Steel Structures

Study material
(AISC Standards)

PREPARED BY

K. LALITH KUMAR

ONLINE TRAINER
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

CHAPTER 1 – ABBREVIATIONS --------------------------------------- 1 - 6

CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION OF STEEL ------------------------ 7 - 13

CHAPTER 3 – CALCULATIONS --------------------------------------- 14 - 21

CHAPTER 4 – PROJECT WEB ----------------------------------------- 22 - 26

CHAPTER 5 – INPUTS AND OUTPUTS ----------------------------- 27 - 33

CHAPTER 6 – STRUCTURAL SHAPES ------------------------------ 34 - 50

CHAPTER 7 – STRUCTURAL GRADES ----------------------------- 51 - 58

CHAPTER 8 – VISUALIZATION --------------------------------------- 59 - 61

CHAPTER 9 – MAIN STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ----------------- 62 - 68

CHAPTER 10 – WELDING ---------------------------------------------- 69 - 109

CHAPTER 11 – BOLTING -------------------------------------------- 110 - 142

CHAPTER 12 – ANCHOR BOLT ------------------------------------- 143 - 154

CHAPTER 13 – CONNECTIONS ------------------------------------ 155 - 177

CHAPTER 14 – JOIST -------------------------------------------------- 178 - 188

CHAPTER 15 – OSHA -------------------------------------------------- 189 - 196

CHAPTER 16 – HANDRAILS ----------------------------------------- 197 - 199

CHAPTER 17 – STAIRS ------------------------------------------------ 200 - 212

CHAPTER 18 – TRUSS -------------------------------------------------- 213 - 218

CHAPTER 19 – GALVANIZATION ---------------------------------- 219 - 229

CHAPTER 20 – PAINTING -------------------------------------------- 230 - 235

CHAPTER 21 – LADDER ---------------------------------------------- 236 - 237

CHAPTER 22 – TECHNICAL WORDS ----------------------------- 238 - 261

 CHAPTER – 1

ABBREVIATIONS

S.NO. ABBREVIATIONS

1 AISC American Institute of Steel Constructions

2 AWS American Welding Society

3 AISI American Iron and Steel Institute

4 ASTM American Society for Testing Material

5 AESS Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel

American Association of State Highway and Transportation

6 AASHTO
Officials

7 ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers

8 RCSC Research Council on Structural Connections.

9 OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

10 SJI Steel Joist Institute

11 SSPC Structural Steel Painting Council

12 EOR EOR - Engineer of Record

13 IFA Issue for Approval

14 IFC Issue for Construction

15 BFA Back from Approval

16 GC General Contractor

17 KIP Kilo pound

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18 RFI Request for Information

19 LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design

20 ASD Allowable stress design

21 SSL Short Slot

22 LSL Long Slot

23 HSS Hollow Structural Section

24 LLV Long Leg Vertical

25 LLH Long Leg Horizontal

26 TOF Top of Footing

27 TOS Top of Steel

28 FFE Finished Floor Elevation

29 P/P Point to point

30 C/C Center to center

31 TS Tubular Section

32 SLBB Short Leg Back to Back

33 LLBB Long Leg Back to Back

34 HVAC Heat Ventilation and Air Conditioning

35 RD Running Dimension

36 BOM Bill of Material

37 TOG Top of Grating

38 EOD Edge of Deck

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39 EOS Edge of Slab

40 F.V Field Verify

41 S.L.V Short leg vertical

42 S.L.H Short leg Horizontal

43 J.B.E Joist bearing elevation

44 FOW Face of wall

45 GOA Gage on angle

46 NS Near side

47 FS Far side

48 BS Both sides

49 WP Work point

50 C.G Center of gravity

51 SDI Steel deck institute

52 UNO Unless noted otherwise

53 THK Thickness

54 TYP Typical

55 CL Centre line

56 HS BOLT High strength bolt

57 GA General Arrangement drawing

58 OSL Outstanding leg

59 BEV Bevel

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60 NISD National institute of steel detailing

61 SEOR/ SER Structural Engineer of Record

62 BOBP Bottom of Base plate

63 ABM Advance Bill of Material

64 CMU Concrete Masonry Unit

65 ASCE American society of Civil Engineering

66 PJP Partial Joint Penetration

67 BIM Building information Modelling

68 CJP Complete Joint Penetration

69 AHU Air Handling Unit

70 FTP File Transfer Protocol

71 CCN Change Control Note

72 HSFG High Strength Frictional Grip Bolt

73 SFRS Seismic Force Resistance Structure

74 DET Detail

75 SQ-2E Square Cut at 2 Ends

76 CNC Computer Numerical Control

77 UOS Unless Otherwise Standard

78 RC Reinforced Concrete

79 NS GROUT Non Shrinkage Grout

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80 GOSL Gage on outstanding leg

81 FIN – 2E Finished at 2 ends

82 WP/E Work point to end

83 SJ Square joint

84 CR-2E Circular cut at 2 ends

85 TOC Top of concrete

86 MC Moment connections

87 GOL Gage on leg

88 CTR′D Centred

89 IFF Issue for fabrication

90 BP Buyout plast

91 TOP Top of pier (or) pedestrol

92 CISC Canadian institute of steel construction

93 BG Back gouging

94 RTU Roof top unit

95 FP Fire proofing

96 PEB Pre Engineering Building

97 SP Standard Primer

98 BSC British Standard Council

99 RFC Request for Confirmation

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100 FGL Finished ground level

101 SC Slip critical / slotted connection

102 TOFP Top of Fire Proofing

103 EFP Exposed Fire Proofing

104 PL Plate

105 EL Elevation

106 STIFF Stiffener

107 CJ Construction Joint

108 HPP High Point Pavement

109 C/F Cut Form

110 BOS Bottom of Steel

111 KSI Kilo Pound per Square Inch

112 NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineering

113 TC Tension control

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 CHAPTER - 2

INTRODUCTION OF STEEL

IRON

Iron is extracted from natural available iron ore.

Iron ore look like a red stone.

Iron ore: Fe2O3

Iron: Fe

HOW WE GET IRON FROM IRON ORE?

Remove O2 from Iron ore to get Iron by adding CO

Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

This process is called “REDUCTION PROCESS”

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STEEL

It is an alloy of iron with carbon and usually other elements, used as a

structural and fabricating material

Remove Carbon content from Iron by adding Oxygen, it forms CO (or)

CO2.

This addition of oxygen to remove carbon is called as “OXIDATION

PROCESS”.

CARBON CONTENT

In Iron: 4%

Steel: 0.4%

TYPES OF STEEL

Carbon steel

Alloy steel

Tool steel

Stain less steel

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CARBON STEEL

Low Carbon steel

Medium Carbon steel

High Carbon steel

Very High Carbon steel

TYPES OF CARBON STEEL

TYPES OF STEEL CARBON MANGANESE

Low carbon steel 0.05% - 0.25% 0.4%

Medium carbon steel 0.29% - 0.54% 0.6% - 1.65%

High carbon steel 0.55% - 0.95% 0.3% - 0.9%

Very high carbon steel 0.96% - 2.1% -

ALLOY STEELS

Alloy steels are a mixture of several metals, including nickel, copper,

and aluminium.

It tends to be cheaper and are used in mechanical works, car parts,

pipelines, and motors.

The strength and property depends on the concentration of elements

they contain.

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TOOL STEEL

Tool steel is hard, heat and scrape-resistant.

They are named tool steel because they are often used to make metal
tools, such as stamping, cutting, and mould-making tools.

They are also commonly used to make hammers.

There are several different grades of steel that can be used for distinct
applications.

STAIN LESS STEEL

Stainless steels are shiny, corrosion resistant, and used in many

products, including home appliances, cooking utensils.

It has a low carbon content Stainless steel contains the alloy chromium
and can also include nickel or molybdenum.

It is strong and can withstand high temperatures.

TYPES OF STEEL CONSTRUCTIONS

INDUSTRIAL – Steel acts as platform

Example: Tracks, Cranes, Ware House etc.,

COMMERCIAL

Example: Theatres, Shopping malls, Conventional halls etc.,

OFF-SHORE OIL RIGGING

Example: Oil Extractions, Oil Refineries beneath the water

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

Example: Suspension Bridge, Truss Bridge etc.,

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 PRE FABRICATED BUILDINGS – Prepared at one place and
transfer to site.

Example: Bus stops, Coffee shops etc.,

MANUFACTURING OF STEEL

Coal is dumped into large ovens, where it is heated up-to 2400°F which
removes most of coal’s gasses and converts it to a coke.

Coke is used because it burns with intense heat and little smoke.

The coke along with iron ore and limestone (cleans and sent to the blast
furnace.

The elements are hoisted to the top of the furnace are sprinkled, in
layers into the stove.

Hot blasts of air rising melt the falling ore.

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 The Molten iron collects at the bottom and is charged.

Impurities rise to the top of the ore and are skimmed off.

A little scrap steel, then the molten iron, is added.

Oxygen is blown onto the molten iron, removing impurities and

converting it to steel.

After alloys are added to the molten steel it is lifted to the top of the
caster.

Steel then flows forms the bottom of the addle into a reservoir called
burnish and then into the molds.

It is cooled by spraying water until it becomes solid throughout.

The relined steel is then reheated and sent through a number of

roughing stands that flatten it into line sheet.

The sheets which reach speed of up-to 50 miles an hour in the

machines are then washed cooled and coiled.

ADVANTAGES

Reduces construction time and allows in all season.

Provides more flexibility.

Easy to modify.

Light in weight and reduces foundation cost.

Durable, Long lasting and recyclable.

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DISADVANTAGES

Corrosion

Pre fabricated members large in size and difficult for transportation.

Maintaining cost is high when comparing to concrete.

Erection aid and safety precautions is must

APPLICATIONS OF STEEL

Construction

Transport

Energy

Packing

Appliances and Industry

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 CHAPTER - 3

CALCULATIONS

UNIT CONVERSIONS

1 inch 16 fractions

1 inch 25.4 mm (or) 2.54cm

1 meter 40 inches (or) 3.28feet

1 foot 0.3048m (or) 12 inches

1 Kip 454 kilograms

1000 pounds 1 kip

1 pound 0.454 kilograms

1pound 1 Lbs

1 mill 0.001 inch (or) 1/1000 inch

(measurement for corrosion)

1 ton 1000kg

1 mile 1.609km

1kg/m3 0.000000036kip/cu.inch (or) 36x10-9

kip/cu.inch

Note: Specific weight of steel can be calculated in pounds/feet (or)

Lbs/feet

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 1 inch = 16 fractions

1/16 1/16

2/16 1/8

3/16 3/16

4/16 ¼

5/16 5/16

6/16 3/8

7/16 7/16

8/16 ½

9/16 9/16

10/16 5/8

11/16 11/16

12/16 ¾

13/16 13/16

14/16 7/8

15/16 15/16

16/16 1

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 ADDITION

1) 8″ 13/16 + 7″ 7/8

Answer:

= (8 + 7)″ (13/16+14/16)

= 15″ (27/16) (since 16/16 = 1 inch)

= 15″ (1) (11/16)

= 16″ (11/16) (since 12″ = 1′)

= 1′ 4″ 11/16

2) (22′ 10″ 5/8) + (13′ 7″ 7/16) + (286″ ½)

Answer:

= (22+13)′ (10+7+286)″ (5/8+7/16+1/2)

= 35′ 303″ 25/16

= 35′ 303″ (16/16 + 9/16)

= 35′ 304″ 9/16 (since 12 x 25 = 300)

= (35+25)′ 4″ 9/16

= 60′ 4″ 9/16

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 PRACTISE PROBLEMS

a) 15/16″ + ½″

b) 13/16″ + ¼″ + ¾″

c) ¾″ + ¾″ +7/8″

d) ½″ + ½″ + 15/16″ + 13/16″

e) 1″ 3/4 + 7/16″

f) 4″ 3/8 + 3″ 3/4

g) 11″ 7/8 + 7″ 1/16

h) 5/16″ + 3/16″ + 2″ 15/16

i) ½″ + 7″ 3/8

j) 8″ 13/16 + 7″ 7/8

k) (1′ -8″″ 7/16) + (2′ -8″ 3/8)

l) (3′ -7″ 1/16 )+ (10′ -8″13/16)

m) (2′ -8″5/16) + (1′ -7″3/16) + (5′ -10″ 13/16)

n) (220″7/16) + (386″ 15/16) + (7′ -8″ 1/8) + (3′ -8″ 1/4)

o) (234″ 5/16) + (444″ 15/16) + (222″ 1/4) + (21′ -5″ 13/16) + 220″

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 SUBTRACTION

1) 10′ (15/16) - (8′ 11″ 13/16)

Answer:

= (10 - 8)′ (0 - 11)″ (15/16 - 13/16)

= 2′ (-11)″ 1/8

= 1′ (12 - 11)″ 1/8 (since 1′ = 12″ )

= 1′ 1″ 1/8

PRACTISE PROBLEMS

a) 13/4 – ¼

b) 1/2 – ¾ + ½

c) 144′′ 3/4 – 2′-3′′ 7/16

d) 2′-5′′ 13/16 – 5′′ 3/4

e) 333′′ 15/16 – 23′-14′′ 9/16

f) 2′- 5′′ 15/16 – 1′-8′′ 13/16

g) 30′-9′′ 13/16 – 28′-11′′ 15/16

h) 220′-18′′ 15/16 – 440′-22′′ 13/16 + 240′-18′′ 5/8

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 CONVERT FRACTION TO DECIMAL

1) 5/16+ 7/8

Answer:

= 19/16

= 16/16 + 3/16

= 1″ 3/16 (since 16/16 = 1″)

= 1″ + (0.187) (since 3/16 = 0.187)

= 1.187″

PRACTISE PROBLEMS

a) 3′′ 7/8

b) 10′′ 13/16

c) 3′-10′′ 5/16

d) 22′-11′′ 3/4

e) ½′′ + ½′′ + 15/16′′ + 13/16′′

f) 1′′ 3/4 + 7/16′′

g) 4′′ 3/8 + 3′′ 3/4

h) 8′′ 13/16 + 7′′ 7/8

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 CONVERT DECIMAL TO FRACTION

1) 4.26 inch

Answer:

Multiply and divided by 16 for the digits after decimal point

= 4″ (0.26 x 16)/16

= 4″(4.16)/16 (since in 4.16 ⁓ 4) = 3″ 4/16

= 3″ ¼

2) 3.63 feet+ 4.32 inch

Answer:

= (3.63 + 0.36)′ = 3.99′ (since divide 4.32″ with 12 )

Multiply by 12 for the digits after decimal point

= 3′ (0.99 x 12) = 3′ (11.88)

Multiply and divided by 16 for the digits after decimal point

= 3′ 11″ (0.88 x 16)/16

= 3′ 11″ 14/16

= 3′11″7/8

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 PRACTISE PROBLEMS

a) 220.45 inches

b) 141.25 feet

c) 4.5inches+6.32 inches

d) 6.32 inches + 6.32 inches

e) 3.142 feet + 3.032 inches

f) 0.3256 feet + 6.32 inches

g) 7.325 inches + 3.51 feet

h) 64.2 inches + 524.3 inches

i) 582.333 inches-3.56 feet

j) 2.45 inches+ 6.32 feet

k) 9.456 feet-0.56 inches

l) 22.56 feet + 25 feet + 66.33 inches

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 CHAPTER – 4

PROJECT WEB

OWNER:

Possessor of project, the one who invests is called as owner

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 GENERAL CONTRACTOR:

A responsible person for managing and building a project i.e., designed

by an engineer

Key person who bears responsible for all construction work

DESIGNER:

The one who designs the project.

