes in the river flow reduced river flow is associated with
and sand mining from the riverbed. riverbed and riverbank erosion, and
saline water intrusion into the
To protect the Mekong river water flow estuaries. Freshwater demand for
pattern, quantity and quality of water social-economic development is
for agriculture, aquaculture, industry increasing, whereas water pollution
and domestic water supply, requires has been increasing too.
dialogue and close cooperation with
all riparian countries, including China It is recommended that the NCCS
even though it is not member of the highlights the importance of
Mekong River Commission (MRC). It is intensified international diplomacy
recommended that international with regards to management of
diplomacy on Mekong river basin international rivers, both multilaterally
management will be intensified, and bilaterally with regards to both of
through the MRC and other these large international rivers.

SPM-2.5: GHG Emissions, International Trade and Foreign

Investment
Viet Nam has a steadily growing the USA. With some of those there are
international trade volume, with overall strong imbalances in import and
slightly more export than import over export. Viet Nam joined the
the past years. Its main trading Association of Southeast Asian Nations
partners include ASEAN neighbours, (ASEAN) in 1995 and at that time also
China, the EU, Japan, South Korea, and joined the ASEAN Free Trade Area
25
(AFTA). It became a member of the border adjustment mechanism (CBAM)
World Trade Organization (WTO) in in the context of climate change, to
2007, and in addition it has free trade help reduce emissions in the EU as
agreements (FTAs) with all its main well as its trade partners. The EU has a
trading partners, many of which are timetable for CBAM introduction
members of the Comprehensive and through the 2020s, but it has not yet
Progressive Agreement for Trans- been approved by the European
Pacific Partnership (CPTPP). Parliament. The CBAM is limited to
goods with the highest risks of “carbon
Import includes for example leakage”, meaning that strict EU
machinery and fuels, and export is emissions limits might cause goods to
strongly dominated by manufactured be imported or production capacity
goods such as mobile phones and would shift to outside the EU without
heavy steel objects such as ships and the CBAM. The CBAM would require
wind towers. Manufactured export the EU’s trade partners to have similar
products require inputs such as energy GHG emissions reduction targets in the
and metals and can have concerned sectors for not raising an
comparatively high “carbon contents” import levy, and the levy could imply
as a result. Many foreign direct costs to Vietnamese producers and
invested (FDI) companies are exporters. The CBAM prioritises
producing in Viet Nam for export, such cement, fertilisers, iron and steel, and
as famous footwear and clothes aluminium, and Viet Nam thus faces a
brands, or for both the domestic new barrier to exports those to the EU.
market and exports such as beer and Viet Nam’s exports of those
animal feed producers. FDI companies commodities to the EU are small so
may want to reduce their any impact would also be small.
environmental impacts and the carbon However, Viet Nam wants to grow
contents of their produce because of exports, the mechanism could be
expectations of their customers, and expanded to other goods, and other
for example try to produce and/or export markets might set up a similar
purchase variable renewable energy mechanism.
(VRE) such as solar Photovoltaic (PV).

Some trade agreements have

environmental and even climate
change related stipulations. The EU is
the first to have announced a carbon

©Freepik 26
On the other hand, Viet Nam is large amounts of foreign direct
progressing with the development of investment (FDI), in different sectors.
its domestic carbon (GHG emissions) Consumer and shareholder
cap-and-trade system, and it already movements on for example
has a law on environmental tax. These “divestment” out of fossil fuel
policy instruments generate domestic operations, risk analysis by
emissions prices, which will prevent a international pension funds and
levy on exports to the EU under the insurance companies, and political
CBAM. They would thus create an pressures building up in for example
opportunity for Viet Nam. They would the G20, are all causing scarcity of FDI
ensure that technological for coal-thermal power plants or other
improvement takes place in Viet Nam’s highly polluting concerns. The past few
industry, making it cleaner and more years have also seen many investment
efficient. The revenue thus generated funds that apply environmental, social,
stays in-country, as tax or as funds in and governance (ESG) standards in
the domestic emissions market. In deciding which companies or projects
addition, because CBAM does not to invest in, meaning they prioritise
concern end-products, it is expected clean investment opportunities.
that CBAM and domestic measures in Current FDI establishments in Viet
countries such as Viet Nam will have Nam are also greening their
only minor effects on consumer prices. operations, for example by accessing
renewable energy. These trends seem
To create this opportunity, Viet Nam unstoppable. Problems with securing
should inform itself of the sectors FDI for under-construction coal-
affected by CBAM and ensure that thermal power plants have already
domestic carbon cap-and-trade and occurred and are likely to increase,
carbon tax includes those sectors and unless the chosen technology would
relevant materials. It would make Viet be the most efficient technology
Nam more competitive compared to available, which would make electricity
other exporters to the EU. These are production cost per unit power more
also the most likely the first sectors expensive than solar PV or wind power.
and materials that other countries But Viet Nam’s chances of securing
might choose should they follow the high levels of future FDI require it to
EU’s example, so Viet Nam would also ensure that there are ample green
position itself well in those export investment opportunities. The NCCS
markets. can facilitate that by applying various
policy instruments, as discussed in
Viet Nam is receiving comparatively section 3.
27
SPM-2.6: Geopolitical Considerations

