Field and Wave Electromagnetics

Static Electric Field

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang

Institute of Communications Engineering

National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University
Hsinchu, Taiwan

Spring, 2024
 Frequently used symbols

Unit vectors in Cartesian coordinate system: x̂, ŷ and ẑ

Unit vectors in cylindrical coordinate system: ρ̂, ϕ̂, and ẑ
Unit vectors in spherical coordinate system: r̂, θ̂, and ϕ̂
Electrical potential: Φ
Volume charge density: ρv (C/m3 )
Surface charge density: σs (C/m2 )
Line charge density: λl (C/m)
dl = dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ
Source position: r′ = x′ x̂ + y ′ ŷ + z ′ ẑ
Observation point position: r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ
Distance between the source and observation points: R =| r − r′ |

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
2 /Tung
71
 Outline of this Chapter

1 Fundamental laws and concepts of electrostatics

Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and continuous
distribution of charge
Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous charge
distribution
Gauss’s law
2 Constitutive relations and boundary conditions
Conductors in static electric field
Polarization vector and polarization charges in dielectrics
Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
3 Electrostatic energy

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
3 /Tung
71
 Fundamental laws and concepts of electrostatics

✓ Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and

continuous distribution of charge
✓ Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous charge
distribution
✓ Gauss’s law

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
4 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge I

Figure: source and observation point

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
5 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge II

Electric field due to a point charge

A point charge (q) is placed at r′ = (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ).
The observation point is at r = (x, y, z).
The electric field vector at r is:
q r − r′
E(r) = (V/m)
4πε0 |r − r′ |2 |r − r′ |
r−r′
The term of |r−r′ | is a unit vector.
Parameter ε0 ≈ 36π 1
× 10−9 (F/m).
A test (point) charge (qt ) at position rt will be exerted by a force
F = qt E(rt ) in the unit of Newton (N).

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
6 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge III
If the charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between
them is repulsive; it will be attractive for opposite signs.

Electric field due to a system of discrete charges

There are N point charges each denoted as qk and located at rk ,
where k is running from 1 to N .
The total electric field at the observation point r with r ̸= rk can
be written as the superposition of electrostatic field due to each
point charge, written as follows.
N ′
X qk r − rk
E(r) = ′ 2 ′ (V/m)
k=1
4πε0 |r − rk | |r − rk |

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
7 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge IV

An electric dipole (moment)

Consider two point charges with opposite signs at the z-axis with
a very small separation distance d.
r−rk
We first find the approximation of |r−rk |3
subject to the condition
of |r| >> |rk |.
The norm (length) of r − rk equals to [(r − rk ) · (r − rk )]1/2 . Due
to the aforementioned condition, we have the following
approximation:
1
= [r2 (1 + rk2 /r2 − 2r · rk /r2 )]−3/2 ≈ r−3 (1 + 3r̂ · rk /r).
|r − rk |3

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
8 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge V

The two point charges are −q at −0.5dẑ and +q at 0.5dẑ. The

total electric field at r(>> d) can be written as:

r + 0.5dẑ r − 0.5dẑ
E(r) = −q 3
+q .
4πε0 |r + 0.5dẑ| 4πε0 |r − 0.5dẑ|3

Substitution of the approximation formula into above equation, we

obtain:

q 1 − 3d
2 r̂ · ẑ/r q 1 + 3d
2 r̂ · ẑ/r
E(r) ≈ − 3
(r+0.5dẑ)+ (r−0.5dẑ)
4πε0 r 4πε0 r3
q
≈ (−dẑ + 3dẑ · r̂r̂)
4πε0 r3

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
9 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge VI

The term of qdẑ is generally termed as dipole moment (p);

therefore, the above equation can be rewritten as:

1
E(r) ≈ (−p + 3p · r̂r̂)
4πε0 r3

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
10 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge VII

Electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge

The continuous charge distribution includes line-, surface- and
volume- charge densities. Their notations are designated as λl (r),
σs (r), and ρv (r), respectively. If Q is total charge, we have:

λl (r)dl = Q,
line

σs (r)ds = Q,
surface

ρv (r)dv = Q.
volume

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
11 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge VIII
The summation in the electric field of a system of discrete charges
can be directly replaced by integral in a continuous distribution of
charge (a general form), written as:

dq r − r′
E(r) = (V/m)
r′ ∈object 4πε0 |r − r′ |2 |r − r′ |

Specifically, the following three equations correspond to line,

surface and volume charge distributions, respectively.