DETAILING COMPANY:

Comprise of three professionals

1. Modeler

2. Detailer

3. Checker

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MODELER:

One who creates the 3D model with the reference of design drawing (2D)
given by the designer.

DETAILER:

A steel detailer is a person who produces detailed drawings for steel

fabricators and steel erectors.

CHECKER:

One who checks the detailer drawings is called checker.

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FABRICATION:

The process of manufacturing Steel members is called Fabrication.

ERECTION:

The process of Erecting (i.e., Construction) is called as Erection.

COMISSIONING:

It is nothing but Inspection (or) Checking after the erection

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COMPANY PROCESS

Page | 26
 CHAPTER – 5

INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

INPUTS:

1) Design Drawings

2) Safety Codes (OSHA)

3) Design and Drafting (standard / specifications)

4) RFI Response

5) BFA Comments

6) Client Communication

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 1) DESIGN DRAWINGS:

According to the Client requirements, these drawings are given by the

designer.

TYPES OF DESIGN DRAWINGS

1. Architectural drawings: These are prepared by architects and are

used to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal.

2. Structural drawings: These are generally prepared by registered

professional structural engineers and informed by architectural

drawings and primarily concerned with the load carrying members

of a structure.

2) SAFETY CODES (OSHA):

It mainly deals with the safety of workers to minimize the accidents in
site
Example: The worker have to tie their waist rope to protection cables to
prevent from slipping & accidents while walking on beam top

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3) CLIENT STANDARDS:
Client standards are required because some of them need some
standards and needs.

4) SPECIFICATIONS:
There are specifications for every members and materials like
grade of material, type of bolt etc.,
These specifications are in 1000 pages booklet given by AISC.
Designer makes specifications for project.
5) RFI RESPONSE:
All the responses given by the client and queries raised by the
detailing company should be in a formal written document.

6) BFA COMMENTS:
Comments from EOR/Designer

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7) CLIENT COMMUNICATION:
The communication should be done by mail. The client
communication is also called as “Detailer Direction”.
This information obtained through communication directs the
detailer

NOTE:

Steps for sending drawings

IFA

BFA

IFC

OUTPUTS:

1) ABM (Advance Bill of Materials)

2) Fabrication/shop drawing (Single Part drawings and Assembly

drawings)

3) Erection drawings/GA

4) Files and reports needed by various automated machines

5) Bolt and other hardware report

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1) ABM:
Before construction, in system there will be a skeleton plan; before

construction the client need to know how much quantity of steel is

required.

We get report in TEKLA.

We send that report to client for purchase of steel.

2) FABRICATION DRAWINGS:
Fabrication drawings are also called as “Shop drawings”.
They are of two types:
a) Part drawings
b) Assembly drawings
a) PART DRAWINGS:

In one sheet, only one connecting member / single part is called as

Part drawings (or) Single parts drawings

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 b) ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS:

In one sheet, only one main member (i.e., Beam, Column etc.,)
including its single parts is called as Assembly drawings.

3) ERECTION DRAWINGS:
Drawings that give information to erector where to arrange the
assemblies in site in a specified location.

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4) FILES & REPORT NEED BY VARIOUS AUTOMATED
MACHINES:
This is the data given by TEKLA in CNC format to cut plates & plates
with holes effectively with less wastage of steel, i.e., gives how much
quantity should cut.
Example: DXF &NC- DXF Files

5) BOLTS & OTHER HARDWARE REPORT:

In this report we get size, quantity, type etc., i.e., it is giving the bolt
report

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 CHAPTER – 6

STRUCTURAL SHAPES

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL SHAPES:

W Shape

M Shape

S Shape

HP Shape

WT and ST shapes

Channels

Angles

HSS Shapes

Pipes

Plates

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1) W- Shape:

W-Shape Called the wide flange shapes.

W Shapes have essentially parallel inner and outer flange surfaces.

Mainly used for columns and beams.

For example these members are represented as W10x22 where "W"

represents Wide flange,"10" represents approximate beam nominal
depth in inches and "22" represents for specific weight in lbs i.e.
W10x22 weighs 22lbs/ft (Note: Nominal means approximately).

The Maximum length of W-shape as per OSHA need to be 40 feet, any

length more than 40 feet needs to be clarified with client.

W-shapes are available from size of W4" to W44".

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ENCROACHMENT:

The permissible distance beyond the Workable gage or the limited distance to
enter into fillet or rounding radius

Q) Why the Gage is standardized?

Answer: The Gauge is standardized

a) To maintain proper Edge distance.

b) Do not enter any fasteners into the "K" value. (Avoid
Encroachment)

KDET - tf Encroachment value

Up to 5/16 1/8

3/8 to ½ 3/16

9/16 to 13/16 1/4

7/8 to 1" ¼ 5/16

1" 5/16 to 1" 3/8 3/8

(Refer: AISC MANNUAL 14th edition from table: 1-1)

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2) M - Shape:

M-Shapes are similar to W-shapes but the only difference is that M-

shape have narrow flanges

The use of these shapes is very limited.

M shapes are designated as M12x10 where 12 is nominal depth in

inches and 10 is specific weight in lbs/feet.

In Narrow flanges we can’t do the bolting. No gauges are provided in

AISC manual.

Range available is 3" to 12.5"

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3) S - Shape:

These are called as American standard beam with inner flanges are
tapered having a slope of 2 on 12"

S shapes are designated as S12x10. Where, 12 is nominal depth in

inches and 10 is specific weight in lbs/feet.

This is the first section rolled in America, but today they are not used
for beams and columns.

They are used for special applications like Monorail and Crane hoist.

Range available is 3" to 24"

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4) HP – Shapes:

This is similar to W-shape the difference is only that the web

thickness is equal to flange thickness and the depth and flange width
is nominally equal for a given designation.

HP means hypothetically parallel.

HP shapes are represented for example as HP14 x117. Where, 14 is

nominal depth in inches and 117 is specific weight in lbs per feet.

Range available 8" to 18".

It is mostly used for bearing piles. (Piling in foundation).

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5) WT & ST Shape:

WT - Shape

ST - Shape

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WT Shapes: These are half of W - shapes.

ST Shapes: These are half of S - shapes.

WT shapes are designated for example as WT6x20.

Where,

6 is the nominal depth in inches and

20 represent specific weight in lbs/feet

i.e. WT6x20 weights 20lbs/ft

These are used for connecting members, for packing plates, supporting

members, platforms.

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Page | 42
6) C and MC Shapes (Channels):

C-Shapes are primarily called as American standard channel

Channels have a web and two tapering flanges; C shape has slope of 2

on 12 on inner flange surface.

Used mainly for stair stringers, platforms and many other

miscellaneous locations.

MC shapes (Miscellaneous channel shapes is similar to C shape only

difference being width of channel and the slope.

Channels are represented for example as C15x50. Where, 15 is channel

exact depth in inches and 50 is specific weight in pound (lbs) per feet

Range available Channel is 3" to 15".

MC range available is 3" to 18".

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Page | 44
7) L - Shapes (Angles):

LLBB SLBB

Angles have horizontal and vertical legs at right angle (90 degree).

These are used for connections, bracings, curved beams..etc.

The legs may be of equal or unequal length.

We use LLBB and SLBB are used for connections (ex clip angles)

Angles are represented for example as L8x4x1/4 .where 8 and 4

represents length of leg from back of angle in inches and 1/4 represents the
angle thickness in inches.

Page | 45
Page | 46
 8) HSS - Shapes:

Designated as HSS .its manufactured by electric arc or submerged arc

welding

Used for aesthetical interest structures also used for columns, beams,

bracings and truss components.

HSS comes in square, rectangular and circular cross sections.

It’s represented for example as HSS 12x10x1/4, where 10 and 12 are

the HSS sides and 1/4 is its thickness, all infractions. Round HSS is

designated as HSS10.000x0.500.

Where, 10.000 is nominal outside diameter in inches and 0.500 is nominal

wall thickness, all in 3 decimal places.

Page | 47
Page | 48
9) PIPES:

Pipes have essentially round cross sections.

These are used for handrails and guard rails.

Pipes are designated with nominal inner diameter, for e.g. pipe 5 Std.
denotes, nominal pipe inner diameter of 5” and 0.258” wall thickness.

Pipes are also designated with weight class as x-strong and xx-strong.

Pipes are used for handrails and stair rails.

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10) PLATES:

Plate or bar materials are differentiated by their width

They are used for connections, shim plates; build up members, bent
angles.etc.

Flat stock with width less than or equal to 8” are called as bar, and
more than 8” width are called as plates.

Plates are rolled in between horizontal rollers and trimmed to length

and width by shearing or thermal cutting on edges.

For e.g.: if the thickness of the plate is ½” so the distance between

rollers also ½”

Plates are designated as PL ½” x4 ½” x 1’-3” where ½ “is the plate

thickness, 4 ½” is plate width and 1’-3” is the plate length.

Plate thickness are available in increments of 1/16 up to 3/8” ,over 3/8

to 1” thickness available in increments of 1/8 and above 1” thickness
plate is available in increments of 1 / 4”

The maximum available plate length is 20’-0” and width is 200 inches.

We are using the two methods to cut the plate

Thermal cut is also called as gas cutting

Shear cut is by using shearing machines

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 CHAPTER – 7

STRUCTURAL GRADES

S.NO STRUCTURAL SHAPE GRADE

1 W –SHAPE ASTM A992

2 M-SHAPE ASTM A36

3 S-SHAPE ASTM A36

4 HP-SHAPE ASTM A572 GR.50

5 C-SHAPE ASTM A36

6 MC-SHAPE ASTM A36

7 L-SHAPE ASTM A36

8 HSS RECTANGULAR ASTM A500 GR.B

9 HSS ROUND ASTM A500 GR.B

10 PIPES ASTM A53 GR.B

11 PLATES AND BARS ASTM A36

Page | 51
S.NO STRUCTURAL FASTENERS GRADE

1 CONVENTIONAL BOLTS ASTM A325, A490

2 TWIST-OFF TYPE BOLTS ASTM F1852

3 COMMON BOLTS / ERECTION BOLTS ASTM A307 GR.A

4 NUTS ASTM A563

5 WASHERS ASTM F436

6 DTI WASHERS ASTM F959

7 THREADED RODS ASTM A36

8 SHEAR STUD CONNECTONS ASTM A108

9 ANCHOR RODS (HOOKED,HEADED AND ASTM F1554 GR.36

THREADED & NUTTED)

10 WEATHERING STEEL ASTM A588

11. GALVANIZED STEEL ASTM A123,ASTM A143

Refer the ASTM SPECIFICATIONS (TABLE: 2-5)

Page | 52
NOTE:

1. Grade it is depends on the yield stress of the material.

2. Above mentioned Grades are mostly used in structures.
3. The unit of stress is KSI(Kilo pound per square inch)
4. Refer Stress-Strain Diagram)

W - SHAPE: ASTM A992

M – SHAPE: ASTM A36

S – SHAPE: ASTM A36

Page | 53
HP - SHAPE: ASTM A572 GR.50

C - SHAPE: ASTM A36

L - SHAPE: ASTM A36

Page | 54
 HSS - SHAPE: ASTM A500 GR.B

HSS - PIPES: ASTM A53 GR.B

PLATES: ASTM A36

CONVENTIONAL BOLTS: ASTM A325, A490

Page | 55
TWIST-OFF TYPE BOLTS : ASTM F1852

COMMON BOLTS: ASTM A307 GR.A

NUTS: ASTM A563

WASHER: ASTM F436

Page | 56
 DTI WASHERS: ASTM F959

THREADED RODS: ASTM A36

SHEAR STUD CONNECTONS: ASTM A108

ANCHOR RODS: ASTM F1554 GR.36

Page | 57
WEATHERING STEEL: ASTM A588

Page | 58
 CHAPTER – 8

VISUALISATION

Page | 59
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FIRST ANGLE AND THIRD ANGLE

PROJECTION:

S.NO FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

1 The object is imagined to be in 1st The object is imagined to be in 3rd

quadrant quadrant

2 The object lies between the The plane of projection lies between
observer and projection plane the observer and object

3 The plane of projection is The plane of projection is assumed to

assumed to be non transparent. be transparent.

4 When views are drawn in their When views are drawn in their relative
relative position, Top view comes position, Top view comes above Front
below front view, Right side view view, Right view drawn to the right of
drawn to the left of elevation. elevation.

5 This is used in UK, India, This is used in America

European countries

First angle Symbol

Page | 60
 Third Angle Symbol

First and third angle projection

Page | 61
 CHAPTER – 9

MAIN STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

1) BEAM:

A structural member, usually horizontal, whose main function is to carry

transverse loads to its longitudinal axis. These loads usually cause

bending of the beam member.

TYPES OF BEAMS BASED ON END CONDITIONS:

Simple beam (beam supported at both ends)

Continuous beam (more than two supports)

Cantilever beam

Overhang beam

Fixed beam

TYPES OF BEAMS BASED ON INCLINATION:

Sloped beam

Skewed beam

Slope & Skew beam

Canted beam

Curved beam

Page | 62
a) SLOPED BEAM:

A Beam that is inclined with reference to a horizontal position in

elevation of the structure. The ends of the beam are at different elevations.

b) SKEWED BEAM:

The condition when two members come together at an angle which is

not 90 degrees or perpendicular to each other in plan view.

Page | 63
c) SLOPE & SKEWED BEAM (or) HIP AND VALLEY BEAM:

When a beam inclines in two or more directions with respect to the

axis of its supporting member, it is said to be skewed and sloped beam
or Hip and Valley beam.

d) CURVED BEAM:
With modern specialized bending and shaping equipment, the architect
now has a great deal of flexibility to design with curved steel members
whether it is for or special accent features.
Beam with curve.

e) CANTED BEAM:

A beam perpendicular to the face of a supporting beam, but rotated so

its flanges are tilted with respect to those of the support, is said to be
canted

Page | 64
2) COLUMN:

A structural primary member, which is relatively long vertical or near-

vertical, whose primary function is to carry compressions loads parallel to
its longitudinal axis or transverse axis.

3) BRACE:
Bracing are the diagonally placed members to resist the lateral loads or
wind loads in a building
Types of bracings are Horizontal bracings, vertical bracings and knee
bracings.
1. CHEVRON-BRACE

2. VEVRON-BRACE

3. K- BRACE

4. KNEE BRACE (or) KICKER ANGLE

5. X- BRACE

6. ROD- BRACE

Commonly used sections are w-sections, WT-sections, HSS sections

(vertical bracing), angles and rods
Bracing member should be detailed horizontally unless unavoidable.
All information regarding bracing member in tubular column is
preferable.
For tubular section provide closure plate on both sides.
For double angle bracings provide spacer plate as per contract
drawings.
For welded bracings working line is along centre of gravity and for
bolted bracings it is along bolt line.