Over the past decades climate change other countries in the world set similar
has moved from being subject to ambitions. The EU and now also the
geopolitical relations that were driven USA and some other rich countries are
by many other things, to a key factor in sending signals to China, India, Russia,
shaping geopolitical relations and Brazil, Indonesia and other high
outcomes (E3G 2019; Policy Exchange emitting countries such as Viet Nam to
2021). This shift is driven by a change in move in the same direction as the EU.
perceptions of the impacts of climate This will of course only work if rich
change, to being a threat to human countries reduce emissions rapidly
development as well as global peace themselves, because they are
and security. Particularly important in responsible for most historical GHG
changing perceptions have been emissions, and their credibility is
reports by the IPCC. In addition, challenged by their still very high per
climate change can now be felt in daily capita emissions. Nevertheless, as
life, as weather records and extreme climate change has become important
events have occurred in every part of geopolitically, they are putting
the world. Civil society movements, pressure on developing countries such
notably in the EU, USA and other as Viet Nam to increase targets for
members of the Organisation for reducing emissions. This happens
Economic Co-operation and partly through targeted ODA (as EU
Development (OECD) are calling on grants focus on the energy transition),
their governments to act. G20 summits trade relations and through diplomatic
have addressed relevant issues exchanges.
repeatedly, such as the phase out of
subsidies on the use of fossil fuels, in The PA and for example the EU’s
which some members peer review commitment to it are also very strong
progress of the others in achieving this. signals to the global fossil fuel industry,
transport, and other sectors, that the
The EU took a gradually more time has come for a shift away from
ambitious stance on emissions fossil fuel consumption towards the
reduction. It recently increased its use of VRE, electricity, battery storage
target for emissions reduction in 2030 and for example green hydrogen (as
from 50% to 55% below 1990 emission storage and as fuel in heavy industry
levels and has an agreed target for and transport). The large oil, gas and
climate neutrality by 2050. This is coal companies, some of the largest
consistent with the PA, provided most private and state-owned enterprises of
28
the world, must therefore change joining the “Net-Zero Insurance
dramatically. Several of them have Alliance” that commits them to the PA
much political influence and are trying targets (UN Environment Programme –
to slow down the energy transition, to Finance Initiative 2021). For example,
maintain the value of their reserves of most major European insurance
oil, gas and coal. But climate experts companies have decided to end their
are clear: to limit average global underwriting of coal-related activities.
warming to no more than 2oC, most of
the known oil, gas and coal reserves The geopolitical trends are strongly
must “stay in the ground”, signifying affecting the relations between super-
financial losses for the fossil fuel powers. The USA and EU compete with
industry. Companies are under China over trade, technology, and
pressure from some of their access to natural resources. Military
shareholders as well, demanding e.g., competition links to access to marine
that they should be growing their fossil fuel reserves and control over
investment in VRE. international shipping routes. Much of
the struggle of large and rich countries
In addition, many of the world’s is over accessing and controlling both
savings accumulate in pension funds, the technologies of the future and the
and pension holders have started to natural resources required for them.
argue against investments in e.g., fossil These technologies include Industry
fuel companies, on environmental 4.0, the Internet of Things (IoT), IT
grounds and because owning shares in equipment, Artificial Intelligence (AI),
those companies is a financial risk electric transport (electric generators
(Policy Exchange 2021). Large private and motors, batteries) and renewable
banks are reducing and eliminating energy. The USA, China, EU, Japan, the
financing of companies in coal mining UK and South Korea dominate this.
and coal-thermal power production, as Viet Nam is already assembling and
all major economies have declared to producing many components of these
cease sovereign guarantees for coal- new technologies. It also has reserves
thermal power production facilities in of for example “rare earth elements”
foreign countries. The insurance that are needed in technologies such
industry is both a source of investment as mobile phones, hard disks and
capital (because insurance policy magnets for electric generators and
holders pay annual premiums), and an motors. But it has limited research and
important means of reducing the risks development (R&D) capacity in the
of the fossil fuel industry by insuring public and business sectors to be able
their investment projects. This industry to become a leader on such
29
is also changing, with some companies
 technology, and it has no refining management and agriculture; (c)
capacity for rare earth elements. exploit minerals that are key in such
new and future technologies, including
To turn the pre-dominance of climate refining rare earth elements in an
change in geopolitics into environmentally sound manner; (d)
opportunities, requires Viet Nam to (a) ensure access to resources without the
acquire and develop new, future risk of foreign interference, such as
technologies in several sectors, exploiting gas and wind power in the
increase R&D and technological exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of Viet
innovation whereas it currently lags on Nam; and (e) ensure reduced
SDG9 (Industry, Innovation and dependency on strategic imports, in
Infrastructure); (b) deploy future, new particular fossil fuel imports which
technology in energy production and could suffer from e.g., impediments to
use, transport and industry, also waste international shipping.

©UNFCCC

SPM-2.7: Hot Topics at COP26

Developing countries such as Viet Nam transfer of credits earned from projects
have paid attention to the following under the Clean Development
issues at COP26, and negotiations on Mechanism (SDM); rate of contribution
most will have to continue: of proceeds from credit exchange
(1) Market mechanisms and non- projects to the Adaptation Fund.
market mechanisms (PA Articles 6.2, Article 6.8 (non-market

6.4 and 6.8) mechanisms): mechanism for

Article 6.2: standard procedures for sharing information, knowledge

operating carbon markets; mode of and experience on GHG emission

international exchange of emission reduction.