λl dl′ r − r′
E(r) = ,
r′ ∈line 4πε0 |r − r | |r − r′ |
′ 2


σs ds′ r − r′
E(r) = ,
r′ ∈surface 4πε0 |r − r′ |2 |r − r′ |
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
12 /Tung
71
 Coulomb’s law: electric field due to discrete charges and
continuous distribution of charge IX


ρv dv ′ r − r′
E(r) = ,
r′ ∈volume 4πε0 |r − r′ |2 |r − r′ |

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
13 /Tung
71
 Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous
charge distribution I
The relationship between electrical- field and potential
The electric field (amplitude) along the x-axis are defined as:
Ex = V (x)−V∆x(x+∆x) = − ∆V
∆x (in the unit of V/m). Incorporating
the similar representation in both Ey and Ez , the electric field
vector can be written as:
∆V ∆V ∆V
E = x̂Ex + ŷEy + ẑEz = −x̂ − ŷ − ẑ
∆x ∆y ∆z
Since the voltage, in general, is a continuous function of x, y and
z, namely, V = V (x, y, z), the difference operator can be
represented by the differential form, written as:
∂V ∂V ∂V
E(x, y, z) = −x̂ − ŷ − ẑ = −∇V (x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
14 /Tung
71
 Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous
charge distribution II

The potential function V will be replaced by Φ hereafter; that is,

E = −∇Φ.
Bt taking the line integral of the electric field along a specific
direction, we have
 (2)  (2)  (2)
E · dl = − ∇Φ · dl = − dΦ = Φ(1) − Φ(2),
(1) (1) (1)

where positions (1) and (2) are the two end points along the line
(path) of integral.
The line integral of electric field is independent of the path of
integral; it is determined by the potentials at the two end points.
Such an electric field is termed as conservative field.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
15 /Tung
71
 Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous
charge distribution III

If (1) = (2), the closed loop line integral vanishes.

Electrical potential due to a system of discrete charges

Recall the gradient of R1 given in Chapter 2, that is, ∇( R1 ) = − RR3 ,
where R = r − r′ and R = |R| = |r − r′ |.
By the electric field of a system of discrete charges in page 4,
namely,
N N N
X qk Rk X qk X
E(r) = = − ∇( ) = −∇ Φk
4πε0 Rk3 4πε0 Rk
k=1 k=1 k=1

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
16 /Tung
71
 Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous
charge distribution IV

the electric potential due to the N discrete charges is written as:

N
X qk
Φ(r) = ,
4πε0 Rk
k=1

where Rk = |Rk | = |r − rk |.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
17 /Tung
71
 Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous
charge distribution V

Electrical potential due to continuous charge distribution

From the general form of electric field due to continuous charge
distribution given below

dq r − r′
E(r) = ,
r′ ∈object 4πε0 |r − r′ |2 |r − r′ |

The above equation can be replaced by:


dq 1
E(r) = − ∇( ),
r′ ∈object 4πε0 |r − r′ |

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
18 /Tung
71
 Electrical potential due to discrete and continuous
charge distribution VI

The ∇ operator is subject to observation point (r), while the

integral is with respect to source coordinate system (r′ ); therefore,
they are interchangeable, that is:

dq
E(r) = −∇ .
r′ ∈object 4πε0 |r − r′ |
The electrical potential due to continuous charge distribution is
written as: 
dq
Φ(r) = ′
.
′
r ∈object 4πε0 |r − r |