Page | 65
Chevron brace

Knee brace

Page | 66
X –brace

Rod brace

Page | 67
 Braced frame

Diagonal bracing creates stable triangular configurations within the

steel building frame.
Braced frames are often the most economical method of resisting wind
loads in multi-story buildings.

JOIST:

A joist is a light weight horizontal supporting members that run from wall
to wall, wall to beam or beam to beam, to support a ceiling, roof (or floor).

TRUSS:

Trusses are basically large joists and are designed for specific needs
of a building.

Trusses are generally made from straight section arranged and

fastened together in triangular form to ensure structural stability.

Conventional steel trusses may be bolted or welded completely in

the fabricating shop. If they are too large when transport, the trusses
are made in two halves with the necessary connecting plates and
provision for attaching connecting members.

Page | 68
 CHAPTER – 10

WELDING
INTRODUCTION:

Welding is a permanent fastening method; it is the process of fusing

multiple pieces of metal together by heating the filler metal to a liquid

state.

Welding can be performed in the shop or in the field.

Many fabrication shops prefer to weld rather than bolt.

Welding in the field is mostly avoided.

AWS (American Welding Society) develops codes, recommended

practices, and guides under strict American National Standards

Institute (ANSI) procedures

D1.1 Structural Welding Code – Steel, one of the most consulted codes

in the world, is produced by AWS.

A properly welded joint is stronger than the base metal.

Page | 69
 The strength of a weld is dependent on multiple factors:
1. Base metal
2. Filler metal
3. Type of weld
4. Throat and weld size

TYPES OF JOINTS:

Above shown are types of structural joints which are established by positions
of the connected material relative to one another.
Lap, tee, and butt joints are most common.
Weld types define the configuration of the weld and its underlying
design approach.

TYPES OF WELDS:

1. Fillet Weld

2. Groove Weld

Page | 70
 FILLET WELD:

1. The most commonly used weld is the fillet weld.

2. Fillet welds are theoretically triangular in cross-section.
3. Fillet welds join two surfaces at approximately right angles to each
other in lap, tee, and corner joints.

WELDING TERMINOLOGY FOR FILLET WELD

1-Throat: The shortest distance between the root of the weld to the face of
the weld.

2-Leg: The distance from the root of joint to the toe of the fillet weld.

3-Root: Deepest point of useful penetration in a fillet weld.

4-Toe: The junction between the face of a fillet weld and base metal.

5-Face: The exposed surface of a fillet weld on the side for which the
welding was done.

6-Depth of Fusion: The distance that fusion extends into the base metal

7-Size of Weld: The leg length of the fillet.

Page | 71
SYMBOL FOR FILLET WELD:

Minimum fillet weld size:

Maximum fillet welds size:

Page | 72
CLASSIFICATION OF FILLET WELD

TACK WELD:

Tack welds are temporary welds used to hold parts in place before performing
permanent weld.

Steps involve:

1. Placing the members in correct position

2. Checking and inspection of placing members
3. Conform the position of members and go for tack weld
4. Perform permanent weld

CONTINUOUS WELD:
A weld which extends continuously from one end of a joint to the other
STITCH WELD:
A series of welds of a specified length that are spaced at a specified
distance from each other
1. Intermittent chain weld
2. Staggered Intermittent

Page | 73
GROOVE WELD:

Groove welds are specified when a fillet weld is not appropriate for the

job

The configuration of the pieces may not permit fillet welding

A strength greater than that provided by a fillet weld is required

Groove welds are made in the space or groove between the two pieces being

welded

Page | 74
TERMINOLOGY OF GROOVE WELD

1-ROOT OPENING (R): The separation between members to be join

at the root of the joint.

2-ROOT FACE (RF): Groove face adjacent to the root of the joint.

3-GROOVE FACE: The surface of a member included in the groove.

4-BEVEL ANGLE: The angle formed between the prepared edge of a

member and a plane perpendicular to the surface of the member.

5-GROOVE ANGLE (A): The total included angle of the Groove

between parts to be joined by a groove weld.

6-SIZE OF WELD (S): The joint penetration (depth of chamfering

plus root penetration when specified).

7-PLATE THICKNESS (T): Thickness of the plate welded.

Page | 75
CLASSIFICATION OF GROOVE WELD

1. Complete Joint Penetration.

2. Partial Joint Penetration.

1) COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION (CJP): The total thickness of

a joint is welded.

The bevel or “J” preparation extends over most of or the entire face of

the material being joined

Complete fusion takes place

In some types of full penetration groove welds the material will be

bevelled from one side of the plate with a separate plate on the opposite

side – called backing or a backing bar.

Page | 76
WELDING SYMBOL FOR CJP:

2) PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION (PJP):

The fraction of thickness of a joint is welded.

Partial joint penetration welds are used when it is not necessary for

the strength of the joint to develop the full cross section of the

members being joined.

WELDING SYMBOL FOR PJP:

Page | 77
TYPES OF GROOVE WELDS:

1. SQUARE BUTT
2. SINGLE V GROOVE
3. DOUBLE V GROOVE
4. SINGLE BEVEL
5. DOUBLE BEVEL
6. SINGLE U GROOVE
7. DOUBLE U GROOVE
8. SINGLE J GROOVE
9. DOUBLE J GROOVE
10. FLARE V
11. FLARE BEVEL

Page | 78
SYMBOLS OF WELDS:

ADDITIONAL SYMBOLS :

Page | 79
Note:

1. In part drawing – no weld should be displayed

2. In assembly drawings – shop weld should be displayed
3. In erection drawings – only field weld should be displayed
POSITIONS OF WELDING:
There are four types of positions. They are
Flat
Horizontal
Vertical
Over Head

Flat – The face of the weld is approximately horizontal and welding is

performed from above the joint

Horizontal – The axis of the weld is horizontal

Vertical – The axis is approximately vertical or in the upright position

Overhead – Welding is performed from below the joint

Page | 80
Note:

1. Overhead weld is not preferable, because it cause harm to the

workmen.

2. The flat position is preferred because it is easier and more efficient to

weld in this position

BACKUP BARS: These are used to avoid the spillage of weld through

the Root gap. After completion of using backup bars they can be removed

by hammering.

BACK GOUGING: It is the method of chipping out and filling of the

weld on far side of the PJP.

Page | 81
METHODS OF WELDING:

There are four methods of welding. They are:

a. SMAW
b. GMAW
c. FCAW
d. SAW

1. SHIELD METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW):

1. Shield Metal Arc Welding is also known as manual, stick or hand

welding.

2. An Electric arc is produced between the end of a coated metal

electrode and the steel components to be welded.

3. The electrode is a filler metal, covered with a coating.

4. The electrode’s coating has two purposes.

a. It forms a gas shield to prevent impurities in the atmospheric from

getting into the weld.

b. It contains a flux that purifies the molten metal.

Page | 82
2. GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW):

1. Gas Metal Arc welding is also known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

welding.

2. It is fast and economical.

3. The wire melts and combines with the base metal to form weld.

4. The molten metal is protected from the atmosphere by a gas shield,

which is fed through a conduit to the tip of the welding gun.

5. This process may be automated.

Page | 83
3. FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW):

1. Flux Cored Arc Welding is similar to the GMAW process.

2. The difference is that the filler wire has centre core which contains

flux.

3. With this process it is possible to weld with or without a shielding gas.

4. This makes it useful for exposed conditions where a shielding gas may

be affected by the wind.

Page | 84
 4. SUB-MERGED ARC WELDING (SAW):

1. Sub-Merged Arc Welding is only performed by automatic or semi-

automatic methods.

2. Uses a continuously fed filler metal electrode.

3. The weld pool is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a

blanket of granular flux fed at the welding gun.

4. Results in a deeper weld penetration than the other process.

5. Only flat or horizontal positions may be used.

Note:

1) SMAW is the most preferable in site.

2) GMAW can be performed only in shop not in site.

Page | 85
WELDING SAFETY:

1. It is the important for both the welder and those working in the area

round a welding process to be safety conscious.

2. The welding arc should never be looked at with the naked eye.

3. AWS publishes many safety and health fact sheets which are available

for download at their website: https://www.aws.org/

4. A welder should wear the proper protective gear including

a) Helmet

b) Face Shield (or) Goggles

c) Gloves

d) Boots

e) Heavy Fabric (or) Leather shirt

f) Cuff-less pants

g) Leather leggings

Page | 86
WELD INSPECTIONS:

1. In addition to the erector’s quality control program, tests and

inspections are specified by the EOR or the local building authority.

2. A local building inspector may request that tests in addition to those

specified by the EOR be performed.

3. Some problems that can be found in welds include:

DEFECTS IN WELDING

Lack of fusion

Porosity

Cracks

Wrong size

Insufficient Penetration

Poor Workmanship

4. There are several weld tests and inspections that are commonly used.

Page | 87
WELD MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

WELD GAUGE

WELD FILLET GAUGE

Page | 88
VISUAL INSPECTION:

1. Visual Inspection is the most frequently used inspection and is the only

inspection required unless the specification calls for a more stringent

inspection method.

2. Inspection is done by the welder before, during and after welding.

3. When outside inspection is required it should also be done before,

during, and after welding

4. Minor problems can be identified and corrected before the weld is

complete (AISC & NISD 2000)

Page | 89
DYE PENETRATE TEST

Dye penetrate testing locates minute surface cracks and porosity

Dye types that may be used include:

a) COLOUR CONTRAST DYE - which shows up under ordinary

light

b) FLUORESCENT DYE – which shows up under black light

The dye is normally applied by spraying it directly on the weld

Page | 90
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION:

Magnetic particle inspection uses powdered magnetic particles to

indicate defects in magnetic materials

A magnetic field is induced in the part

The magnetic powder is attracted to and outlines cracks within the

material (AISC & NISD 2000)

Page | 91
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION:

Ultrasonic inspection can be used to detect flaws inside welds

High frequency sound waves are directed into the metal with a probe
held at a specific angle

The flaws reflect some energy back to the probe.

Flaws show up as indications on a screen (below) and are subject to

interpretation by an inspector (AISC & NISD 2000)

Page | 92
 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION:

Radiographic inspection, or X-ray, can also be used to detect flaws

inside welds

Invisible rays penetrate the metal and reveal flaws on an x-ray film or
fluorescent screen (above).

This is the most costly of the inspection methods.

Note:

1. Mostly used inspection methods are visual testing, dye penetration test
and ultrasonic inspection.
2. Radiographic inspection is most accurate among all, to find defects in
weld, but is not preferred due to high cost.

Page | 93
WELD SIZE

The size of a weld must match the size specified on the drawings.

Some welds may meet the required size after a single pass of the
welder

Larger weld sizes may require multiple passes to meet the size
requirement

Common single pass welds include fillet welds up to and including

5/16 inch and thin plate butt welds with no preparation

Common multiple pass welds include single bevel full penetration

groove welds, single bevel partial penetration groove welds, and fillet
welds over 5/16 inch.

The weld in the below picture is a multiple pass fillet weld

Page | 94
WELD ACCESSIBILITY

Access holes are required for some welds, such as the welded flange
connection shown to the right

1. The top access hole allows for a continuous backing bar to be

placed under the top flange

2. The bottom access hole allows for complete access to weld the
entire width of the bottom flange

A detail of a weld access hole for a welded flange connection is shown

below

WAH (or) Rat hole:

To prevent weld loss WAH is used to pass electrode in one shot. Weld Access
Hole (WAH) provide in moment connection for 2 reasons

a) Keep the backup bar inside

b) Passing the electrode into the hole

Page | 95
TOP FLANGE:

BOTTOM FLANGE:

Note:

Radius shall provide smooth notch free transition

R > = 3/8″
H min= ¾″ (20mm) or tw (Web thickness) , whichever is greater.

Page | 96
WELDING EQUIPMENT

Equipment used for welding will vary depending on the welding

process and whether the welding is being done in the shop or in the
field

A Flux Cored Arc Welding machine for shop welding is pictured

below left.

A Shielded Metal Arc Welding machine for field welding is pictured

below right.

Flux Cored Arc Welding machine

Shielded Metal Arc Welding machine

Page | 97
WEATHER IMPACTS ON WELDING

Welding in the field is avoided if possible due to welding condition

requirements

Field welding is not to be performed while it is raining, snowing, or

below 0° F

In certain ambient temperatures preheating of the material to be welded

is required.

AWS Code D1.1 (2004b) specifies minimum preheat and interpose

temperatures, which are designed to prevent cracking.

Page | 98
WELDING IN EXISTING STRUCTURES

Welding to existing structures during retrofit projects requires careful

consideration of numerous factors:

Determine weld ability – Identify the steel grade to establish a welding

procedure.

Select and design the weld – Fillet welds are preferred and avoid over
welding.

Surface preparation – Remove contaminants such as paint, oil, and

grease.

Loads during retrofit – An engineer should determine the extent to

which a member will be permitted to carry loads while heating,
welding, or cutting.

Fire hazards – Follow all governing fire codes, regulations, and safety
rules to avoid fires.

For complete details see the AISC Rehabilitation and Retrofit Guide
(2002b).

Page | 99
PRE-QUALIFIED WELD:

Pre- Qualified weld is a weld when parameters (i.e., size, root gap etc.,) of
weld are defined or documented by AWS (American Welding Society).

Page | 100
ADDITIONAL WELDS:

STUD WELD:

It’s an instrument which will join both concrete and steel together as one
member (i.e., composite beams)

STUD WELD SYMBOL:

Page | 101
PROCEDURE:

1. Embed plate is provided before concreting.

2. The embed plate is placed in such a way that the studs will penetrate

into the concrete, thickness of plate is within the concrete only face of

the embed plate is visible.

3. After getting hard then we can connect the beams to the embed plate.

Note:

1. The studs are connected to a plate entirely called as embed plate.

2. If we forget to put embed plate due to certain reasons then we can for
“EPOXY” and “EXPANSION” anchors.

EPOXY METHOD:

Installation process:

1. First drill the holes in concrete.

2. Remove all the materials from hole.

3. Clean the hole by passing air through air blowers.

4. Put epoxy into the hole.

5. Insert the screw into the epoxy.

6. After it gets solidify we can put the members.

7. Then we can weld the structural members.

Page | 102
EXPANSION ANCHORS:

Installation process:

1. Firstly drill the holes into the concrete

2. Remove all the materials from the hole

3. Clean the hole free from all the tiny materials

4. Insert anchors into the hole and rotate the nut then the inner part of the

anchor gets expanded.

SPOT WELDING:

It is a process in which contacting metal surface points are joined by the heat
obtained from resistance to electric current. It is a subset of electric resistance
welding.