reductions from policy (2) Transparency in climate change

contributions in the NDC; the unit response and climate change
of exchange of greenhouse gases. response support
Article 6.4: baseline determination Regulations for monitoring and
and complementarity for carbon evaluating the implementation of GHG
credit exchange projects; the emission reduction and adaptation to
30
climate change are consistent with the the adequacy and effectiveness of
requirements of the Enhanced support for adaptation.
Transparency Framework (ETF) of the
Paris Agreement; the form, frequency, Decision 4/CP.23 on the Koronivia Joint
and information that developed Work on Agriculture (KJWA) recognizes
countries need to share on financial the potential of agriculture in tackling
support, technology transfer and climate change (COP23, 2017). In joint
capacity building for developing sessions of the UNFCCC’s Subsidiary
countries to respond to climate Body for Implementation (SBI) and
change; measures to monitor, check Subsidiary Body for Scientific and
and determine the level of resource Technological Advice (SBSTA), Parties
contribution from developed countries will address topics related to soils,
to climate change responses in nutrient use, water, livestock, methods
developing countries. for assessing adaptation, and the socio-
economic and food security
(3) Commonly applicable time frame
dimensions of climate change across
and reporting format
the agricultural sector. The report on
National NDC submission cycle (every 5 progress and outcomes of work as well
years, 10 years and NDC phases); as the future topics will be released.
information to be included in the NDC; The Parties will address aspects of
roadmap and support responsibilities “best practices, innovations and
for developing countries to apply technologies that increase resilience
reporting according to the common and sustainable production in
template; the application of the agricultural systems according to
carbon market mechanism between national circumstances” in Glasgow.
countries with different time frames in
(5) Loss and damage
the NDC; the assessment of the global
A risk reduction implementation
effort to implement the NDC and the
framework to help countries develop
reports under the Transparency
strategies to manage climate change
Framework when the time frame of
risks.
different countries is not the same.

(4) Promoting adaptation to climate

The fourth meeting of the Task Force
change
on Displacement has been conducted
A global adaptation goal; method of in September 2020 to report on the
validating adaptation efforts; methods status of the implementation of the
of assessing adaptation needs and 2nd Plan of Action; to exchange views
mobilizing resources for adaptation in on the recent development in other
developing countries; assessment of global processes and initiatives to 31
identify potential synergies and (8) Promote fair and inclusive
linkages to the implementation of the climate actions
Plan for Action. The members noted a Mobilize the participation of all
new initiative to respond to COVID-19 organizations, individuals, businesses
and shared some pipeline proposal for and communities in climate change
implementing the plan for action. To adaptation and GHG emissions
prepare for COP26, the report of the mitigation. How to limit the impact of
Task Force on Displacement could be the implementation of climate change
an entry point; there is a need to responses in one place, with one target
update the Plan for Action and a need group not affecting other target
to engage with the technical and ad groups.
hoc members, including from Youth
(9) Reporting requirement for
NGOs.
developing countries
(6) Resources for climate change Article 13.1 of the Paris Agreement
responses states: “In order to build mutual trust

Review the financial contributions of and confidence and to promote

developed countries to climate change effective implementation, an
responses of developing countries in enhanced transparency framework for
the period 2016-2020 against the action and support, with built-in
target of $100 billion per year; flexibility which takes into account
determine financial goals for the Parties' different capacities and builds
periods 2021-2025 and 2025-2030, and upon collective experience is hereby
specific goals for each year. established”.

(7) Assessment of efforts of

countries At COP 25 in Madrid, the SBSTA
worked on the remaining elements of
Assess the level of implementation of
the enhanced transparency framework,
commitments on reducing GHG
including: development of common
emissions of developed countries for
reporting tables (CRTs) and common
the period before 2020 as committed
tabular formats (CTF) that Parties must
in the Kyoto Protocol, the PA; new level
use in their reports; unify the structure
of commitment from 2021 onwards
of the biennial transparency report
through review of updated NDCs of all
(BTR), national inventory report (NIR)
countries.
and technical expert report (TER); as
well as designing a training program
for experts in the technical assessment
process. The first BTRs and then the
32
 NIRs (if submitted as an independent
report) are due by 31 December 2024.
The transparency provisions in the PA
that build on the existing MRV system,
and adaptation communication should
be submitted and updated without
adding an additional burden on
©Canva
developing countries.

SPM-3. INSTRUMENTS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE

STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION

There is a wide variety of market-based of those instruments, whereas some

and other policy instruments that could be refined or improved for
countries have applied in their NDCs implementation of the NCCS, and
and LTSs to achieve their objectives others could be added. The following
and targets for climate change overview refers to countries that have
adaptation and mitigation. Viet Nam is applied them, in the main text and in
already applying or developing several boxes.