Obviously, it is more convenient to calculate electric potential (Φ)

first and then the electric field by taking the gradient of Φ ;
particularly for the continuous charge distribution.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
19 /Tung
71
 Gauss’s law I

The fundamental postulate of electrostatic field in free space due

to free charges (for example, free electrons rather than bound
charge) is written as:
ρf ree
∇·E=
ε0
By taking the volume integral at both sides and invoking the
divergence theorem, we obtain:
  
ρf ree Qf ree
∇ · Edv = E · n̂ds = dv =
V S V ε0 ε0

So that the integral form of Gauss’s law can be written as:


Qf ree
E · n̂ds = .
S ε0

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
20 /Tung
71
 Gauss’s law II

Verification of Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s law

From Coulomb’s law, the electric field due to a point charge (Q)
placed at z = (0, 0, 0) is

Q
E = r̂
4πε0 r2

Notably, the electric field distribution is symmetry with respect to

both θ and ϕ.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
21 /Tung
71
 Gauss’s law III

By taking the surface integral including the point charge and the
surface is a sphere (with radius R) centered at the origin, we
obtain:
 
Q Q Q
r̂ · r̂R2 sin θdθdϕ = 4πR2 × = .
θ ϕ 4πε0 R2 4πε0 R2 ε0

The integration is taking over the solid angle (θ is ranging from 0

to π, and ϕ is from 0 to 2π) and equals to 4π.
If the point charge is not at the origin of the sphere under
integration, how to verify the Gauss law?

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
22 /Tung
71
 Gauss’s law IV

Figure: Flux on an 3D box with nonparallel faces

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
23 /Tung
71
 Gauss’s law V

The total flux, due to the point charge of q at the tip, on the 3D
irregular box surface vanishes. Here we assume that the solid angle of
dΩ is small enough that the two surfaces of ∆S1 and ∆S2 can be
regarded as plane. The outer surface of ∆S2 does not need to be
aligned with n̂1 .

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
24 /Tung
71
 Examples I
Consider a spherical cloud of electrons (NOT a conducting
sphere) with a volume charge density of ρv = −ρo for 0 ≤ R ≤ b
(both ρo and b are positive numbers and ρv = 0 for R > b.
Determine the E field everywhere.
Solution
Since ρv is uniform inside the sphere, the electric field is spherical
symmetry; that is, the electric field is just a function of r and E is
in the radial direction (r̂); that E = r̂Er .
Inside the sphere: r < b
 
Q∂
∇ · Edv = E · r̂r2 dΩ = 4πr2 Er =
r<b s εo

where 
4π 3
Q∂ = − ρo r2 drdΩ = −ρo r
v 3
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
25 /Tung
71
 Examples II

ρo
Therefore, we have E = −r̂ 3ε o
r, for r < b.
Out of the Sphere: r > b
The total charge is Q = −ρo 4π 3
3 b .
Apply Gauss’s law again:

4π 3
4πr2 Er = −ρo b .
3εo

ρo b3
Er = − , for r > b
3εo r2

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
26 /Tung
71
 Constitutive relations and boundary conditions

✓ Conductors in static electric field

✓ Polarization vector and polarization charges in dielectrics
✓ Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
27 /Tung
71
 Conductors in static electric field I

The differences among semiconductors, insulators and conductors

are on the energy band model.
A semiconductor has a nearly filled valence band and a nearly
empty conduction band separated by a band gap (for example:
1.1eV for Si.).
The band structure of an insulator is similar to that of a
semiconductor except for a large energy bandgap Eg (for example:
9eV forSiO2 ).
A conductor has a partially filled conduction band; it holds the
conduction electrons. The abundance of conduction electrons
makes the resistivity of a typical conductor much lower than that
of semiconductors and insulators.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
28 /Tung
71
 Conductors in static electric field II