Page | 103
SEAM WELD:

The welding electrodes are motor driven

Wheels has opposed to stationary rods. The result is a 'rolling'

resistance weld or non-hermetic seam weld. This process is most

often used to join two sheets of metal together:

PLUG OR SLOT WELD

Page | 104
SPACER BARS:

1. Spacer Bar not allow weld to come other side of member.

2. It is used when there is double V

3. It cannot be removed, it can be penetrated into the weld

Page | 105
SKEWED WELD:

Page | 106
WELD SHELF:
The space required by the fillet weld to perform is called weld shelf

RUN OFF TABS:

To avoid weld losses due to the start and end of welding

These are extended beyond the backup bar in CJP.

Page | 107
STRENGTH OF WELD:

Electrode representation: E70XX

Where,

E = Electrode

70 = Tensile Strength (KSI)

X = Optimum position to hold electrode.

X = Electric current.

Strength,

P=0.707 W × Leff × F

Where,

P= Strength of the weld,

W= Size of the weld,

Leff = Length of the weld – Start and stop losses of the weld,

F= Shear stress

ELECTRODE Fv( ksi) Shear stress

STRENGTH LEVEL (ksi)
60 18
70 21
80 24
90 27
100 30
110 33

Page | 108
How many people can hang on 1"weld, size of weld = 1/4", electrode E70,
average weight = 60kgs?

Given,

Length of weld (L) = 1”

Size of weld (W) = ¼"

Electrode used E70XX

Weight = 60kgs.

Effective length = { L - [ ( No. of start × weld size ) + ( No. of stop × weld

size)]}

Leff = 1" - (1×1/4 +1×1/4)

=1"- (1/2") =1/2"

Strength of weld,

P=0.707 × W × Leff × F

From above table,

F=21ksi,

P=0.707 ×¼× ½"× 21

P=1.856 Kips

P= 1.856 × 454

P= 842.567 Kgs

No. of persons can hang for 1" weld = 842.567 / 60

No. of persons= 14

Page | 109
 CHAPTER – 11

BOLTING
STRUCTURAL BOLTING:

A common method of joining two or more members by using fasteners by the

process of tightening

Note: Bolting is flexible in the field when compared to welding.

TERMINOLOGY IN BOLTING:

1. Head
2. Washer
3. Nut
4. Threaded portion
5. Shank
6. Stick out
7. Bolt length
8. Threaded portion
9. Diameter of bolt
10. Grip length
Page | 110
1. HEAD:
Head of a bolt is equal to the twice the diameter of bolt.
Head= 2 × Dia of bolt.
2. WASHER:

A washer is a thin plate (typically disk-shaped) with a hole (typically in

the middle) that is normally used to distribute the load of a threaded
fastener, such as a Bolt or nut.

Washers subjected to compression load.

USE OF WASHERS:
Washers are having larger surface area which will dissipate the load
before it reaches the grip during the tightening process.
It covers oversize and slotted holes.
Used to avoid scratches on grip.

Scratches on grip will increase the stress concentration on that area which
will affect the performance of the structure that it intends.

Thickness of washers= 3/16"

3. NUT:
Used to grip the bolt
4. THREADED LENGTH:

Threaded length is the threaded portion of the bolt.

It may cover the entire bolt and may not also.

5. SHANK: Unthreaded length in a bolt is called shank

6. STICK OUT: The of a bolt length that remains behind nut after
tightening process

Page | 111
7. BOLT LENGTH:

Bolt length is the distance from behind the bolt head to the end of the bolt.
Bolt length =Grip length or Thickness of plates connected + thickness
of washer + thickness of nut + Stick out. (After tightening process)

Refer below table C - 2.2

Maximum length of bolt is 8".

8. GRIP LENGTH:

It is the sum of the thicknesses of all the parts being joined exclusive of
washers.
9. DIAMETER OF BOLT OR SIZE OF BOLT:

Normally diameter of conventional bolts varies from 1/2" to 1-1/2" with

an increment of 1/8"

Co-efficient to calculate bolt length

Page | 112
Above all mostly used bolt diameters are:

1. 3/4"
2. 7/8"
3. 1"

Page | 113
Question: Calculation of bolt length

Note:

Bolt length rounded off to 1/4" nearby value of standard bolt lengths
given

¼, ½, ¾, 1

1 ¼, 1 ½, 1 ¾, 2

2 ¼, 2 ½, 2 ¾, 3

Bolt length above 6" is rounded off to next ½ inch.

CLASSIFICATION OF BOLTS

Bolts classified Based upon the:

1. Chemical composition.
2. Tensile strength or Heat Treatment Process.
3. Threaded portion and Shear plane.

1. Based on chemical composition:

1. Type-1
2. Type-2 (Absolute bolts)
3. Type-3

2. Based on Tensile strength.

1. Common Bolts or Erection Bolts or Normal Bolts (ASTM A307).

2. High Strength bolts or Machine Bolts
a) Conventional bolts (ASTM A325) & (ASTM A490).
b) Tension control or Twist-Off type bolts. (ASTM F1852)
(ASTM F2180)

Page | 114
1. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:

TYPE-1

It covers,

Medium carbon steel for ASTM A325 bolts.

Alloy steel for ASTM A490 bolts.

Made from quenching and tempering process.

TYPE-3

It covers,

High-strength bolts that have improved atmospheric corrosion

resistance and weathering characteristics.

Made from weathering steel

These are easily recognized by underline under the grade specification

on head of bolt.

They can be mechanically coated or hot-dip galvanized to protect them

from corrosion.

NOTE:

When the bolt type is not specified, either type 1 or type 3 may be

supplied at the option of the manufacturer.

ASTM F1852 twist-off-type tension-control bolt assemblies may be

manufactured with a button head or hexagonal head.

Page | 115
Page | 116
2. BASED ON TENSILE STRENGTH:
a) COMMON BOLTS:

These are also named as Normal bolt of grade ASTM A307 low carbon steel
bolt.

Used in erection purpose and after completion of work these are removed.

Note: ASTM A 325 Bolts may be used for erection purpose if the client
specified.

b) MACHINE BOLTS:

These are also named as high strength bolts.

These are again classified into two types, they are:

i. Conventional Bolts
ii. Twist off type Bolts

CONVENTIONAL BOLTS:

ASTM A325 Medium Carbon Steel bolt.

Only one washer is used in connection under head or nut.

ASTM A490 Heat Treated bolt (alloy bolts).

Two washers are used in connection one under head and other under nut.

Page | 117
HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES INCLUDE:

1. QUENCHING: Quenching is the mechanical process of heating and

rapid cooling of a work piece (Bolts) in water, oil or air to obtain
certain material properties
Used to strengthening and hardening of steel materials.
The material is then often tempered to reduce the brittleness that may
increase from the quench hardening process.

2. TAMPERING: Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used

to increase the toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually
performed after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness.

TWIST OFF TYPE (OR) TENSION CONTROL BOLTS - F 1852:

Tension Control Bolt

Installation of TC bolts

Note: ASTM A325 and ASTM A490 are also available in Tension
Control bolts.

Page | 118
Note:

Conventional bolts are available from ½" to 1 ½" with an increment of

1/8" (i.e 1/2", 5/8", ¾", 7/8", 1", 1"1/8, 1"¼, 1"3/8, 1"½)
Maximum length of bolt available is 8″, if more than 8″ then it will be
Rod.
The most common sizes are 3/4", 7/8" and 1"
Weak area in bolt is thread area.
Nut thickness is approx equal to diameter of bolt.
Washer thickness is 3/16".
We go mostly for ASTM A325N bolts. Where as in design conditions
only we go for ASTM A490 bolts.
3. BASED ON SHEAR PLANE IN THREADED PORTION:

Based on threads in the shear plane the bolts are classified into three types.
They are:

a) N- type Bolt
b) X- type Bolt
c) T- type Bolt

a) N-Type Bolt:

In this type of bolt the threaded portion is included in shear plane. These
Bolts are also called as Included Bolts.

Page | 119
b) X-Type Bolt:

In this type of bolt the threaded portion is excluded from shear plane. These
Bolts are also called as Excluded Bolts.

c) T-Type Bolt:

The threaded portion is throughout the length of bolt in T –Type (or) the
length of the bolt having fully threaded

Page | 120
Note:

1. The high strength twist off bolt has got round head or Button head and

spine joined at the end of diameter.

2. Bolts in general are manufactured with their grade designation marked

on the head of bolt. This results in easy identification of bolts.

3. Faying Surfaces: Contact Surface of connection elements transmitting a

shear force.

NUTS:

Grade of nut is ASTM A563.

Used to grip the bolt does not transfer the loads.

NUTS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:

Page | 121
Page | 122
WASHERS:

A washer is a thin plate (typically disk-shaped) with a hole (typically in the

middle) that is normally used to distribute the load of a threaded fastener,

such as a Bolt or nut.

Grade of Washer is ASTM F436.

APPLICATIONS OF WASHERS:

1. Washers are having larger surface area which will dissipate the load

before it reaches the grip during the tightening process.

2. It covers oversize and slotted holes.

3. Used to avoid scratches on grip.

Scratches on grip will increase the stress concentration on that area which

will affect the performance of the structure that it intends.

Maximum Thickness of washers= 3/16"

Minimum Thickness of washer=1/8"

Outer diameter of washer = 2 times the diameter of bolt

Inner Diameter of washer = Diameter of bolt + 1/16"

Page | 123
TYPES OF WASHERS:

1. Flat Hardened washer.

2. Plate washer
3. Bevel
4. DTI (Direct Tension Indicator) washer
5. LIW (Load Indicating Washer)

1. FLAT/HARDENED WASHERS (STANDARD WASHERS):

These are most commonly used. Hardened steel washers are used in many
structural connections to spread pressure from the bolt tightening process
over a larger area.

2. PLATE WASHERS:

These are made by making holes on the plate.

It may be of any size that can be fabricated by making holes.
Mainly used in S.S.L and L.S.L holes.

Page | 124
3. BEVEL WASHERS:

Tapered washers are used when the surface being bolted has a sloped

surface, such as the flange of a channel or an S shape.

4. DTI WASHERS (DIRECT TENSION INDICATOR):

Protrusions are provided on the washer; it becomes flat after tightening.

Protrusions are used to determine when to stop the tightening process.

Feeler gauges are used to measure the gap before and after tightening

process.

GO and NO GO gauge defines the gap.

Grade of D.T.I =ASTM F 959

Page | 125
 5. LIW (LOAD INDICATING WASHER):

Same as DTI washer but only thing is colour protrusions are made.

Colour foam is formed after tightening process is completed which

indicates the complete tightening of bolt.

Used to assure that the designed pre-tension load is achieved on the

joint.

These are hardened washers carrying four to seven preformed

protrusions depending on bolt diameter.

The nut is then tightened until the protrusions are reduced to a

prescribed value.

NOTE:

a) A325 bolts require a washer under the element (head or nut) being

turned to tighten the bolt under the nut.

b) A490 bolts require a washer under both the head and nut.

Page | 126
BOLT HOLES:

Types of holes:

1. Standard size hole

2. Oversized hole
3. Short –Slot (SSL)
4. Long – Slot (LSL)

1. STANDARD SIZE HOLE:

Standard size hole dimension = Diameter of bolt + 1/16"

2. OVERSIZED HOLE:
Bolt Diameter (in Inches) Increment (in Inches)
1/2 2/16

5/8-7/8 3/16
1 4/16
>1 5/16

Add increment values to the Diameter of bolt

3. SHORT –SLOT (SSL):

Width of SSL= Standard Hole Dimension.

Length of SSL=Oversize hole dimension + 1/16"

Page | 127
 4. LONG – SLOT (LSL):

Width of LSL= Standard Hole Dimension.

Length of LSL= 2.5 × Diameter of bolt.

Note:

Standard holes can be used anywhere.

Oversized holes may only be used in the slip critical connections.

Slotted holes are used when the slot length is parallel to the direction of

stress.

Long- slotted holes are primarily used when connecting to existing

structures.

Page | 128
TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS:

There two basic bolted joint types:

1. Bearing type joint

2. Slip-Critical type joint

BEARING: The whole load applied is acted on the body of the bolt.

SLIP-CRITICAL: The whole load applied is acted on the faying surfaces.

BEARING JOINT:

In a bearing joint the connected elements are assumed to slip into

bearing against the body of the bolt
Load on grip is transferred to bolt or the load is transferred through the
bolt.
If the joint is designed as a bearing joint the load is transferred through
bearing whether the bolt is installed snug-tight or pre-tensioned.
We can also use galvanizing for the bearing joints to avoid corrosion.

In bearing type joint the connections may fail in

1. Failure of the bolt
2. Failure of the plate or Plate yielding.

Page | 129
 .

Bolts in bearing joints are designed to meet two limit states:

1. Yielding, which is an inelastic deformation

2. Fracture, which is a failure of the joint.

Page | 130
SLIP CRITICAL JOINT:

In a slip-critical joint the bolts must be fully pre-tensioned to cause a

clamping force between the connected elements
Frictional force is created between the connecting sides of the plates
and then made slip against each other.
This force develops frictional resistance between the connected
elements
The frictional resistance allows the joint to withstand loading without
slipping into bearing against the body of the bolt, although the bolts
must still be designed for bearing
The faying surfaces in slip-critical joints require special preparation.
The load is transferred through the frictional force between the plates.

Note:

Around the hole diameter 3″

No paint area in slip critical joints

Page | 131
WHEN TO USE SLIP-CRITICAL JOINTS???????

As per the RCSC Specification (2000), Slip-critical joints are only required in
the following applications involving shear or combined shear and tension:

1. Joints that are subject to fatigue load with reversal of the loading
direction (not applicable to wind bracing).
2. Joints that utilize oversized holes.
3. Joints that utilize slotted holes, except those with applied load
approximately perpendicular to the direction of the long dimension of
the slot.

This case is not preferred for Slip Critical joint other slotted holes (Parallel
and inclined to load) can be used in slip critical joints.

4. Joints in which slip at the faying surfaces would be detrimental to the

performance of the structure.

PRE-TENSIONING: Tightening of bolt beyond the manual tightening is

called pre tensioned.

Page | 132
MINIMUM EDGE DISTANCES:

SHEAR EDGE:

When the side of the member is cut to get the desired profile from the

mill

Distance to the centre of the hole from the cutting end of the member is

called as shear edge.

ROLLED EDGE:

Distance from the rolled end of the rolled section or rolled member to the

centre of hole is called rolled edge

Rolled end

Rolled Edge

Note:

Shear edge distances are removed from the AISC 14 th Edition.

Rolled edge distances for commonly used bolts

Page | 133
Table 3.4 gives from 14th AISC manual Rolled edge distances

Diameter of bolt (in.) Rolled edge/

shear edge
in inches
1/2 3/4
5/8 7/8
3/4 1
7/8 1 1/8
1 1 1/4
1 1/8 1 1/2
1 1/4 1 5/8
Over 1 1/4 1¼ ×d

The above mentioned table values can directly used when bolt

hole is standard hole.

When the bolt hole dimension is not standard hole than we use

Minimum Edge distance increment for other type of holes Table

J 3.5 of AISC 14TH Edition.

Page | 134
FIRST HOLE DIMENSION:

It is the distance from top flange of the member to the first bolt hole.