SPM-3.1: Public Investments, Public-Private Partnerships

and Accessing Finance
adaptation responses, according to
Climate change expenditure
Viet Nam’s Climate Public Expenditure
monitoring and budgeting
and Investment Review (CPEIR) (MPI
2015), which is currently being
Climate change expenditure
updated. The CPEIR was retrospective
monitoring and budgeting are
and will inform new rounds of
powerful instruments for policy makers
budgeting to improve on past practice.
to be able to know whether what is
Ongoing monitoring of climate public
happening with recurrent expenditure
expenditure to inform climate change
and investment is consistent with
budgeting is taking place in several
policies, and how this could improve
countries, but Viet Nam does not yet
through budgets. Viet Nam’s public
have a climate expenditure monitoring
sector expenditure on climate change
and budgeting system.
is predominantly on climate change
33
The pre-dominance of public partnerships (PPPs) can be applied to
expenditure on adaptation is for example infrastructure that enables
consistent with policies such as the renewable energy (smart electricity
updated NDC. Public climate finance grid, electricity storage); Nature-Based
including ODA is mainly spent on Solutions (NbS) for coastal and
investments in water management riverbank erosion protection and
such as coastal protection, irrigation prevention that may be combined with
and drainage, as well as transport improved coastal aquaculture and/or
infrastructure such as roads that can tourism; or transport electrification,
be affected by floods and landslides with urban rail systems or electric
whereas many serve as escape and/or charging points for vehicles.
supply routes in the case of disasters.
Climate finance
This adaptation focus of public finance
is justified and is consistent with
All developing countries are seeking
Vietnamese policy. It is recommended
financial and technical support from
through the NCCS Viet Nam
developed countries as well as
institutionalises expenditure
international organizations such as the
monitoring in connection with the
World Bank, Asian Development Bank
NCCS contents and uses lessons from
(ADB), Asian Infrastructure Investment
climate public expenditure and
Bank (AIIB), Green Climate Fund (GCF),
investment monitoring in future
Global Environment Facility (GEF), UN
budgeting rounds. It should develop a
agencies and NGOs to increase
climate expenditure monitoring and
resilience to climate change and
budgeting system, to improve
reduce emissions. Some of those have
consistency between policies and
private sector facilities but all focus on
actual public expenditure. This should
public sector financing. Viet Nam has
also capture off-budget public
been receiving comparatively large
expenditure such as tax exemptions
amounts of such international
and financing from special funds (see
assistance and continues to have
section SPM-3.3).
opportunities. However, the amounts

Public-private partnerships are likely to remain limited when

compared to needs of both public and
The private sector is expected to be private sector financing of climate
the focus for investments in emissions change responses. Thus, the larger part
mitigation actions, whereas in some of finance in Viet Nam should be
cases it be interested in adaptation expected to come from the
investments too. Public-private Vietnamese Government and from the
34
business sector (domestic private revenue that could be used towards
investment and FDI). public climate change expenditure as
well (see section SPM-3.2).
Financing of green public investment
can be sourced by issuing Green It is recommended that the NCCS
Sovereign Bonds, possibly for specific advises on the development of a
infrastructure. For example, Mexico has climate finance strategy, that could
been issuing green bonds and Malaysia cover climate ODA, green climate
initiated a similar instrument (Box 9), bonds, carbon tax revenues, as well as
whereas GIZ has provided technical mobilization of domestic and foreign
assistance to Viet Nam’s State Bank private capital for investments in GHG
and Ministry of Finance on this option. emissions reduction and adaptation to
Carbon taxes could generate some climate change.

SPM-3.2: Carbon Taxes and Carbon Cap-and-Trade

Tax and other fiscal tools are used by Taxes and fees raise revenue for the
numerous countries for limiting the authorities that will be partially used to
use of fossil fuels and encouraging the cover the administrative costs involved.
use of clean energy and energy-saving An ETS generates value that stays
technologies. Most countries have tax within the community of operators in
policies (e.g. tax exemptions) and these markets, but the systems also
financial support mechanisms involves operational costs. Tax and ETS
(targeted subsidies) for companies to are not mutually exclusive, as they may
develop clean and renewable energy, be applied to different industrial sub-
battery technology, energy efficient sectors and goods and services. Both
manufacturing equipment, etc. should focus on the high emitting
sectors and industries. The
Both carbon taxes and carbon cap- administration of carbon tax or
and-trade (i.e., a GHG emissions trading markets may be costly, and to be cost-
system, ETS) create a carbon price, or effective requires mechanisms to
better a price on GHG emissions remain as straightforward as possible.
because not all GHGs contain carbon.

35
 Box 4. German policy instruments for LTS / NDC
implementation – energy examples

Public financing of various measures through the issuing of Green

Sovereign Bonds.
National carbon pricing system in the transport sector, heating of
buildings and industrial energy that fall outside the EU ETS. This
includes a national emissions trading system with a gradually
increasing fixed price of carbon and auctioning of allowances from
2026 onwards.
Support programmes and incentives for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, including reduction of the VAT for train tickets, subsidies
and tax cuts for e-mobility, subsidy to replace oil heaters.
Regulatory measures, including a ban on the installation of oil
heaters from 2026.

Source: Coalition of Finance Ministers for Climate Action, 2020.

The EU emissions trading system (EU Korea initiated domestic carbon

ETS) has been in operation since 2005 markets too.
and is the most developed carbon
market. It sets emission reduction Viet Nam is advancing the preparation
targets per sector and maximum of legislation on a domestic ETS as well
allowable emission rights of industries as participation in market-based
in certain sectors – the emission rights mechanisms as intended under Article
in the market is come from industries 6 of the PA, in a draft Decree on GHG
that emit less than their emission mitigation and green growth. The
rights, the quantity of tradeable rights market-based mechanisms in Article 6
and the demand from high emitting include international exchange of
industries to buy them determines the emission reductions from policy
“carbon price”. A reduction of emission contributions, and the Sustainable
rights as per EU policies thus tends to Development Mechanism (SDM) to
increase the carbon price and serves as manage off-sets between operators in
an incentive for high emitting different countries similar to the Clean
industries to invest in emission Development Mechanism (CDM) under
reduction technologies and processes. the Kyoto Protocol, with numerous
The EU ETS was recently expanded to projects in Viet Nam (see also section
include aviation. China and South SPM-2.7). 36
 Box 5. Finnish policy instruments for LTS / NDC
implementation – energy examples

Taxes and fees. Introduction of traffic congestion charging in city

regions. Taxation of fossil fuels will increase (fuel tax consists of an
energy content tax and a carbon dioxide tax). Changes in income tax
and benefits to protect low-income people.
Public subsidy for building vehicle charging infrastructure and
sustainably produced biogas. Purchase subsidy for electric cars.
Government budget to support public transport services in large
urban regions. Premium system for renewable energy generation,
based on a competitive tendering process and investments in which
different renewable energy sources compete (the aid was granted for
7 wind power projects).
Awareness raising. Government programme for the promotion of
walking and cycling.
Regulation that petrol stations have electric car charging points.
Quota obligation biofuels.