In metal, atoms lose electrons to form positive ions. These ions are
surrounded by delocalized (free) electrons used for conduction.
The metallic bonds between th ions are due to the electrostatic
interaction between the ions and the electron cloud.
Metal is in the structure of tightly packed crystal lattice
(body-centered cubic and face-centered cubic).
When excess charge is placed on a conductor or the conductor is
exerted by a static electric field, charges in the conductor
immediately (≈ 10−19 s) respond to reach a steady state called
electrostatic equilibrium.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
29 /Tung
71
 Conductors in static electric field III

Before achieving electrostatic equilibrium, the tangential

component of electric field drives free charges to move
(redistribution of free charges). Eventually, the tangential
component of electric field (E∥ = 0) vanishes (due to energy
conservation); only the perpendicular component (E⊥ ) exists.
Inside the metal, the net charges equal zero (ρv = 0 inside a
metal). The electric field vanishes due to Gauss’s law. Consider
that if Ein ̸= 0, such an electric field exerting on free charges can
produce current (power/energy).

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
30 /Tung
71
 Conductors in static electric field IV

The normal component of the electric field on a metal surface can

be determined by Gauss’s law.

∇ · D = ρfree

∇ · Ddv = Qfree
box

D · n̂ds = ε0 En A = Qfree
surface
σs
En =
ε0
where σs = Qfree /A is defined as the surface charge density.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
31 /Tung
71
 Conductors in static electric field V

Figure: Apply the Gauss’s to calculate the electric field normal to a metal
surface

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
32 /Tung
71
 Polarization vector and polarization charges in
dielectrics I

There are no free charges in dielectrics owing to a considerably

large bandgap.
The dipole moments due to either the electronic- or
permanent(molecular)- polarization will be generated in response
to the external(applied) electric field. These dipole moments
change the electrical properties of the dielectric medium.
Nonpolar Molecule (electronic polarization): the external electric
field exerted on the atoms of a dielectric medium causes a small
displacement (compared to atom) of the positive and negative
charges in opposite directions, producing the dipole moments.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
33 /Tung
71
 Polarization vector and polarization charges in
dielectrics II

Molecular Polarization: The molecule inherently has the

polarization, such as H2 O. In the medium filled with H2 O, we
have the dipole moments randomly distributed. When the
external electric field is applied to the medium, those dipole
moments tend to turn their directions toward that of the applied
electric-field vector.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
34 /Tung
71
 Polarization vector and polarization charges in
dielectrics III

Figure: Distribution of dipole moments (w/o external E): each arrow

represents the dipole moment, with its vector directing from negative
charge towards positive charge.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
35 /Tung
71
 Polarization vector and polarization charges in
dielectrics IV

The polarization vector (P) is defined as:

P
i pi
P = lim = N ⟨p⟩,
∆V →0 ∆V

where pi is the randomly polarized dipole moment in a volume of

∆V . The polarization vector is in the unit of Coulomb/m2 .
Parameter N is the concentration in the unit of number per
volume m3 ; ⟨p⟩ is the average dipole moment in the unit of
Coulomb× meter.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
36 /Tung
71
 Polarization vector and polarization charges in
dielectrics V
Consider a continuous distribution of dipole moments, the dipole
moment dp in dv ′ is dp = Pdv ′ . The electrical potential due to dp
can be written as:
dp · R
dΦ(r) = ,
4πε0 R3
where R = r − r′ .
Potential Φ due to P in a volume V ′ is written as:

P·R
Φ(r) = dv ′ .
V′ 4πε0 R3

Because of ∇′ (1/R) = R/R3 , the above equation can be rewritten

as follow. 
1 1
Φ(r) = P · ∇′ ( )dv ′ .
4πε0 V′ R
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
37 /Tung
71
 Polarization vector and polarization charges in
dielectrics VI

By substituting the vector identity ∇′ · ( R1 P) = ∇′ R1 · P + 1 ′

R∇ ·P
into the above equation, we obtain:

1 1 1
Φ(r) = [∇′ · ( P) − ∇′ · P]dv ′
4πε0 V′ R R
 
1 P · n̂′ ′ 1 −∇′ · P ′
= ds + dv
4πε0 S′ R 4πε0 V′ R
From the above equation, we know that the electrical potential is
due to both the equivalent surface- and volume- charge density,
respectively. Specifically, the two terms are designated for the
charge density:

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
38 /Tung
71
 Polarization vector and polarization charges in
dielectrics VII

Surface polarization charge density (σpol ):

σpol = P · n̂′

where n̂′ is the normal vector to the outer surface of the dielectric
modeled by P.
Volume polarization charge density (ρpol ):

ρpol = −∇′ · P

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
39 /Tung
71
 Electric flux density and dielectric constant I

Recall the Gauss law in free space, we have

∇ · ε0 E = ρfree

The involvement of dielectric medium in the presence of electric

field generates the polarization vector due to continuous
distribution of dipole moments. The induced extra vector P adds
to ε0 E (they share the same unit of C/m2 ). The new term of
electric flux density or electric displacement D is defined as
D = ε0 E + P. Therefore, the Gauss law in a dielectric medium is
written as follow.
∇ · D = ρfree .

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
40 /Tung
71
 Electric flux density and dielectric constant II

When the external electric field (E) is not so strong, the

polarization vector can be assumed to be proportional to E, that
is, P = ε0 χe E; where χe is named as the electric susceptibility that
is a spatial independent factor. Notably, such an approximation is
a macro model for a linear and isotropic dielectric medium, while
the equation D = ε0 E + P is an exact expression, where D is
named as the electric flux density or electric displacement.
Substitution of P = ε0 χe E into D = ε0 E + P, we have
D = ε0 (1 + χe )E; where 1 + χe = εr is a dimensionless constant
known as the relative dielectric permittivity or the relative
dielectric constant of the medium. Parameter ε0 εr is termed as the
(absolute) permittivity of the dielectric medium in the unit of
F/m.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
41 /Tung
71
 Electric flux density and dielectric constant III

If the external electric field is very strong, electrons will be pulled

out of the molecules completely, generating free charges. The
material becomes conducting with conduction currents. Such a
phenomenon is named as the dielectric breakdown. The maximum
electric-field intensity that a dielectric medium can withstand
without breakdown is the dielectric strength of the material. For
example, the dielectric strength of silica (SiO2 ) is 10V /cm.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
42 /Tung
71
 Supplementary Materials on polarisation vectors

In fact, the polarization vector is not easy to determine. The

calculation should invokes statistical mechanics. The formula is give
below for reference. 
P= [p cos θ]n(θ)dθ
Ω

where n(θ) = No exp [− UkEB(θ)

T ]; it specifies a distribution concerning the
number of dipole moments pointing at angle θ subject to the external
electric field. Parameter kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the
temperature in Kelvin degree.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
43 /Tung
71
 Capacitance I

Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor

For a parallel-plate capacitor filled with air, its capacitance is:

εo A
Co =
d
Here, we assume that the separation distance (d) between two
metal plates is much smaller than the dimension of metal plate.
Therefore, the fringing field effect can be neglected. The electric
field concentrates in the parallel-plate region and is supposed to be
uniform. The electric field strength equals to E = σf ree /εo .
By the definition of C = Q/V , the voltage difference (V ) can be
Qd
determined by V = Ed = Aε o
. Thus, we have: C = εodA

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
44 /Tung
71
 Capacitance II

Capacitance of a coaxial line

A coaxial line has inner and outer radii a and b, respectively. It is
infinite extent along the length direction.
The electric field is along the radial direction only and can be
determined by Gauss’s law: 2πρLEρ = Q/εo .
Q
We have Eρ = 2πρLεo .
The voltage difference between two conductors is:
 ρ=b
Q a
V = Eρ dρ = ln
ρ=a 2πLεo b
.
2πεo
The per-unit-length capacitance is: C/L = ln ab .