Note:

Minimum spacing between hole to hole should be 2 2/3" × Diameter of

bolt or standard value 3″ whichever is greater.

Page | 135
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM BOLTS ROWS FOR WIDE FLANGES

MINIMUM BOLT ROWS

W6 1
W8,10,12 2
W14,16,18 3
W21,24 4
W27,30 5
W33,36 6

Minimum rows d/6

MAXMUM BOLT ROWS

W6 1
W8,10 2
W12,14 3
W16 4
W18 5
W21 6
W24 7
W27 8
W30 9
W33,36 10

Page | 136
PROBLEMS:

Example-1:

Calculate edge distance for the W12 × 336 profile with two short slotted
holes in the web for following bolt diameter

a) 3/4"
b) 7/8"
c) 1"
d) 1-1/8"

Solution:

For 3/4" diameter bolt edge distance from J 3.4 table is 1".

Add Edge distance increment for the SSL from table J 3.5 to the Edge
distance.

Edge distance increment =1/8"

Total Edge distance to be maintain for SSL with dia of bolt as 3/4"

= 1" + 1/8"

b = 1" 1/8

First hole dimension to W12 is 3",

Hence a = 3"

Page | 137
Example-2:

Four row bolted connection is an angle with a diameter of ¾ find out the
length of angle

Solution: For ¾ diameter of bolt

Length of angle profile is 1 +3+3+3+1 = 11"

TYPES OF TIGHTENING:

1. Snug Tightening
2. Turn of Nut
3. Calibrated Wrench Method
4. DTI Washer
5. F1852 Installation (Tension Control)

Page | 138
 1) SNUG-TIGHT INSTALLATION:

Snug-tight is a manual tightening process, where the iron worker will put

entire muscle power to tight the bolt with the help of wrench.

Turn-of-Nut Installation

Installation beyond snug-tight is called pre-tensioning

Turn-of-nut pre-tensioning involves several steps:

1. The bolt is snug-tightened

2. Match marks are placed on each nut, bolt, and steel surface in a

straight line

3. The part not turned by the wrench is prevented from turning

4. The bolt is tightened with a prescribed rotation past the snug-

tight condition

The specified rotation varies by diameter and length (between 1/3 and

1 turn)

ASTM F959 Direct Tension Indicators

Page | 139
 Another way to try to ensure proper pre-tensioning of a bolt is through

the use of direct tension indicators (DTIs)

These washers have protrusions that must bear against the unturned

element.

As the bolt is tightened the clamping force flattens the protrusions and

reduces the gap.

The gap is measured with a feeler gage.

When the gap reaches the specified size the bolt is properly pre-

tensioned

INSTALLATION OF DTI’S:

It is essential that direct tension indicators be properly oriented in the

assembly

a) The bolt head is stationary while the nut is turned – DTI under bolt
head
b) The bolt head is stationary while the nut is turned – DTI under nut
(washer required)
c) The nut is stationary while the bolt head is turned – DTI under bolt
head (washer required)

Page | 140
 d) The nut is stationary while the bolt head is turned – DTI under nut

CALIBRATED WRENCH INSTALLATION:

Calibrated Wrench pre-tensioning uses an impact wrench to tighten the

bolt to a specified tension.

A Skidmore-Wilhelm calibration device is used to calibrate the impact

wrench to the torque level which will achieve the specified tension.

Samples of bolts representative of those to be used in the connections

are tested to verify that the correct tension will be achieved.

Skidmore-Wilhelm calibration device

ASTM F1852 Installation

F1852 bolts are twist-off-type tension-control bolts.

These bolts must be pre-tensioned with a twist-off-type tension-control

bolt installation wrench that has two coaxial chucks.

The inner chuck engages the spilled end of the bolt.

The outer chuck engages the nut.

The two chucks turn opposite to one another to tighten the bolt.

The spilled end of the F1852 bolt shears off at a specified tension.

Page | 141
ENTERING AND TIGHTENING CLERANCE FOR ASTM A325 &
A490 FOR ALLIGNED BOLTS:

Page | 142
 CHAPTER – 12

ANCHOR BOLT
ANCHOR ROD:

Concrete embeds or foundation bolts, are embedded in concrete foundations

to support structural steel columns, light poles, traffic signals, highway sign
structures, industrial equipment and many other applications.

Anchor rods, also referred as anchor bolts (both are correct).

Anchor rods are provided to stabilize the column to prevent up lift for
cases involving large moments (column tries to pull out the anchor rods).
Anchor rods fear to shear (they can’t take shear loads).
They are subjected to tensile loads.

GRADES:

ASTM F1554 Grade 36

ASTM F1554 Grade 55
ASTM F1554 Grade 105

Page | 143
ELEMENTS IN ANCHOR BOLT:

Projection
Embedment
Base plate
Levelling plate
Template – (temporary card board ,complete assembly)
Grout
Shear key /lug – (placed below the base plate to transfer loads.)
Plate washer
Grout holes 2” diameter
Pier
Footing

PROJECTION:

It is length of bolt being projected above concrete level.

Projection =grout thickness +base plate thickness +washer +nut

thickness + stick out

Page | 144
 EMBEDMENT:

The length of anchor rod immersed in the concrete foundation is called

as embed length.
Embedment length must not be less than 12 times of diameter of bolt.

BASE PLATE: A load distributing plate upon which column bears

LEVELLING PLATE:

A plate is used to level the bottom of base plate elevation along with helping
anchor rod position.

TEMPLATE:

A plate used to align the anchor rods to their exact position during
foundation. These plates are made by wooden boards and will be removed
and used in other similar locations.

Steel plate which is used to keep the anchor rods in positions (holding)
during pouring a concrete.
The thickness of template is very thin when compare to base plate.
These plates are we can use in another location also (reuse).
Modern template works by friction.

Page | 145
NS GROUT:

Non-shrinkage sand or cement based mixture under the base plate to

obtain a uniform bearing surface.

GROUT HOLES:

Use of a grout hole should be considered when the small side of

dimension exceeds 24″.

Page | 146
PLATE WASHER:

They should be used when we use longer hole sizes.

FOOTING:

A concrete member located under a column or other structural member

that distributes loads from that member into the supporting soil.

PIER:

A pier, in architecture, is an upright support for a structure

or superstructure.

A vertical non-circular masonry support, more massive than a column

provided based on soil strength. Functionally similar to footings.

Page | 147
SHEAR KEY /LUG:

Placed below the base plate to transfer loads

Normally, friction and the shear capacity of the anchors used in a

foundation adequately resist column base shear forces.
In some cases, however, the engineer may find the shear force too
great and may be required to transfer the excess shear force to the
foundation by another means.
If the total factored shear loads are transmitted through shear lugs or
friction, the anchor bolts need not be designed for shear.
A shear lug (a plate or pipe stub section, welded perpendicularly to the
bottom of the base plate) allows for complete transfer of the force
through the shear lug, thus taking the shear load off of the anchors.
The bearing on the shear lug is applied only on the portion of the lug
adjacent to the concrete.
Therefore, the engineer should disregard the portion of the lug
immersed in the top layer of grout and uniformly distribute the bearing
load through the remaining height.
The shear lug should be designed for the applied shear portion not
resisted by friction between the base plate and concrete foundation.

Page | 148
Grout must completely surround the lug plate or pipe section and must
entirely fill the slot created in the concrete.
When using a pipe section a hole approximately 2 inches in diameter
should be drilled through the base plate into the pipe section to allow
grout placement and inspection to assure that grout is filling the entire
pipe section.

Page | 149
TYPES OF ANCHOR RODS:

1. Headed anchor rods

2. Threaded anchor rods

3. Hooked anchor rods

4. Expansion anchors

5. Epoxy anchors

Page | 150
1. HEADED ANCHOR RODS:
Headed bolts are turned upside down and poured into a concrete
foundation with the threads projecting from the concrete and the head
providing pull-out resistance.
A square or round plate is often welded to the head of the bolt (for
grades 36 and 55) to provide additional strength

2. THREADED ANCHOR RODS:

Typically have a nut and/or anchor plate embedded in the concrete
foundation to provide pull-out resistance.
The nut and/or plate are often welded to the bottom of the anchor rod.

3. HOOKED ANCHOR RODS:

These anchors bolts have 90º bend that provides pull-out resistance.
The smooth rod is bent to form an “L” shaped hook end is embedded in
the concrete. This design provide the anchorage

Page | 151
4. EXPANSION ANCHORS (ALREADY CONSTRUCTED):

A bolt having an attachment that expands as the bolt is turned after being
driven into a material.

5. EPOXY ANCHORS (ALREADY CONSTRUCTED /NEW ONE):

This is a very common use of all thread rods.
When anchor bolts are needed in pre-existing concrete, a hole is
drilled into the concrete, then the hole is filled with epoxy and a piece
of all thread rod is placed in the hole.
Once the epoxy bonds with the threads on the all thread rod, it provides
pullout resistance, allowing the rod to act as an anchor bolt

Page | 152
LEVELLING METHODS:

1. LEVELLING NUT METHOD

Below the base plate nuts are provided and column is still in hold with
crane.
Nuts are tightened or loosed (rotated clock wise or anti clock wise).
Check levels after levelling the nut by
a) Plumb bob method.
b) Water bubble method.
c) Bottom of base plate elevation.
Shim plates are placed in the gaps (to take the loads), then crane will
un-hold the column.

SHIM PLATE THICKNESS = GROUT THICKNESS

After tightening the nut can be welded with base plate (if design
recommends only).
Weld only nut not anchor rod because it reduces the strength of the
anchor rod.
After that grouting is done over it.

Page | 153
2. LEVELLING PLATE METHOD

This is the safe method and mostly used.

Extra thin plate is levelled is used which is similar to base plate.

This levelling plate is placed in grout (fixed) it can’t be removed.

Check levels after levelling the plate by

a) Water bubble method.

b) Bottom of base plate elevation.

Page | 154
 CHAPTER – 13

CONNECTIONS
Connections are structural elements used for joining different members of a

structural steel frame work.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS:

On the Basis of Connecting Medium

1) Riveted Connections

2) Bolted Connections

3) Welded Connections

4) Bolted-Welded Connections

ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF INTERNAL FORCES:

1) Shear (Semi rigid, Simple) (or) Gravity connections

2) Moment (rigid) connections

ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF MEMBERS JOINING

1) Beam to beam connections

2) Column to column connections (column splices)

3) Beam to Column Connections

4) Column Base Plate Connections

5) Gusset plate connections

(Truss type, Frame type, Bracings, Splices, covers plates)

Page | 155
PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR CONNECTIONS TO BE CHECKED
BY THE DETAILER/ MODELLER:

1. Edge distances
2. Number of bolts
3. Bolt hole size
4. Tightening clearance
5. Size of connecting member
6. Grade of bolt
7. Tightening process
8. Size of bolt
9. Type of bolts used
10. Type of joint
11. Set back
12. Assembly pattern
13. Gage on leg
14. Encroachment
15. Type of weld
16. Size of weld.

BASED ON TYPE OF INTERNAL FORCES TRANSFERRING:

1. Simple/shear/gravity/ semi rigid connections.

2. Moment / Rigid connections

Fully restrained (FR)

Partially restrained (PR)

Page | 156
1. SIMPLE/SHEAR/GRAVITY CONNECTIONS:

Simple shear connections are assumed to have little or no rotational

resistance.
They are assumed to carry only the shear component of the load and
are idealized as pins or rollers for design.
No moment forces are assumed transmitted by the connection from the
supported member to the supporting member.
The attachment of a shear connection may be made to the web of the
supported beam, usually with the flanges unconnected. The exception
is the seated connection where the connection is made to the flanges of
the supported beam.
Shear connection elements are typically designed using thin and/or
mild yield strength materials (i.e. A36) to provide rotational flexibility
in excess of what the supported member requires.
it is a common practice to weld shop attachments and bolt field
attachments, many shear connections are bolted on one side (to either
the supported member or the supporting member) and welded on the
other
TYPES OF SHEAR CONNECTIONS:
1. Clip angle shear connection
2. Shear plate/Shear tab connection
3. Shear end plate connection
4. Shear Tee connection
5. Shear Seated Connection
6. Shear Skewed connection
7. Shear splice connection
8. H.S.S Shear connection (Through plate connection)

Page | 157
2. MOMENT/FULLY RESTRAINED/RIGID CONNECTION:
1. Flange plate moment connection
2. Extended end plate moment connection
3. End plate moment connection.
4. Direct flange welded moment.
5. Splice moment connection.
6. Direct flange welded splice moment connection.
7. Beam to beam moment connection
8. H.S.S. Moment Connection.
a) Exterior plate moment connection.
b) End plate H.S.S moment connection.
c) Extended end plate moment splice connection.
d) Through plate moment connection.

1. CLIP ANGLE CONNECTION

a. SINGLE SHEAR CLIP ANGLE
a) Mostly used in connections.

Page | 158
CONDITION: 1

All bolted single shear clip angle connection

CONDITION: 2

Bolted -welded,Angle welded to supported beam

2. DOUBLE SHEAR CLIP ANGLE

All bolted double shear clip angle connection

Page | 159
CONDITION: 1

All bolted

CONDITION: 3

Bolted/welded, Angles welded to support

Follow Constructability considerations:

Erection Clearances for Double shear clip angle.
When framing to a girder web.
Both angles usually shop attached to the web of the supported beam.
When framing to column web.
Both angles should be shop attached to the web of the supported beam.
When framing to a column flange.
Both angles can be shop attached to the column flange or the supported
beam.

Page | 160
When angles shop attached to the column flange it has two erection problems:
a) WHEN BOTH ANGLES ATTACHED TO THE COLUMN
FLANGES
Coping of beam flanges is made to make erection easy.
This type of connection is also called as Drop down Connection.
Also called as knife edge connection.
Where beam is dropped from top of frame to fit in between the clip
angles.
Gap between the clip angles provided minimum as 1/8, 1/16 on each
side.

Both angles shop attached to the column flange

(Beam Flanges are knifed into place)

b) ONE IS SHOP ATTACHED TO COLUMN FLANGE, OTHER IS

SHIPPED LOOSE

Page | 161
2. SHEAR TAB OR SHEAR PLATE CONNECTION
Very widely used connection
Simple to use

TYPES OF SHEAR PLATE CONNECTION:

a) Normal shear plate connection

b) Full depth shear plate connection
c) Full depth Extended shear plate connection

PROBLEMS NEED TO CHECK DURING MODELLING:

1. Plates are connected at an offset to the C.L. of the member.

a) C.L. of plate should not coincide with the C.L. of column.

2. Connect all shear tabs or plates to one side of column to make erection
simple.

(Or)

We can connect shear plates as per client’s requirements.