Source: Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, 2019.

The NCCS for the period to 2050 of the Paris Agreement as well. For
should promote the role of both the period from 2031 to 2050, it is
carbon taxes and ETS for reducing GHG recommended to research the
emissions, as well as Viet Nam’s role in connection of the domestic carbon
international market-based market with the regional and global
mechanisms such as the SDM. carbon markets; and organize the
implementation of market and non-
In the period to 2030, it is necessary market mechanisms to mitigate
to establish and operate a domestic GHG emissions in accordance with
ETS; to develop regulations and Viet Nam’s socio-economic
organize the implementation of conditions.
international carbon credit Development of Viet Nam’s
exchange and clearing mechanisms domestic ETS must use lessons
in accordance with the provisions of from the EU ETS. It must identify
national law and international the costs and benefits of ETS; the
treaties; study and apply the non- best mechanism to apply; the
market mechanism under Article 6 technical human and financial 37
 capacities of the government and cement, and fertilizer manufacture
enterprises required for success; in its domestic mechanism.
economic, social and environmental advantages created by Viet Nam if
impacts as well as opportunities of it includes iron & steel, aluminium,
an ETS; a transparent MRV system cement, and fertilizer manufacture
at national, sectoral and sub- in its domestic mechanism.
sectoral levels, in line with Viet Viet Nam could set and increase
Nam's economic conditions and carbon taxes on specific products
regulations; and the priority sectors. and uses, e.g., fossil fuels in
The latter should happen in the transport or power production. It
context of the EU’s CBAM (see could set specific levies such as
section SPM-2.5), with export congestion charges for cars in city
advantages created by Viet Nam if centres (as is done in e.g., London,
it includes iron & steel, aluminium, UK).

SPM-3.3: Subsidies, Incentives and Public Funds

Subsidies and incentives, or loans from Environmental Protection Fund lends

dedicated government funds are also to green investments by small and
public expenditure. Generally, these medium enterprises; and the National
support measures should be Fund for Disaster Management was
temporary, so as not to prevent established in 2021. There are several
consumers and businesses to rely too other funds and mechanisms,
strongly on public support. Instead, including some with international
subsidies and incentives should aim to finance. What all these are financing
start new trends, innovations, enable and how they support implementation
transitions, and to encourage roll-out of policies such as the NCCS is however
with private investments or help to not fully clear.
mature certain markets.
The costs of tax exemptions and public
Viet Nam already has several subsidy expenditures through extra-budgetary
arrangements and special funds. For funds were not all collected and
example, there are several policies to analysed in the Viet Nam’s CPEIR (MPI
support small farmers; there are low 2015) and could not be
tax rates for import of for example comprehensively accessed for the 2021
renewable energy related equipment; update of the CPEIR as they are not all
an innovation fund on science and part of the regular budgets (see section
technology; and the Viet Nam SPM-3.1). Thus it is recommended that
38
an inventory be made of all extra- efficient equipment; tax reductions or
budgetary public finance mechanisms price support for innovative
that may have a link to climate change equipment, electric transport, and
responses and ascertain their energy efficient and renewable energy
consistency with climate change equipment.
policies.
It is however clear that the existing
Based on such analysis, Viet Nam public schemes and funds hardly
should consider reinforcing existing address climate change adaptation
mechanisms and to formulate actions and increased resilience – they
additional incentive programs that can are focused on clean and green
help transition towards e.g., clean development, on emissions mitigation.
energy and clean industrial production. Therefore Viet Nam should consider
This can be done through grants or low establishing a National Adaptation and
interest loans to enable start-up Mitigation Fund, possibly using green
enterprises with innovations; grants for infrastructure bonds to generate the
capacity building initiatives; low capital.
interest loans for modern, energy

SPM-3.4: Insurance
The international insurance industry is especially in developed countries,
changing (see also section SPM-2.6). where businesses and consumers pay
The large international (re-)insurance premiums for various eventualities to
companies are at the forefront of off-set major damage from e.g., the
assessing how risks from climate effects of hurricanes. In Viet Nam,
change are increasing, as they are attempts have been made to develop
facing increasingly large disaster risks “index insurance” for flood risks to
and associated insurance claims. The smallholder agricultural production,
industry is also moving away from with government subsidies, but this
insuring risks associated with fossil fuel was discontinued.I In several other
exploration. And the insurance industry countries various insurance schemes
is a primary source of finance (foreign are operating that reduce climate
investment capital), shifting away from change related risks, such as Fiji (see
investment in polluting projects such Box 6), Japan, Bangladesh and
as coal-thermal power plants. countries in the Caribbean, from where
lessons have already been
Insurance is covering climate change- documented.
related and other disaster risks,
39
Risk financing strategies are diverse.
They include loans, micro-credit,
subsidies & tax breaks, reserve funds,
catastrophe bonds, micro-insurance,
agriculture insurance, insurance &
reinsurance, and risk pools. The NCCS
should promote that the Government
work with national insurance
companies, international re-insurance
providers, as well as development
partners working on climate change
2
and disaster risk reduction , to develop
and introduce insurance products for
risks to production, productive assets
of farmers and (small, medium)
businesses, and infrastructure affected
by typhoons, storm surges, river floods,
©Canva
droughts and other disasters.