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
45 /Tung
71
 Understanding polarization charges from the example of
a capacitor filled with dielectric medium I

Figure: A parallel plate capacitor filled with dielectric medium

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
46 /Tung
71
 Understanding polarization charges from the example of
a capacitor filled with dielectric medium II

The capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor filled with dielectric

medium with dielectric constant κεo becomes:
κεo A
Cκ =
d
where κ > 1.
Q

From the definition of C = V, where Q = σf ree A and V = E · dl,
σ A
we have Cκ = fEree
κd
.
σ A
Because of Cκ = fEree κd
= κεdo A , the uniform electric field (Eκ )
σf ree
becomes Eκ = κεo that is smaller than the electric field in the
capacitor filled with air.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
47 /Tung
71
 Understanding polarization charges from the example of
a capacitor filled with dielectric medium III

Alternatively, the reduction in Eκ can also be regarded as due to

the reduction in surface charge density (By Gauss’s law). We have
σ
the new surface charge density denoted as σef f = fκree < σf ree .
We assume that there exists −σpol canceling out part of the
surface charge density; that is:

σef f = σf ree − σpol

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
48 /Tung
71
 Understanding polarization charges from the example of
a capacitor filled with dielectric medium IV

Figure: Surface polarisation charges, distributed on the dielectric surface,

induced by the applied electric field

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
49 /Tung
71
 Understanding polarization charges from the example of
a capacitor filled with dielectric medium V

The relationship between σpol and σf ree can be written as:

κ−1
σpol = σf ree
κ
The new surface charge density (σpol ) can be considered as the
bound charges in dielectric aligning their negative components
toward the Qf ree and positive ones toward −Qf ree .
Where comes the σpol ?
The polarization vector denoted as P is assumed to be uniform
(perpendicular to the metal plate) inside the dielectric.
σpol can be linked to P by σpol = P · n̂.
σpol = P (magnitude only)

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
50 /Tung
71
 Understanding polarization charges from the example of
a capacitor filled with dielectric medium VI
The electric field strength in the parallel-plate region filled with
dielectric equals to
σf ree − σpol σf ree − P
E= =
εo εo
If we assume P = εo χe E (linear approximation), we have:
σ 1
E = fεree
o 1+χe (it is equal to Eκ in the previous page).
The net bound charges vanish (no free electrons and ions).
   
ρpol dv = −∇ · Pdv = − P · n̂ds = − σpol
v v s s
therefore, we have
 
ρpol dv + σpol = 0.
v s

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
51 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields I

An interface between two dielectric mediums

The interface is not necessary a plane surface. What we discuss
here is a local boundary condition of electric field.
The upper and lower semi-infinite dielectric mediums have the
relative dielectric constant ε1 and ε2 , respectively.
There are no free charges at the interface.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
52 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields II

Figure: Continuous of normal component of Displacement vector at the

interface between two dielectric mediums

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
53 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields III

Continuity equation for normal components

Apply the Gauss law in a cylindrical box placed half in medium 1
and half in medium 2. The height of the box is very small
(approaches zero); therefore, we can figure out the electric
displacement in the vicinity of an interface. Additionally, the area
of top- and bottom-covers is assumed to approach zero for
exploring the local effect.
Taking the volume integral over the cylindrical box at both sides
of the Gauss Law, we obtain
 
∇ · Ddv = ρf ree dv
V V′

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
54 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields IV

Since there is no free charges at the interface, the RHS vanishes.