Page | 162
a) NORMAL SHEAR PLATE CONNECTION

Beam to Beam Normal shear connection

Beam to Beam Normal shear connection with cope cut

Beam to Beam Connection

Column to Beam

Page | 163
b) FULL DEPTH

c) EXTENDED SHEAR PLATE CONNECTION

Page | 164
3. SHEAR TEE CONNECTION

Page | 165
4. SHEAR END PLATE CONNECTION
A shear end-plate connection involves welding a plate perpendicular to the
end of the supported web and bolting or welding the plate to the
supporting member.
The vertical dimension of the plate should not exceed that of the supported
beam web.
If the supporting side is bolted, the horizontal dimension or width of plate
will depend on the bolt size, gage spacing, and edge distance.
Shop welding is the only method of joining the supported beam web and
the plate. Normally fillet weld is performed in the shop.
Welds connecting the end plate to the beam web should not be returned
across the thickness of the beam web at the top or bottom of the danger of
creating a notch in the beam web.

End plate connection

Page | 166
5. SHEAR SEATED CONNECTION

Types of seated connection

a) Stiffened seated connection.
b) Un-stiffened connection.
a) STIFFENED SEATED CONNECTION
Stiffener is provided to support the seat angle.
A packing plate is provided in between the seat angle leg and stiffener.
Seat angle on top flange is optional.

b) UNSTIFFENED SEATED CONNECTION

Un-stiffened seat connection

Page | 167
6. SHEAR SKEWED CONNECTION
Can be connected in three ways
a) Shear plate

b) Bent plate.

c) End plate.

a) SHEAR PLATE SKEWED CONNECTIONS

Conditions to use skewed shear plate connections.
Skew Angle: when fillet weld used, up to 30̊ or 6" 15/16 to 12 inclination.
Root opening does not exceed the 3/16 inches.

Shear end plate skewed connections.

Conditions to use skewed shear end plate connections
Skew Angle: when fillet weld used, up to 30̊ or 6 15/16 to 12 inclinations.
Root opening does not exceed the 3/16 inches.

Shear end plate skewed connections

Page | 168
BENT PLATE SKEWED CONNECTIONS
Types:

1. Double bent plate

2. Single bent plate

Conditions to use bent plate as prescribed by AISC

When skew angle is less than 5̊ or 1in 12 slope

When skew angle is greater than 5̊ or 1in 12 slope

For above both cases we use double bent plates

Double bent plate skewed connections:

When skew angle is less than 5̊ or 1in 12 slope

Page | 169
When skew angle is greater than 5̊ or 1in 12 slope.

Single bent plate skewed connections:

As the skew angle increases, entering and tightening clearances on acutely
angled side of skew connections will require a larger gage.
In this case we go for single bent plate skewed connections.

Page | 170
7. Shear plate splice connection.

8. Shear angle splice connection

a) H.S.S SHEAR TYPE CONNECTION:

Page | 171
 MOMENT CONNECTIONS
Moment connections transfer the moment carried by the flanges of the
supported beam to the supporting member.
Moment connections (rigid-frame connections) are assumed to have
little or no relative rotation between the supporting member and the
supported members.
A Fully Restrained (FR) connection assumes that there is full transfer
of the moments.
Moment connections also normally include a simple shear connection
at the web of the supported member to carry the shear component of
the beam reaction
Beam splices to transfer moments are also common.
If a moment connection is made to the web of a column, the connection
elements may be extended so that field welds and/or bolts can be
located outside of the column flanges for easier erect-ability.
When to use stiffeners and doubler plates in moment connections
In some instances the column section may have insufficient local
strength at the location of these concentrated forces.
In such circumstances, a heavier column section or a higher strength
column may be substituted or transverse column stiffeners and/or web
doubler plates may be installed.
Transverse stiffeners are plates fabricated to fit between the flanges of
the column at the point(s) of concentrated loading (tension or
compression).
Web doubler plates are steel plates that are fabricated to increase the
overall thickness of the web of a section.
Both types of components (transverse stiffeners and web doubler
plates) are welded to the section to enhance the stiffness.

Page | 172
1. Flange plated moment connections

2. Extended end plate moment connections

Page | 173
3. Direct flange welded moment

4. Direct flange welded splice moment connection

BEAM TO BEAM

COLUMN TO COLUMN

Page | 174
5. Splice moment connections.

6. Beam to beam splice moment connection

7. Column to column splice moment connection

Page | 175
8. H.S.S Moment Connection
a) Exterior plate moment connections/Diaphragm connection

b) End plate H.S.S moment connections

Page | 176
c) Extended end plate moment splice connections.

d) Through plate moment connection.

Page | 177
 CHAPTER – 14

JOIST
DEFINITION:

Joist is a light weight structural member, it can take the floor and roof

loads.

A length of timber or steel supporting part of the structure of a

building, typically arranged in parallel series to support a floor or

ceiling.

DESCRIPTION:

In architecture and engineering, a joist is one of the horizontal

supporting members that run between walls, or beams to support a

ceiling or floor.

Typically, a joist has the cross section of a plank.

Joists are often supported by beams laid out in repetitive patterns.

STEEL JOISTS:

Page | 178
 ROD
WEB

OWSJ (Open web steel joists) or Bar joist. They are primary structural

framing members used to support the roofs and floors in a building

They are used extensively since they possess exceptionally HIGH

STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO IN COMPARISON WITH

OTHER BUILDING MATERIALS.

Joist girders and foundations can be lighter (economic). Being

lightweight they facilitate proper installation at a site fast and simple.

The open webs in the joists permit the ready passage and concealment

of pipes, ducts and electric conduits within the depth of the floor

without affecting the structural integrity.

The specifications of these joists with respect to manufacturing and

design are governed by Steel Joist Institute. All manufacturers adhere

to the regulations laid down by this institute.

Page | 179
TERMINOLOGY

Top Chords:

The top chords are subjected to axial forces as well as bending.

As the steel joists are primarily simply supported they are subjected to

compressive forces.

The net effect of axial and bending stresses is to be considered in the

design.

They are primarily made up of angle sections connected back to back.

Bottom chords:

The bottom chords are subjected to axial forces as well as bending.

As the steel joists are primarily simply supported they are subjected to

tensile forces.

The net effect of axial and bending stresses is to be considered in the

design.

They are primarily made up of angle sections connected back to back.

WEB MEMBERS:

They are the verticals or the inclined members in the joists used to
resist the shear forces.
These members are designed to resist a shear force of 25% of the end
reaction.
They are made up of angle sections and pipe sections.

Page | 180
BRIDGING:

The joists are held together in the lateral direction, this is known as
bridging.
There are two types of bridging
1. Horizontal
2. Diagonal

1. Horizontal
In horizontal bridging a continuous member runs from the support and
the joists are connected by means of welding to these members.

2. Diagonal
In diagonal bridging the members connect from the top chord to the
bottom chord in the diagonal fashion.

END CONNECTIONS:

Depending upon the type of support on which the joist seats they are
categorized into
1) Masonry and Concrete support.
2) Steel support.

Page | 181
1. Masonry or concrete support

The joist rests on a bearing plate.

The bearing plate should be located not more than ½” from the face of

the support and it should have a bearing of not less than 4″.

The bearing plate dimension perpendicular to the length of the joist

should be of 9″.

2. Steel support

In case of steel support the joist should extend a distance of not less than 2
½″ into the support.

END ANCHORAGE

The anchorage of the support is done by means of welding and bolting

or both.
In case of welding the anchorage is done by minimum and it depends
upon the type of joist.
The minimum specified is 1/8” fillet weld 1” long or ½” bolt or the
combination of both.

SPAN:

The distance from the centre line of one support to another is called span.
In no case the span of the joist can be more than 24 times the joist depth.

JOIST DEPTH:

The distance from the top of the top chord to the bottom of the bottom chord
or the outermost distances along the depth is classified as joist depth.

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DEFLECTION:

The deflection for floor joists is limited to 1/360 of span for floors and 1/240
of span for roofs.

CAMBER:

The rise of the central portion with respect to its ends is called camber.
This is done to minimize the effect of deflection.
This value varies from ¼” to 14” depending upon the type of joist.

JOIST SPACING:

The spacing of the joist depends upon the load coming onto it and the type of
joist selected.

JOIST SEATING DEPTH:

The depth of the joist that rests on a support (column) is joist seating depth
and the elevation of the column is obtained by deducting the joist seating
depth from the joist bearing elevation.

JOIST BEARING ELEVATION: The elevation at which the joist rests on

the support.

Page | 183
TOP CHORD EXTENSION:

Joist extensions are commonly furnished to support a variety of

overhang conditions.
They are of S type and R type. In S- type only the top chord angles are
extended whereas in R-type the entire joist seating depth is extended.

TYPES OF JOISTS

Depending upon the span, joist depth and other parameters the joists are
classified as

1. K- Series,
2. LH-Series,
3. DLH-Series
4. Joist girder

The table given in the appendix gives in detail the properties of these types of
joists.

1. K-SERIES:
These are the primary types of joists used to carry and distribute loads
uniformly.
The tops of the chords remain parallel here.
K-series joists can have spans up to 60 feet and the joist depth varies
from 8" to 30".

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DESIGNATION OF A JOIST:

The joist is designated as for e.g.: - 24K3

Where,

24- stands for the depth of the joist in inches,

K- Stands for the series (type) of joist.

3- Stands for section number used to identify the joist with respect to the
rows of bridging provided (Relative size of member).

2. LH-SERIES:
They are abbreviated as Long Span Joists.
In these joists the tops of the chords can be parallel or even pitched.
The joist depths vary from 18" to 48" and can have span up to 96feet.

3. DLH-SERIES:
They are abbreviated as Deep Long Span Joists.
In these joists the tops of the chords can be parallel or even pitched.
The joist depths vary from 52" to 72" and can have span up to 144 feet.

4. JOIST GRIDER:
Top chord is welded or bolted (connection).
The joist depths vary from 20" to 96" and can have span more than 100
feet.

The joist girder is designated as for e.g.: 48G 8N 8.8K

Page | 185
The table provided by the manufacture gives the load allowed on particular
type of joist. After calculating the allowable load a particular type of joist
depending upon the span and the allowable load can be picked from the
tables.

TABLE FOR SEATING DEPTH AND OVERALL DEPTH IN JOIST

JOIST DEPTH SEATING BEARING SPAN IN

DEPTH IN INCHES FEETS
a)K-Series 8" to 30" 2 ½͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈"͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈ 4" 60'
͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈
͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈

b) LH-Series 18" to 48" 5" 6" 96'

c) DLH- 52" to 72" 5" 6" 144'

Series
d)Girder- 20" to 96" 7 ½͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈"͈͈͈͈͈͈͈͈ - >100'
Series

Page | 186
PROBLEM:

Find the bottom elevation of top chord in a joist having K-series.

Top of slab = 20’ 8", Slab thickness = 5 ½ ".

Answer: According to K-Series, Seating Depth = 2 ½″

Bottom of Top Chord = 20′ 8" – (5 ½" + 2 ½")

= 20′

STEEL JOIST SPECIFICATIONS

1. Maximum Span = 60 feet.

2. Maximum Depth = 72 inches.

3. Maximum Panel Point Load = 20 kips.

Page | 187
JOIST MANUFACTURING COMPANIES

1. VULCRAFT
2. SMI
3. HANCOCK
4. SOCAR
5. CANAM
6. NEW MELENUM

NOTE:

Joist bearing with beam (Above 40′ - 0″) we have to provide erection holes as
per client standards.

Page | 188
 CHAPTER – 15

OSHA
OSHA:

Occupational safety and health administration

Responsible for workers safety and health protection
OSHA is to maintain:
a) Erection safety
b) Design safety
c) Joist safety
d) Stairways and Ladder safety

OSHA REQUIREMENTS

1. BASE PLATE:
Base plate should have a minimum 4 holes (or) 4 anchor rods.
The holes in the base plate should be always oversized for structural
stability and adjustments.
Use of levelling devices type and levelling methods should be discussed
with the erector.
If the base plate smaller size exceeds 24″. We need to provide one grout
hole.

Page | 189
2. COLUMN:
All Columns should have correct orientation mark (or) face direction
(south or east).
The orientation mark should be always bottom left.
All perimeter columns should have a protection holes one at 1′-9″ from
finished floor elevation, one at 3′-6″ from finished floor elevation. These
holes should be provided for each floor.

Wire guard rail passes through web and flange in case of corner columns.
Below diagram shows the continuous wire guardrail passing through
boundary columns.

Page | 190
 Column splice should be 4′ from finished floor elevation (for easy
erection and safety).
All column should have a lifting hole if it is a splice connection
normally lifting hole diameter is 2″.

Bolted column splice is preferred than a welded.

Column height preferred is maximum 40′. Communicate with the

client, if it is more than 40′ is acceptable need to splice’

If it is a field weld splice the upper column should be prepared.

Use extended shear plate type of connection. When the bolt axis

blocked by the flanges, paint strip on the side of the plate to be needed

to be given (consult client before providing this)

3. BEAM:
Minimum 2 bolts (or) 2 holes required at each end of the beam for

erecting (or) the bolts should cross D/2 value.

All double angle connection column web (or) beam web must have a

staggered clip angle (or) top flange clip angle.

Page | 191
4. DECK:
Proper support to be provided below the deck when there is any cuts

are openings in a deck.

Deck support may be required at deck cut outs near beam to beam (or)

beam to column connections, Refer design drawing (or) the client for

preferred method.

Deck support is required where column goes through deck.

5. JOIST:
Vertical stabilizer plate need to be provided, this plate should be of

minimum 6″ x 6″ and located 3″ below the bottom of joist, with one

13/16″ diameter hole for guying (or) plumbing cables.

Joist span 40′ and more should be provided with 2 erection bolts.

Page | 192
6. BRACING:
Holes for erection bolt are required at welded tube bracings.

Consult your client to provide oversized holes in gusset for erection

feasibility of the bracing.

7. FALL PROTECTION:
Multi-storey structures require guard rail cables t floor perimeter at the

large interior floor and roof openings; consult with the client before

commencement of detailing.

8. SNAGGING HAZARDS:
Avoid sharp edges in field then the people do not tear with sharp edges.

Example:

Page | 193
9. SELF SUPPORT CONNECTIONS:

Use bear connection and avoid hanging connection

10. ROLL OVER PROTECTION:

Avoid roll over connections

11. CRITICAL LIFT:

Attention should be given when the member (or) assembly is heavy,
lifting lugs (or) other aid should be provided after consulting the
client.
Weight of heavy members (or) assembly shall be painted on the
member, hence the detailer should indicate this on shop drawing
PAINT 15 TONS ON BOTH SIDES OF WEB, and this will alert the
shop and field crane operator and competent person about the load to
be hoisted.

Page | 194
12. TRIPPING HAZARDS:
Any connections or obstructions should be avoided on top of beam or
joist.
a) Temporary angle posts at opening
b) Avoid overhang connections

13. ERECTION AID:

For field welded column splice, we need to provide erection angles
(or) plates

Page | 195
14. SEQUENCE:
Erector or contractor must established ,prior to commencement of

work the sequence of erection ,as a detailer we

need to adhere to the sequence of erections and need to indicate it in

the Erection plans.

PROBLEM
Bolting (or) welding at this location force connecter (or) welder to hang

this body weight out of position?