Box 6. Fiji’s policy instruments for NAP

implementation – adaptation examples
A Climate Vulnerability Assessment (CVA) was the basis to develop
the adaptation and resilience plan. It identifies the importance of
evidence-based decision making and well-managed public finances
as key issues.
A comprehensive approach to resource mobilisation is proposed, with
public finance; autonomous adaptation by the private sector,
households, and communities; the incorporation of risk transfer
mechanisms and contingency finance; and increasing local-level
financing mechanisms, modalities, and fiduciary management.
Fiji’s National Adaptation Plan (NAP) includes actions that require public,
private and /or community investment, and/or regulation, on:
Information services and management (public); mainstreaming
climate change issues into national and local level development

2
See for example https://www.indexinsuranceforum.org/
40
 planning (public); awareness and knowledge (public); local-level action
on e.g., food and nutrition and the agricultural system, health systems,
and human settlements (public, private, community); investment in
resilient infrastructure, green infrastructure and protection of biodiversity
and the natural environment to maintain ecosystem services and natural
capital that underpin society and economic growth (public, private,
community); enhance insurance protection of energy assets and
updating private sector financial services to incorporate environmental
and climate risks (private).

Source: Government of the Republic of Fiji (2018)

SPM-3.5: Sector Planning, Integrated Planning

Most countries use planning NCCS and in 5-yearly SEDPs. Concrete

instruments, for example to set targets climate change responses must be
and to articulate how their NDCs and mainstreamed in sectoral masterplans
LTSs must be implemented. Viet Nam’s in a manner similar to Thailand (Box 8).
Law on Planning of 2017 is streamlining For example, the national master plan
its long-standing practices of master on irrigation (water management), is
planning, reducing the number of addressing disasters and water-related
provincial-sectoral plans and stressing climate change adaptation measures.
the need for better sectoral and And the national power development
regional integration. Masterplans in plan (PDP) articulates expected
Viet Nam are a key determinant of investment in renewable, hydro and
public investment budgets, as they thermal power generation plants
include public investment as well as (mostly private investment) and power
private investment proposals. They are transmission infrastructure (mostly
an instrument that connects with Viet public finance), which have major
Nam’s 5-year Social Economic impact on increase or decrease of
Development Planning (SEDP) and future GHG emissions. All national
annual SEDP and budgeting cycles, in sectoral masterplans must be
a political process somewhat similar to consistent with regional (integrated,
China (Box 7). multi-sectoral) masterplans, so that
sectoral interests are balanced. The
Climate change responses are not Law on Planning offers opportunities
articulated in a separate masterplan in for including climate change
Viet Nam, but directions are responses, as is happening in the case
formulated at the strategic level in the of the Mekong Delta Regional 41
Masterplan (expecting approval in will be the responsibility of sector
December 2021), which includes ministries and the provincial
climate change and sea level rise authorities, and a Mekong Delta region
adaptation, as well as GHG emissions coordination council was set up to
mitigation actions. Implementation support that.

Box 7. China's 5-year Social Economic Plans

Following a week-long meeting, the National People’s Congress of China
on 12 March 2021 formalised the “outline for the 14th five-year plan and
long-term targets for 2035”. The 5-year plan’s outline set a 18% reduction
target for “CO2 intensity” and 13.5% reduction target for “energy intensity”
from 2021 to 2025. It also referred to China’s longer-term climate goals
and introduced the idea of a “CO2 emissions cap”. This 14th 5-year plan’s
outline devoted four of its 20 indicators on economic and social
development to energy and climate change.

Box 8. Thailand's Social Economic Planning and

Climate Change

Thailand has addressed climate change in its national economic and

social development plans under the National Strategy (2018-2037). The
Climate Change Master Plan 2015-2050 is specifically on climate change
mitigation, adaptation, capacity building and cross-cutting issues.
Energy targets are considered in the Power Development Plan, the
Alternative Energy Development Plan and the Energy Efficiency Plan.
The Environmentally Sustainable Transport System Plan encourages the
development of road-to-rail model shift for both freight and passenger
transport. Climate change adaptation has been incorporated into
sectoral policies such as the Strategy for Climate Change in Agriculture,
the Climate Change Adaptation Plan on Public Health, the 20-year Water
Resources Management Master Plan. A vehicle tax based on CO2
emissions was applied in 2016 to promote low carbon vehicles.

42
It is recommended that the NCCS will levels of public investment finance.
call for all national-sectoral, regional as Appropriate sectoral regulations
well as provincial (integrated, should encourage green private
multisectoral) masterplans to include investment to also help achieve the
clear climate change adaptation and climate change adaptation and GHG
GHG emission mitigation objectives emissions mitigation targets.
and actions (investment proposals). Investments targeting co-benefits in
Mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation should be
responses will ensure appropriate promoted where possible.