By the divergence theorem, the volume integral becomes surface
integral given as: 
D · n̂ds.
S
The integral consists of three surfaces: top-, bottom-covers and
circumference. The area (ds) is assumed to be very small; D can
be supposed to be uniform therein. The integral due to top- and
bottom-surfaces is ds[D1n (0+ ) − D2n (0− )]; where D1n (0+ ) and
D2n (0+ ) are the normal components in medium 1 and 2 at the
interface, respectively.
Since the box height approaches zero, the surface integration on
the circumference can be neglected. Finally, we obtain
D1n (0+ ) = D2n (0− ) or ε1 ε0 E1n (0+ ) = ε2 ε0 E2n (0− ).

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
55 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields V

If the surface free charges are present at the interface, the RHS of
volume integral becomes σf ree ds. The previous continuity
equation can be modified as:

D1n (0+ ) − D2n (0− ) = σf ree

It means the discontinuity in the normal components of electric

displacement is due to the surface charge density at the interface
between two dielectric mediums.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
56 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields VI

Continuity equation for tangential components

Construct a rectangular path at the interface between mediums 1
and 2. Similarly, there is half in medium 1 and half in medium 2.
The length parallel to the medium is denoted as ∆w, while along
the perpendicular direction is designated as ∆h and ∆h → 0.
By taking the line integral of E along the closed rectangular loop,
we obtain
E · dl = 0
path

The vanishing in RHS is due to the conservative field (static

electric field: E = −∇Φ).

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
57 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields VII

The above line integral at LHS equals to (E1t − E2t )∆w. The
vanishing in the line integral, we obtain the continuity equation if
tangential electric field components written below.

E1t = E2t .

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
58 /Tung
71
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields VIII

Figure: Continuous of tangential component of electric field at the interface

between two dielectric mediums

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
59 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy I

Work and energy

In an electrostatic filed E, to move a charge (q) slowly (without
change in kinetic energy and for not radiation) from point (1) to
point (2), the required work is
 (2)
W =− qE · dr
(1)

Notably, if the charge moves in the direction against the force, qE

and dr have opposite sign, causing a positive work (W ).
We have: W = qΦ(2) − qΦ(1), that is, the work needed to move q
from potential Φ(1) to Φ(2).

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
60 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy II

Stored electric energy in a two-charge system

Consider a charge q1 at the origin, the work needed to bring
charge q2 (the two charges share the same sign) from infinity to
R12 from q1 is:
 R12  R12
+r̂q1 q2 q1 q2
W = F21 · dr = · |−r̂dr =
∞ ∞ 4πε0 r2 {z } 4πε0 R12
against the force

The work becomes the stored electric energy in this two-charge

system (UE = W ).
Stored electric energy in a system consisting of discrete charges
Let us consider a system composed of N charges: q1 , q2 ,..., qN . We
would calculate the stored electric energy in this system.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
61 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy III

To continue the previous process, the third charge q3 is moving

from infinite to the position with distances R13 and R23 away from
q1 and q3 .
The potential setup by the two charges q1 and q2 is:
q1 q2
Φ12 (r) = +
4πε0 |r − r1 | 4πε0 |r − r′2 |
′

The required work to bring q3 from infinity to rx (with

|rx − r′1 | = R13 and |rx − r′2 | = R23 ) is:
q1 q3 q2 q3
W = q3 Φ12 (rx ) = +
4πε0 R13 4πε0 R23

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
62 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy IV
The total electric energy of this three charges system is
q1 q3 q2 q3 q1 q2
UE = + +
4πε0 R13 4πε0 R23 4πε0 R12
| {z }
Don’t forget this term !