Solution:
Could be to shop weld trimmer angle with bracket angles field bolt to a

tab plate (or) stiffener. Where, the connecter does not have to “HANG

OUT” to make connection

Page | 196
 CHAPTER – 16
HANDRAILS
Horizontal or sloping rail inclined for grasping by hand for guidance or

support, for arresting falls on adjacent walking surface and for providing

visual clue for change in elevation.

TYPES OF HANDRAILS:

1. Permanent Handrail: Handrails are fixed and are not removable.

2. Temporary Handrail: Removable handrails for the purpose of loading

and unloading goods.

Based On Position:

Straight Handrail

Sloped Handrail

COMPONENTS OF HANDRAIL:

TOP RAIL: The top member of the handrail is called top rail

KNEE RAIL (OR) MID RAIL: The middle member of the handrail is
called mid rail or knee rail

TOE PLATE: The bottom member of the handrail is called toe plate and if
the member is an angle then it is called toe angle.

HANDRAIL POST:
A post supports one end of a handrail at the top or bottom of a flightof stairs.
Page | 197
As per OSHA:

Post to post distance should be 6′ maximum.

P-shape, centre of post to overhang should be 1′ to 1′-6″.

Distance between top rail and mid rail should be 1′-9″.

The gap between finished floor and toe plate is ¼″.

Handrails are typically supported by posts or mounted directly to

walls.

Handrails can be of side mounting and top mounting.

Page | 198
 The clearance between wall and handrail is 1″1/2 for easy sliding
purpose.

Wall rails are connected to wall with “brackets” which are BOI.

APPLICATIONS OF HANDRAIL:

Bathroom rails - which help to prevent falls on slippery, wet floors -

other grab bars, used, for instance, in ships galley’s and Barres, which

serve as training aids for ballet dancers.

Guardrails and balustrades line drop-offs and other dangerous areas,

keeping people and vehicles out.

Page | 199
 CHAPTER – 17

STAIRS

STAIR CASE

A Stair is a series of steps with or without landings/platforms, which is

installed between two or more floors of a building to bridge a large

vertical distance”.

Stair is a secondary structural member these are using for floor to floor

accessing purpose.

Page | 200
COMPONENTS OF STAIRCASE

1. Stair stringer

2. Rise and Treads

3. Landings & platform

4. Stair rail

Page | 201
1. STRINGER

The stringer supports the ends of the treads.

The stringers are often rectangular hollow sections, channels (or)

plates.

The top of the stringer is connected to the supporting beam and the

bottom of the stringer is connected to the ground or supporting beam.

Sometimes top and bottom stringer is connected to dogleg and dogleg

is connected to supporting beam.

2. RISE AND TREAD

Although the actual stair step is called tread, there is a measurement

term as ‘tread’.

The tread is the piece of steel that makes up the steps of the stair.

The horizontal distance between the two consecutive risers is called

‘TREAD’.

The vertical distance between two consecutive treads is called

‘RISE’.
Page | 202
 3. LANDING

A level area at the top of a staircase or between one flight of stair to

another.

4. NOSING LINE & NOSING POINTS

In order to set up the stair properly every corner of every tread should

pass through a single line called ‘Nosing line.’

The corner points of the treads through which the line traverses is

called ‘Nosing points’.

STRINGER OFF-SET VALUE

The stringer offset is the perpendicular distance between the top of

steel of the stringer and the nosing line.

The stringer offset value is required for locating the stringer in

space

Page | 203
SPECIAL PAN

The cuttings of the regular pan results in special pan (they are not like

regular pans).

Mostly special pans are used at the start and end of the staircase.

SAFE RISE AND SAFE RUN

The following general guidelines are typically used for indoor stairs in

ensuring that the stair is safe:

3/16 maximum variation in rise or tread is allowable.

2 x rise + tread should be between 24” and 25”.

Rise + tread should be between 17” and 17½”.

Angle of the stair should be between 20 and 50 degrees.

If inclination is > 50° Provide LADDER

If inclination is < 20 ̊ Provide RAMP

Minimum and maximum rise and tread are governed by state laws.

Page | 204
AISC STANDARDS

1. A flight of stair shall not have a vertical rise larger than 12' between

floor levels or landings.

2. The width of each landing shall not be less than the width of the

stairway served. Every landing shall have a minimum dimension of 36"

(or) 3ʹ measured in the direction of travel (not including handrails).

3. Each flight must have no more than 18 (or) less than 2 risers

(considered as stair).

4. Stair riser height shall be 7½" maximum and 4" minimum.

5. Stair tread shall be 10" to 11" minimum.

6. Generally a flight of stairs has 12 (or) 13 risers. The maximum in a

single flight is 16 before you required a landing.

7. Stair ways shall have a minimum headroom clearance of 80".

8. Stair with four (or) more risers (or) more than 30" height must have

stair rail along each unprotected side (or) edge.

Page | 205
LOCATION

The main parameters for locating the stairs are:

Rise and tread

Nosing points and nosing line

Stringer offset values

Dog leg to nosing point height

Safe rise and safe run

Number of treads

APPLICATIONS:

Commercial buildings

Industrial buildings

Complex malls

Small houses

Ships, Aero planes Etc…

INFORMATION WHICH DESIGNERS SHOULD PROVIDE TO

DETAILERS:

Number of treads and the rise (typically given as 16@61/2")

Stringer size and type of stringer (i.e. channel, or tube)

Supporting beam sizes and positions

Nosing points (if possible)

Connection details (if possible)

Page | 206
DETERMINING WHETHER A DOG LEG IS REQURIED

The top dog leg to nosing point height is the distance from the top

nosing point to the top of steel of the top of leg. The bottom dog leg to

nosing point height is the distance from the bottom nosing point to the

top of steel of the bottom dog leg.

A dog leg is needed when a viable connection cannot be made to the

supporting beam directly from the stringer.

CONDITION – 1:

DOG LEG is not required

It can be directly welded or bolted by using clip angles.

CONDITION – 2:

DOG LEG is required.

Dog leg is welded to the stringer at one end.

Other end can be bolted or welded to the supporting beam.

Some customers will tell to rest the stringer on the top of the

flange.

Page | 207
 CONDITION – 3:

DOG LEG is required.

Dog leg is welded to the stringer at one end.

Other end can be bolted or welded to the supporting beam.

TYPES OF STAIR CASES

1) STRAIGHT STAIRS

a) Straight stairs with intermediate landing

Page | 208
b) Quarter Landing Stairs

c) Double Quarter Landing Stairs

d) Half Landing Stairs

Page | 209
2) WINDER STAIRS

a) Single Winder Stairs

b) Double Winder Stairs

3) ARCHED STAIRS

Page | 210
4) SPIRAL STAIRS

5) COMPACT STAIRS

Page | 211
 PROBLEM

Find the number of treads and risers as per Detailing standards?

Solution:

Given,

Landing = 4′ – 4″ ½

Assume,

Rise = 4″ ½ (Since, minimum value of rise = 4″ ½ and maximum value = 7″)

Convert the given landing value in inches then it is 52 ″ ½

Riser = Landing / Rise

= 52 ″ ½ / 4″ ½ = 11.667 ⁓ 12

Therefore,

Riser = 12

Tread = (Riser – 1)

= 12 – 1 = 11

Page | 212
 CHAPTER - 18
TRUSS

Trusses are used in the roof construction of buildings of medium to

large span .They are able to support heavy loads on greater spans than

beams or rafter made from universal section.

They are also used in foot bridges, gantry, walkways etc.

Trusses may be welded or bolted connection decision is made by

designer.

Trusses basically large joists and are designed for specific needs of a

building.

TYPES OF TRUSSES:

King Post Truss

Queen Post Truss
Pratt (20 meters to 100 meters)
Fink Truss
Warren Truss
K – Truss
Bow Truss
Scissor Truss
Camel Back Truss
Lenticular Truss

Page | 213
COMPONENTS OF TRUSSES:

Top chord
Bottom chord
Web members
1. Vertical members
2. Diagonals members

WORK POINT:

The point at which members work line intersect at a point is called as node or
work point (diagonal point panel point or set out point).

NODE POINTS –BOLTED CONSTRUCTION

The groups of holes for the bolts must be set out by the detailer.
Drawn roughly before the detail drawing is started.
Showing standard pitches and end distances where possible with at least
10 mm clearance at member end.

Node points-welded construction

In light welded trusses, it is often possible to avoid gussets.

Page | 214
 It must be ensured, however, that sufficient landing space is available
for the welds to develop the force in the web member.
The length of each member is found by calculating the distance
between SOP’s and end setbacks.

CONNECTION

Members of trusses can be joined by riveting, bolting or welding.

Due to involved procedure and highly skilled labour requirement,
riveting is not common these days, except in some railway bridges in
India.

Page | 215
TRUSS MEMBERS
The members of trusses are made of either rolled steel sections or built-
up sections depending upon the span length, intensity of loading, etc.
Rolled steel angles, tee sections, hollow circular and rectangular
structural tubes are used in the case of roof trusses in industrial
buildings.
a) Light weight section
b) Heavy weight section
c) Built up-section

Page | 216
GUIDE LINES FOR SETTING OUT GUSSETS

Opposite edges should parallel where possible.

Adjacent edges should be at right angle where possible.
Corners should not be sniped unless the included angle is less than
90degrees.
The number of edges should be kept in minimum.

Gussets (a) to (d) can be cut economically, from a large plate.

In case it is sometimes made to depart from the standard bolt pitch as in
case (c), where has been for the sake of having parallel edges to the
plate. Using a uniform pitch would result in a shape as in (e).
(f) Employs standard minimum bolt pitches, but is an expensive gusset
to make.
(g) Large number of bolts along the left edge implies a heavy load in
the vertical member & consequently gusset should be widened.

Page | 217
 In welding the centre line of members passes through the node

Gusset is but joint to the top of the chord.

Web members are not attached at sharp corners in the gusset plate (It
will result in crack due to the load concentration).

Page | 218
 CHAPTER – 19
GALVANIZING
DEFINITION:

Galvanizing is the process of applying a protective zinc coating

to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip
galvanizing, in which parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc

DESCRIPTION: Galvanizing protects in three ways:

i. It forms a coating of zinc which, when intact, prevents corrosive

substances from reaching the underlying steel or iron.
ii. The zinc serves as a sacrificial anode so that even if the coating
is scratched, the exposed steel will still be protected by the
remaining zinc.
iii. The zinc protects its base metal by corroding before iron. For better
results, application of chromates over zinc is also seen as an
industrial trend.

TYPES OF GALVANIZING:
Hot dip galvanizing [A153 , A123]

Zinc metal spraying

Mechanical plating

Zinc electroplating

Page | 219
HOT DIP GALVANIZING:

Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization. It is the process of

coating iron and steel with a layer of zinc by immersing the metal in a
bath of molten zinc at a temperature of around 840 °F (449 °C) and
Galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to
392 °F (200 °C)The coating is generally uniform on all surfaces,
providing excellent protection at the corners and edges.
The hot-dip galvanizing process creates a metallurgical reaction between
the zinc and the steel resulting in a series of zinc-iron alloy layers.

ZINC METAL SPRAYING:

Zinc spray galvanizing is process where a coating is applied to a steel

surface by spraying it with atomized particles of molten zinc.
This is done by projecting the particles onto the abrasive surface using a
handgun applicator or a special flame.
The zinc coating provides excellent corrosion resistance for steel and
iron objects and structures used in various environments such as marine,
industrial and other unfavourable atmospheric conditions.
This process is suitable for structural components which cannot be
dipped into a galvanizing bath due to large size and for objects that
would become distorted during hot-dip galvanizing.
The method is also used on sections of objects that cannot be accessed
by dip galvanizing.

Page | 220
MECHANICAL PLATING:
Mechanical plating, also known as peen plating, mechanical deposition,
or impact plating, is a plating process that imparts the coating by cold
welding fine metal particles to a work piece.
Mechanical galvanization is the same process, but applies to coatings
that are thicker than 0.001 in (0.025 mm).
It is commonly used to overcome hydrogen embrittlement problems.
The Commonly plated work piece
include nails, screws, nuts, washers, stampings, springs, clips,
and sintered iron components.
The process involves tumbling the work pieces with a mixture of water,
metal powder, media, and additives.
Common coating materials are zinc, cadmium, tin, copper,
and aluminium.

ZINC ELECTROPLATING:
Zinc Electroplating is one of the most common forms of
electroplating and popular because of its relatively low cost,
protective nature and attractive appearance.
The coating done through this process gives corrosion protection to
ferrous components and it can give colors like gold, black or olive
drab finish, by post treatment.
The zinc electroplating process can be used to coat nuts, bolts,
washers and automotive parts, such as interior components and gas
filters.
It also provides an effective undercoat for paints, when high corrosion
performance is required.

Page | 221
PROCESS OF GALVANIZING

PICTURE OF GALVANIZING

Page | 222
HOT-DIP GALVANISING

Hot Dip galvanizing process is defined as immersing steel and cast

items into molten zinc bath at 450 °C, whereby the items are zinc
coated in order to increase the resistance against corrosion.
By this method, iron (Fe)-zinc (Zn) alloys are formed on the material
surface which ensures resistance against corrosion.
Protection period is directly proportional to the galvanize thickness
placed on the material.
It is possible to fully protect materials by galvanizing, up to 30 years
without any rusting.

ADVANTAGES OF GALVANIZING:

1. Lowest first cost.

2. Less maintenance/Lowest long term cost.
3. Long life
4. Reliability.
5. Toughest coating.
6. Automatic protection for damaged areas
7. Complete protection
8. Ease of inspection
9. Faster erection time
10. A full protective coating can be applied in minutes.

DISADVANTAGE OF GALVANIZING:

1. Weak joints,
2. Internal rusting
3. Mineral build-up
4. More cost than paint

Page | 223
APPLICATIONS OF GALVANIZING:

1. Power generation & transmission

2. Infrastructure development

3. Telecommunication towers

4. Building and construction

5. Mining

6. Oil and gas production.

PRECAUTIONS TO TAKE WHILE GALVANIZING:

1. Vent Holes need to provide on closed assembly profile

2. Field weld need to avoid

3. stiffener plate corner should be round cut instead of chamfer cut

4. Get the galvanizing tank size confirmed so that we can decide

Member length on assembly width

5. Chip out weld flux before galvanized

6. A-490 Bolts should not be galvanized.

Page | 224
HOT-DIP GALVANIZED

This is a chemical reaction that add a Silver Gray Anti-Corrosive Coating

to steel

This coating application is widely used for Hospitals, industrial buildings

and few more examples like our moving cars, High way signage supports,

Parking garages where beams are not only exposed to view

This was discovered in the 1700s, adds a protective Zinc coating to steel

and prevents oxidation through diffusion process. The process itself is

fairly straight forward and really hasn’t much changed in the last 200

years.

All this process are six stages and material is being transported by crane from

stage to stage.

Stage - 1: DEGREASING

Here the material rests in the caustic bath for 15 – to an hour depends on the

condition of the material, which removes oil. Grease Dirt and paint and the

PH value is above 14

Stage - 2: RINSING

After the batch is dipped in the Caustic fluid, it must be neutralized, so it is

dipped in water

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Stage - 3: PICKLING

The Third stage is acid bath which removes oxidation.