SPM-3.6: Regulation and Enforcement to Enhance

Private Green Investment
Several regulations, applied by a more in protective measures and/or
multitude of countries “force” or choose energy efficient, low emissions
incentivise the business sector and technology over the perhaps cheaper,
consumers into green investment, old fashioned and dirtier alternatives.
purchase, or behaviour: An example to stimulate renewable
Environmental Impact Assessment energy is “renewable portfolio
(EIA) is required in Viet Nam for all standards” (RPS). This regulates
significant investments, for example power producing companies to
in major investments in water have a minimum amount of
management, transport, power renewable energy capacity in their
generation or large-scale power generation portfolios. The
manufacturing facilities. However, NCCS and forthcoming electricity
compared to the use of this policy should consider applying
instrument in other countries, RPS for the largest power producers
climate change mitigation and in Viet Nam, based on international
adaptation are not always treated experience. Growth in variable
clearly and effectively, so EIA does renewable energy (VRE) can also be
not lead to improved designs and enabled by requiring owners of
investments. The EIA regulation and wind and solar PV portfolios to
its application should be invest in a minimum battery energy
strengthened to become a more storage (BES) capacity in their
effective instrument on climate portfolios whilst enabling them to
change adaptation and GHG sell power from batteries at times of
emissions mitigation, as is the case high retail prices, which will help to
in other countries. This would on stabilize the national grid.
occasion “force” investors to invest
43
Box 9. Malaysia’s low-carbon policy toolkit

Policy approach Low-carbon policy tools

Strengthen Forest (i) Increased gazetting of forests to encourage their long-

Management and term protection; (ii) Establishment of Conservation Trust
Conservation Fund; (iii) Implementation of REDD+

Increase Renewable (i) Establishment of Feed in Tariff; (ii) Introduction of Net

Energy Use metering; (iii) Creation of Green Technology Financing
Scheme; (iv) Increased RE electricity generation by non-
Feed-in Tariff; regulated public and private licensees and
other mechanisms; (v) Introduction of B10 biodiesel; and
(vi) Launch of green sukuk investment instrument (= an
Islamic bond in which returns are used to invest in
environmentally sustainable infrastructure projects)

Improve Urban (i) Improved integration of urban nodes and planning (and
Planning and related plans); (ii) Development of rail-based public
Promote Public transport; and (iii) Removal of fossil fuel subsidies
Transportation

Source: Susskind et al. (2020)

Viet Nam already has a labelling developments such as the CBAM of

system on energy efficiency of the EU, Viet Nam should consider
equipment, which is influencing carbon foot print labelling of
consumer behaviour, as is the commodities and products that are
experience in other countries. A ban consumed domestically and also
on certain energy inefficient exported.
equipment should also be Regulation that petrol stations have
considered by Viet Nam, to ensure charging points for electric cars
that some old technology is forces the owners to invest and
discarded and replaced by efficient makes the purchase of electric
technology more rapidly (see Box 4 vehicles more attractive (see Box 5
on Germany). Regulation of on Finland). Viet Nam should also
(minimum) energy standards is also consider regulation to ban
available, but resources for motorbikes and/or cars with
enforcement are limited. In internal combustion engines from
addition, given international (parts of) cities by a certain date,
44
 which gives a signal to both to upgrade dikes, canals, bridges,
industry and consumers that etc. and through the NCCS Viet
electrification is the future, as has Nam could commit to reviewing
been done by municipalities in and upgrading its infrastructure
different countries in order to and building construction codes in
improve urban air quality. the context of climate change.
Regulation can “force” adaptation to
climate change effects by updating
and tightening design and
construction standards and
requirements, for example with
regards to minimum hights of the
ground floor of buildings and
access roads, minimum drainage
capacities or for example
regulations on rainwater harvesting,
water treatment and re-use. Sea
level rise and predictions on
changes in the extremes of
temperatures, rainfall and drought
©Unsplash
have been used in many countries

SPM-3.7: Capacity Building, Training and Awareness

Raising
Most countries provide training to communities that are strongly affected
improve the quality of human by disasters. Improvement of disaster
resources, especially young people. For monitoring, warning and
example, Japan and India encourage communication systems using the
the participation of young people and latest IT capabilities is also common.
women in the planning and
implementation of climate change The NCCS should include capacity
policies. Japan develops research building and training programmes on
programs for scientists under the age climate change adaptation and
of 40 for innovations on energy and disaster risk management, as well as
environment. Most countries have “technologies of the future” and related
programs to improve community skills. This should be provided by
awareness of climate change and established training and education
responses to climate change, including institutions at different levels. The
45
targets might include government shared in real time through the
focal points for disaster risk internet; (d) early warning systems and
management at the provincial level, disaster risk data collection, for use by
and young women and men aspiring experts and the wider population; and
to work in e.g., renewable energy, other options.
energy efficiency technologies, or
electric vehicle manufacture, operation The NCCS should also set targets to
and maintenance. Capacity building increase popular awareness of the
requires public funding, and policy can causes of climate change and
also incentivise private enterprises to responses to climate change. This
build capacities of (existing and new) includes awareness of flood, drought
personnel in different parts of value and salinity intrusion risks as well as
chains. Improved capacities will behaviours and products that reduce
improve efficiencies, reduce emissions emissions and improve resilience.
and/or increase resilience, which Campaigns to increase popular
improves profitability and business awareness of climate change
continuity in times of crisis. Examples challenges and solutions could involve
are programmes to improve capacities the mass organisations, including the
on (a) the analysis of energy Youth Union, and they should connect
efficiencies in manufacturing to parallel international organisations,
businesses by energy service UN agencies, and international
companies (ESCORs); (b) development campaigns. Viet Nam should enhance
and application of renewable energy awareness of future generations
equipment; (c) public and private through better inclusion of climate
systems that measure parameters such change in the curriculum at different
as water levels, pH and salinity that are levels of education.