Represent the above in summation form yields the following:

3 3
1 X X qm qn
UE =
2 4πε0 Rmn
m=1 n=1

where m ̸= n.
Extend to N -charge system, the electric energy can be written as:
N N
1 X X qm qn
UE =
2 4πε0 Rmn
m=1 n=1

where m ̸= n.
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
63 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy V
Stored electric energy in a system with continuous charge distribution
We begin with the general expression of UE having N charges:
N N
1 X X qm qn
UE =
2 4πε0 Rmn
m=1 n=1

where m ̸= n
The above equation can be rewritten as:
N N
1X X qn
UE = qm ( )
2 4πε0 Rmn
m=1 n=1,n̸=m

N
1X
= qm Φm∈/
2
m=1
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
64 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy VI

where m ∈/ means that the electric potential is due to the (N − 1)

charges excluding the mth charge.
For a continuous charge distribution, the summation in the above
equation can be replaced by an integral:

1
UE = ρΦdv
2 V

Notably, for an infinitesimally small charge ρdv, its contribution to

Φ is negligible; therefore, the potential Φ can be regarded as being
setup by all the continuous charge.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
65 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy VII

From Gauss’s law, the terms of ρΦ can be replaced by Φ∇ · D. By

invoking the vector identity: ∇ · (ΦD) = Φ∇ · D + ∇Φ · D, the
above equation can be rewritten as:

1
UE = [∇ · (ΦD) − ∇Φ · D]dv
2 V

Due to divergence theorem, the first term becomes surface integral

equal to 
ΦD · n̂ds
S
Since the volume integral shall include all the continuous charge
distribution, it is extended to all space, that is, r → ∞. The above
integral will be performed on a sphere with its radius equal to
infinity. Moreover, Φ and D · n̂ = Dr are individually proportional

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
66 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy VIII

to 1/r and 1/r2 . The terms of ΦD · n̂ds is proportional to

(1/r3 ) × (4πr2 ) ≈ 4π/r; thus, it approaches zero as r → ∞.
Return to the equation of UE , the first term vanishes. Substitution
of E = −∇Φ into the second term in UE , it becomes:

E · Ddv
V

Finally, the electrostatic energy due to continuous charge

distribution can be written as:

1
UE = E · Ddv
2 all space

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
67 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy IX
Example: Find the energy required to assemble a uniform sphere of
charge of radius b and volume charge density ρ (Hint: a spherical cloud
of electrons in free space rather than a conducting sphere).
Method 1
By bringing up a succession of spherical layers of thickness dr, its
differential charge is dq = 4πr2 drρ.
The potential due to a spherical electron cloud with radius r is

ρ(4πr3 /3) ρr2

Φ= =
4πεo r 3εo
4πρ2 4
The differential work dW = Φdq = 3εo r dr
The total work is:
  b
4πρ2 4πρ2 b5
W = dW = r4 dr =
v′ 3εo 0 15εo
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
68 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy X

Method 2

Apply the formula of W = 1
2 ρΦdv ′
Volume charge density of ρ is a constant inside the sphere with
radius b; it can be taken out of the integral.
We have to evaluate the electric potential at an arbitrary position
inside the sphere.
The electric potential can be determined from the integral of
electric field:  r
Φ(r) = − Er dr
∞
Due to the symmetry of the sphere, Er is a function of r only.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
69 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy XI

The electric field inside and outside

 the sphere can be determined
by Gauss Law of Er r2 dΩ = ρdv (rotational symmetry),
which are:
4π
εo Er (4π)r2 = ρ r3 for r ≤ b
3
4π
εo Er (4π)r2 = ρ b3 for r > b
3
The electric potential is given below.
 b  r
ρb2

ρ ρ
Φ(r) = − 2
dr + rdr = (1.5b2 − 0.5r2 )
∞ 3ε o r b 3ε o 3ε o

The total work is:

 b
ρ ρ 4πρ2 b5
W = (1.5b2 − 0.5r2 )4πr2 dr =
2 0 3εo 15εo
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
70 /Tung
71
 Electrostatic Energy XII

Method 3
1

Apply the formula of W = 2 v E · Ddv
Because of D = εo E, what we have to evaluate is
  b  ∞
ρb3 2

εo εo ρr 2
W = |E|2 dv = ( ) 4πr2 dr + ( ) 4πr2 dr
2 v 2 0 3εo b 3εo r2

4πρ2 b5
We have W = 15εo .

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
71 /Tung
71