This is called pickling process either euphoric or hydro chlorine is used

for this, the industry is using hydrochloric which is eventually more

available and more over it simply dissolve the oxide layers.

The acid bath takes 7 to 15 minutes depending on the metal rust

condition.

Stage - 4: RINSING

Rinse off the acid with water here

Stage - 5: FLUXING

In this kettle mixture of low PH Zinc ammonium and Chlorine salt which acts

as fluxing agent and prevent oxidizing the metal

Stage - 6: DRYING

Wet parts from flux bath are subjected to a drying process in drying

ovens.

The exhaust heat from galvanizing bath is usually employed in heating

up the drying oven.

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Once the batch removed from Zinc it’s officially called Galvanized finished

product

Although each batch is typically dipped in a vat of water for cooling Once

the steel is galvanized send samples to Q.C department, if it looks good no

problem, unless if they found defects by conducting tests the entire steel batch

can be put the process. This used Zinc at the plant is 100 percent recyclable

and acid tank solutions are changed twice in a year or production level.

VENT HOLE:

The primary reason for vent and drain holes is to allow air to be

evacuated, permitting the object to be completely immersed in to

cleaning solutions and molten zinc.

Proper hole sizing and location make it safer to galvanize and provide

the optimal finish. The secondary reason is to prevent damage to the

parts.

Vent holes are frequently left open but can be closed with drive caps or

plugs after galvanizing.

Base-plates and end-plates must be designed to facilitate venting and

draining. Fully cutting the plate provides minimum obstruction to a full

free flow in to and out off the pipe.

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WITH BASE PLATE AND WITH (OR) WITH OUT CAP PLATE

Fig: Pipe columns, pipe girders, streetlight poles and transmission poles

BOX SECTIONS:

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THREADED PARTS:

Hot dip galvanized fasteners are recommended for use with hot-dip

galvanized subassemblies and assemblies.

Galvanized nuts, bolts and screws in common sizes are readily

available from commercial suppliers.

Bolted assemblies should be sent to the galvanizer in a disassembled

condition.

Nuts, bolts, or studs to be galvanized also should be supplied

disassembled.

When a galvanized assembly in corporate moving parts (such as drop-

handles, shackles, and shafts), a radial clearance of not less than 1/16-

inch (1.5 mm) must be allowed to ensure full freedom of movement

after the addition of zinc during galvanizing.

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 CHAPTER – 20
PAINTING

PAINT: Paint most commonly used material to protect steel.

PRIMER: Primer is a paint product that allows finishing paint to adhere

much better than if it was used alone.

Flow chart designated for a steel product that is to be painted

BARE MILL FINISH

SURFACE PREPARATION

PRIMER

PAINT

Following are the surface preparation specifications used in steel industries:

These preparations are made before painting/Galvanization to remove rust

deposits on the member.

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THE COMPLETE VISUAL GUIDE TO SURFACE PREPARATIONS

Painting a clean surface is imperative for the success of a coating

system. There are many different techniques and procedures used to

prepare a surface for application.

The most commonly accepted standards for contractors and

organizations are the NACE/ SSPC Joint Surface Preparation

Standards.

These standards do an excellent job of standardizing surface prep

results and providing a template to meet job specifications.

Higher numbers do not necessarily mean a higher degree of surface

prep, as one might expect.

Surface preparation can take a variety of forms depending on the

condition of the steel you’re trying to treat. Surface preparation and

cleaning can involve dirt, soil, oil, grease, chemicals, mill scale, rust

paint and myriad of other defects. Any combination of these defects

can affect your asset, so it’s important to following a strict procedure to

address each problem.

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1. SSPC-SP1
CHEMICAL /SOLVENT CLEANING:
This method of surface preparation is meant to remove soluble
substances from steel. Before paint (or) other protective coating is
applied, a solvent is used to remove all visible oil, grease, dirt, drawing
or cutting compounds or other soluble contaminants.
Solvents may include steam, emulsifying agents or other cleaning
compounds.
Surface is free from

2. SSPC-SP2
HAND TOOL CLEANING:
Hand tool cleaning refers to surface preparation that uses non-power
handheld tools to clean a steel surface. Hand tool cleaning is intended
to remove all loose mill scale, rust, paint and other contaminants that
may be detrimental to a coating application.
According to the SSPC, “loose” contaminants are those that can’t be
removed by lifting off with a dull putty knife.
Surface is free from

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3. SSPC-SP3
POWER TOOL CLEANING:
As in hand tool cleaning, SP3 is a method of steel surface preparation
intended to remove all loose mill scale, rust, paint and other
contaminants that may be detrimental to a coating application.
While hand tool cleaning is certainly an option for steel surface
preparation, power tool cleaning is more efficient when hand tools aren’t
necessary for getting into tight spaces.

4. SSPC-SP5(NACE 1)
WHITE METAL BLAST CLEANING:
White metal is a term used to describe a surface that’s uniformly free of all
foreign matter and white or gray in appearance.

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5. SSPC-SP6 (NACE 3)
COMMERCIAL BLAST CLEANING:
SP6 is another joint standard describing the cleaning of a steel surface
through the use of abrasive blast media.
It includes instructions for prior to blast cleaning, as well as for the
inspection of the cleaning after it has been conducted.

6. SSPC-SP7(NACE 4)
BRUSH OFF BLAST CLEANING:
This standard conveys the requirements for cleaning a steel surface,
painted or unpainted, with the use of abrasive blast media.

7. SSPC-SP10 (NACE 2)
NEAR WHITE BLAST CLEANING

8. SSPC-SP11
POWER TOOL CLEANING TO BARE METAL

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9. SSPC-SP14 (NACE 8)
INDUSTRIAL BLAST CLEANING:
This standard conveys the requirements for cleaning a steel surface,
painted or unpainted, with the use of abrasive blast media.
As with a commercial blast and a near-white commercial blast, the
prepared surface must be free, when viewed without magnification, of
visible oil, dust, dirt, grease, mill scale, rust, coating, oxides, corrosion
and other foreign matter, except for a limited amount of acceptable
staining.

10. SSPC –SP 15

COMMERCIAL GRADE POWER TOOL CLEANING

11. SSPC –SP 16

BRUSH OFF BLAST CLEANING OF NON Fe

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 CHAPTER – 21
LADDER

Width of ladder should be 1′ - 6″ (Minimum)

Maximum length of ladder should be 24′

More than 24′ then go for splice attachment

Spacing between rung to rung is 1′′

Diameter of rung is 3/4′′

The cage should be start at a height of 7′ (minimum) and 8′ (maximum)

from the ground level

Hoop to hoop distance is 4′.

From finished floor elevation the cage should be extended upto 3′ -6′′.
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Hoop clearance from back of person is 1′ - 6′′

Maximum height of ladder without cage is 20′.

Maximum height of ladder with cage is 30′

One ladder to another ladder minimum clearance is 18′′

From finished floor elevation the cage should be extended upto 4′ (in

step across ladder)

The distance between landings to first rung should be minimum 4′′ ½

and maximum 1′

Placing of rung is done from finished floor elevation with equal level of

platform and then proceeds down.

The ladder take first support from the wall is at 6′′ minimum (height

form ground)

The connection between platform to ladder is 6′′ minimum and 9′′

maximum.

One ladder to another ladder minimum clearance 18′′.

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 CHAPTER – 22
TECHNICAL WORDS

1. BEAM
Beam is a horizontal structural member which carries the loads and
transfer to its longitudinal axis

2. COLUMN
Column is a vertical structural member which carries compression loads
parallel to its longitudinal axis

3. AXIAL FORCE

The forces that are applied longitudinally at the center of a member

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4. CHANGE ORDER

A document used to make changes in the material already ordered

5. ABM

A list prepared by the detailing group showing the steel mill producers to
be ordered especially for the requirements of a specific project (or)
Rough estimation of steel in tonnage

6. PURPOSE OF BACKUP BAR

A welding aid used to prevent (or) avoid the leakage of weld when it is
performing

7. Girder Beam

It is the main horizontal support of a structure which supports

smaller beams

8. INFILL BEAM

The Beam which is connected between two girder beams

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9. COMPOSITE BEAM

A steel beam structurally connected to concrete slab, so that beam and

slab respond to load and act as a single unit

10. NON SHRINKAGE GROUT

The mixture of Non-shrinkage sand, cement and water mixture used
under the base plate for uniform bearing surface

11. TYPES OF LOADS

DEAD LOAD: Self weight of the member

LIVE LOAD: Self weight of manual loads

WIND LOAD: The load which are applied by the wind

EARTHQUAKE LOAD: Seismic loads formed by earthquake (or)

vibration loads

SNOW LOADS: These are the loads which are due to falling of snow

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12. STUD DIMENSION
Running dimension is nothing but stud dimension, having only one
starting point as the reference point

13. BACK - CHARGE

Cost directed to fabricator (or) Steel detailer for errors in fabrication
and detailing

14. CHORD
The main top (or) bottom (or) Intermediate member in a truss is called
Chord.

15. ADDENDUM
Any minor changes in contract documents (or) design drawing are
listed and released as addendum, if they have major changes in contract
drawings are re-released after revision

16. BUILT UP MEMBER

A structural steel member that is fabricated by welding or riveting
rather than being rolled

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17. FOOTING
Footing is a structural member which transfer load from column to soil

18. EDGE DISTANCE

Edge distance is the distance from the center of the rivet to the edge of
the material being riveted

19. SHANK
The cylindrical part of a bolt as distinguished from the head (or)
unthreaded portion of a bolt

20. BEVEL
The slope of the line with respect to another line

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21. SUB STRUCTURE
The structure which is present below the ground level
22. SUPER STRUCTURE
The structure which is above the ground level

23. CAMBER
A comparatively flat vertical curve placed on a truss, beam (or) girder
to counter act the sag

24. SWEEP
It is a composite flat horizontal curve placed in a beam

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25. CAT WALK
Long, rectangular platform about 3ft [0.9m] high, usually made
of steel and located perpendicular to the vee-door at the bottom of the
slide

26. CLADDING
The exterior covering of structural member in the building

27. CURB
A raised edge along the side of a street, often forming part of a path for
people to walk on

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28. MASONRY
The part of building that are made of stones (or) bricks

29. POUR STOP

An angle used around the sides of a floor to stop the overflow of
concrete when it is being poured

30. JAMB
It is a vertical member placed at the side of wall opening

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31. GRATING
Steel grating is a kind of open steel member with its bearing bars &
cross bars jointing at their intersections either by welding or by locking

32. DECK
A sheet leading from the clew of a topmost studding sail to
the deck forward of the yard

33. TYPES OF DECK

1. Composite floor deck

2. Roof deck

3. Cellular deck

4. Formed deck

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34. GUTTER
Gutter is a metal trough attached to the roof of a house that collects
and directs rain water away from the roof and the eaves

35. ERECTION PLAN

E-plan will show the plans, elevations and all section with all
dimensions required to properly location of steel members

36. BEVEL WASHER

The washer which is one side slope

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37. BASE PLATE
It is a load distribution plate upon which the column bears

38. SILL ANGLE

The bottom horizontal angle member of a door (or) window opening

39. SAFETY POST

Posts placed around opening to save lives, prevent injuries of the
workers.
Normally safety posts will be made from angle profile

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40. PURPOSE OF SAG ROD
A tension member used to reduce the sagging of a girt (or) purlin in
the direction of its weak axis

41. SLOTTED HOLE

An elongated hole with semi – circular ends and parallel sides (or) the
hole which having length and standard width

42. GIRDER
A main horizontal (or) near horizontal structural member that supports
vertical loads, it may consists of several pieces

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43. GIRT
A horizontal secondary member attached to main frame columns.
Girt normally support side covering.

44. BRACE
It is a diagonal member which is used in plan and elevations.
Generally angles and T – profiles are preferred

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45. EMBED PLATE
A steel plate cast into a concrete structure which is used to transmit
applied loads by a beam, girder etc… to the concrete.
Nailer Hole diameter is 3/16 and Minimum edge value 3/16″

46. BEARING PLATE

The steel plate used for a joist (or) joist girder to bear on when they are
supported by masonry or concrete supports. This plate transfers the
joist reaction to the supporting structure

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47. GUARD RAIL
A structure for blocking the area from access is known as railing

48. HAND RAIL

A structure designed to provided support on (or) near a staircase

49. HEADER
It is a horizontal member placed at the top of wall opening

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50. LINTEL

A structural member in a masonry walls placed above doors, windows

(or) opening to support above masonry

51. PURLIN

A horizontal secondary structural member, which transfers the roof

loads from the roof covering to the primary frames

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52. BOLLARD

Protects dock doorways and building passages

Excellent for segregating vehicles from people

Yellow color as per OSHA requirement

53. JOIST

Joist is a light weight member which supports the slab it has top chord
and bottom chord

The bearing depth is 7 ½ it may change

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54. TYPES OF JOIST

K – series

LH – series

DLH – series

As per OSHA the joist length is 40 feet, bolt must be provided

55. GUSSET PLATE

The plate which is used to connect braces to beam (or) column
A plate used for connecting bracing (or) the member of a truss at a
panel point

56. ROOF TOP UNIT (RTU)

Headers or other structural members which surround an opening in a
roof which can be for mechanical units, duct opening etc

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57. KICKER ANGLE
A structural member used to brace a joist or beam usually at an angle.
Used connect beam to beam (or) beam to column

58. SHEAR STUD

A stud that transfers shear stress between metal and concrete in
composite structural members in which the stud is welded to the metal
component

59. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLUMN AND POST

Both are vertical members but the only difference is weight
More than 300 lbs, it is column
Less than 300 lbs, it is post

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60. ROD
A rolled bar of steel with round (or) square cross section

61. SINGLE PART DRAWINGS

Giving individual drawings for single parts (or) connecting members

62. ERECTION
Assembling of members in a site (or) in a field
Erection is also called as construction

63. STRUCTURAL STEEL DETAILING

It is a process of converting design drawing to shop drawing

64. TENSION
The condition of a material loaded in such a way that the load tends to
stretch the material

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65. DESIGN DRAWING
Design drawings are the drawings which are generated by engineer (or)
architect
They are generally the floor plans, connection details, profiles of a
members, layout, elevation and section details of the building

66. ERECTION MARKS

Erection marks (or) orientation marks are provided in erection drawing,
which determines the orientation of the structural members

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67. TAPER
Gradual increase (or) decrease of a diameter of a circular rod, when
measured along the length of the member

68. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CAMBER AND SWEEP

A comparatively flat vertical curve placed on a truss, beam (or) girder
to counter act the sag is called Camber
It is a composite flat horizontal curve placed in a beam is called sweep

Page | 259
69. TOE PLATE
It is the safety plate at the bottom of handrail to avoid the accidents

70. RELIEF ANGLE / BRICK SUPPORT ANGLE

Angle which is supporting the brick wall of the building

71. PLATE
Mostly used for connecting purpose and supporting purpose of a
member like stiffener, Gusset plate etc… plate which has length width
and thickness

Page | 260
72. RUNG
It is step provided in ladder in circular cross section

Page | 261