SPM-3.8: Research, Science and Technology

Development and Application

All major countries are aiming to take etc., as it is aiming to become a

part or lead in the technologies of the modern industrialised nation. The
future and the resources required for NCCS should promote that
them. Viet Nam must get into an Government will bring together large
advanced position with regards to national enterprises and public
“industry 4.0”, IT and the internet of research organisations and make
things (IoT), AI and big data analysis, strategic investments in development
renewable energy, electric transport, of technology and application of the
46
technologies of the future, i.e., research context of NDC formulation (JICA
programmes that may take the form of 2018), which needs to be repeated,
PPPs. An important way to “unleash” deepened and led by national experts
the research capacities of private from both research institutes and
enterprises, perhaps in cooperation private enterprises. This should include
with public sector research the “best available technologies” (BAT)
organisations, is illustrated by how the at any given moment, as well as
USA, EU and UK pre-financed COVID-19 potential technologies that are at
vaccine development by private earlier stages of research and
enterprises and promised to buy large development. Technologies should be
quantities of vaccines should continuously assessed so that
development be successful. The Vietnamese private and state-owned
governments reduced the commercial enterprises can decide on their
risks of the private enterprises, who investment in development,
could bring their large research adaptation and/or adoption of modern
capacities to focus on resolving a and future technologies.
single problem. The result was that
several effective vaccines were This concerns a very wide range of
developed and made available very technologies, for example the
fast by historical comparison, using the following:
latest technologies for vaccine (a) Technologies to increase fossil fuel
development and manufacture. use efficiency and reduce
emissions of various pollutants in
According to the experience of several power production, cement, iron
countries, in order to reduce and steel, aluminium, fertilizer and
greenhouse gas emissions and improve paper production;
resilience, it is necessary to study
(b) Variable renewable energy (VRE)
technological alternatives to the status such as wind, solar PV, wave
quo, and decide on those based on power, as well as biofuel which
financial, social and environmental have good potentials in Viet Nam;
criteria. For example, Japan and China (c) Green hydrogen that can displace
have issued many policies to support fossil fuels in heavy industry (iron,
the development of low emissions steel and aluminium), be used in
vehicles, especially public transport; large transport, and serve as
India has a policy to support the use of energy storage in connection with
LED light bulbs to save energy in variable renewable energy (VRE);
buildings. Viet Nam has also done
(d) Technologies that are
technology analyses, for example in the underdeveloped in Viet Nam, 47
 including technological and/or increase carbon storage;
approaches to carbon capture and (j) Waste management technologies,
storage (CCS) and nuclear fusion including sorting, separating,
technology; reusing and recycling waste,
(e) High capacity and smart power recovery of precious metals from
transmission systems and waste, composting organic waste,
management practices, to enable capture and use of methane from
distributed power production and waste, incineration in waste-to-
inclusion of large amounts of VRE; energy plants and existing thermal
(f) Energy efficient lighting (public power plants (“co-firing”);
lighting, service establishments, (k) Technologies to enhance energy
manufacturing facilities, homes) efficiency of buildings and
and energy efficient equipment in increasing resilience of urban areas
cooling and heating for and industrial zones, including
households, service approaches to drainage such as
establishments, and industrial “sponge cities”;
facilities; (l) Technologies to improve water use
(g) Electric transport (bikes, cars, efficiency in agriculture and
trucks, buses, ships), including aquaculture, and e.g., desalinize
battery technology; water for household and industry
(h) Technologies, including in coastal zones;
blockchain technology, for (m) Technologies to protect and
tracking origin and type of inputs restore land, water, wetlands and
into products throughout their biodiversity, including nature-
value chains, for example to based solutions (NbS) in support of
register embedded energy, carbon, coastal, riverbank and mountain
water use, and the use of slope erosion prevention;
agrochemicals on fruits, to be able (n) Forestry programmes to
to inform local as well as remote strengthen GHG sinks, in addition
consumers in a trustworthy to already planned measures, such
manner; as reforestation of watershed
(i) Biotechnology, with applications in protection forests, natural forest
the health sector, livestock, protection and regeneration,
aquaculture, crops and forestry afforestation, sustainable forest
that can improve human health and plantation management;
and livelihood resilience in the (o) Smart agriculture based on
face of climate change and other industry 4.0 technologies, big data
stresses, decrease GHG emissions analysis and the IoT. 48
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This SPM was written by Koos Neefjes, Nguyen Khac Hieu, and Nguyen Anh Duc,
with contributions by Janto Hess, Morgane Rivoal and Hoang Ngoc Xuan Mai.
Comments and suggestions on different drafts were provided by Pham Van Tan
and prof. Tran Thuc of the MONRE drafting team of the National Climate Change
Strategy (NCCS), and Bui Viet Hien, Dao Xuan Lai, Khusrav Sharifov, Susanne
Olbrisch and James Vener of UNDP. Their contributions were gratefully received,
but the content of this report remains the responsibility of the authors alone.

49
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This publication should be cited as:

UNDP. 2021. Summary for Policymakers - Analysis of international experiences
of formulation and implementation of climate change strategies and the
global context.
50
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