Chapter 14
Leadership: Styles and
Behaviors
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Class Agenda
Leadership: Styles and Behaviors
Why Are Some Leaders More Effective than Others?
• Leader Decision-Making Styles
• Day-to-Day Leadership Behaviors
• Transformational Leadership Behaviors
How Important is Leadership?
Application: Leadership Training
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An Integrative Model of Organizational Behavior
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Leadership: Styles and Behaviors
The use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers
toward goal achievement
How leaders use their power and influence in an effective way
Several measures to judge leader effectiveness:
• Objective evaluations of unit performance
• Focus on followers, such as absenteeism, retention of talented
employees, etc.
• Employee surveys on perceived performance of the leader
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Table 14-1 Employee-Centered Measures of Leader
Effectiveness 1 of 2
Unit-Focused Approach
Ask all members of the unit to fill out the following survey items, then average the responses across the
group to get a measure of leader effectiveness.
1. My supervisor is effective in meeting our job-related needs.
2. My supervisor uses methods of leadership that are satisfying.
3. My supervisor gets us to do more than we expected to do.
4. My supervisor is effective in representing us to higher authority.
5. My supervisor works with us in a satisfactory way.
6. My supervisor heightens our desire to succeed.
7. My supervisor is effective in meeting organizational requirements.
8. My supervisor increases our willingness to try harder.
9. My supervisor leads a group that is effective.
Sources: Adapted from Bass, B., and B. Avolio. MLQ Manual. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden, Inc., 2004; and Graen, G. B., and M. Uhl-Bien. “Relationship-Based Approach to Leadership:
Development of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership over 25 Years: Applying a Multi-Level Multi-Domain Perspective.” Leadership Quarterly 6 (1995): pp. 219–247.
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Table 14-1 Employee-Centered Measures of Leader
Effectiveness 2 of 2
Dyad-Focused Approach
Ask members of the unit to fill out the following survey items in reference to their particular
relationship with the leader. The responses are not averaged across the group; rather, differences
across people indicate differentiation into “ingroups” and “outgroups” within the unit.
1. I always know how satisfied my supervisor is with what I do.
2. My supervisor understands my problems and needs well enough.
3. My supervisor recognizes my potential.
4. My supervisor would use his/her power to help me solve work problems.
5. I can count on my supervisor to “bail me out” at his/her expense if I need it.
6. My working relationship with my supervisor is extremely effective.
7. I have enough confidence in my supervisor to defend and justify his/her decisions when he/she is
not present to do so.
Sources: Adapted from Bass, B., and B. Avolio. MLQ Manual. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden, Inc., 2004; and Graen, G. B., and M. Uhl-Bien. “Relationship-Based
Approach to Leadership: Development of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership over 25 Years: Applying a Multi-Level Multi-Domain
Perspective.” Leadership Quarterly 6 (1995): pp. 219–247.
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Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Describes how leader-member relationships develop over time on a
dyadic basis
• Role taking phase involves leader providing employee with job
expectations and the follower tries to meet those expectations.
• Role making phase involves exchange of opportunities and
resources based on follower voicing expectations for the
relationship.
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Figure 14-1 Leader-Member Exchange Theory
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Leader-Member Exchange Quality Assessment
1 2
STRONGLY DISAGREE
3 4
NEUTRAL AGREE
5
STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1. I have a close working relationship with my supervisor.
2. I have confidence in the actions and intentions of my supervisor.
3. My supervisor and I are close enough to back each other up when needed.
4. I would use my power to help my supervisor, and I know he/she would do the
same.
5. My supervisor and I both understand each other’s likes and dislikes.
6. My supervisor understands my needs, and vice versa.
7. My supervisor and I always know where we stand with one another.
Average Score: 24
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Why Are Some Leaders More Effective Than Others?
Leader effectiveness is the degree to which the leader’s actions result
in the following:
• Achievement of the unit’s goals
• Continued commitment of the unit’s employees
• Development of mutual trust, respect, and obligation in leader-member
dyads
Not possible to identify effective leaders based on physical traits,
personality, or ability
Possible, however, to identify traits associated with leadership
emergence (that is, who becomes a leader in the first place)
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Table 14-2 Traits/Characteristics Related to Leader
Emergence and Effectiveness
Description of Trait/Characteristic Linked to Linked to
Emergence? Effectiveness?
High conscientiousness yes no
Low agreeableness yes no
Low neuroticism no no
High openness to experience yes yes
High extraversion yes yes
High general cognitive ability yes yes
High energy level yes yes
High stress tolerance yes yes
High self-confidence yes yes
Sources: Adapted from T.A. Judge, J.E. Bono, R. Ilies, and M.W. Gerhardt, “Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative
Review,” Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002), pp. 765–80; T.A. Judge, A.E. Colbert, and R. Ilies, “Intelligence and Leadership:
A Quantitative Review and Test of Theoretical Propositions,” Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (2004), pp. 542–52; and G. Yukl,
Leadership in Organizations, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998).
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Leader Decision-Making Styles
A leader’s decision-making style reflects the process the leader uses
to generate and choose from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.
Decision-making styles capture how a leader decides as opposed
to what a leader decides.
These styles vary in how much control is retained by the leader and
how much control is given to the followers.
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Defining the Styles
Autocratic style: Leader makes the decision alone without asking for the
opinions or suggestions of the employees in the work unit.
Consultative style: Leader presents the problem to individual employees or a
group of employees, asking for their opinions and suggestions before
ultimately making the decision him- or herself.
Facilitative style: Leader presents the problem to a group of employees and
seeks consensus on a solution, making sure that his or her own opinion
receives no more weight than anyone else’s.
Delegative style: Leader gives an individual employee or a group of employees
the responsibility for making the decision.
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Figure 14-2 Leader Decision-Making Styles
Is there likely to be one best style?
What factors might impact the appropriateness of the various
styles?
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Time-Driven Model of Leadership 1 of 2
Seven factors combine to make some decision-making styles more
effective than others:
• Decision significance
• Importance of commitment
• Leader expertise
• Likelihood of commitment
• Shared objectives
• Employee expertise
• Teamwork skills
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Time-Driven Model of Leadership 2 of 2
Scientific support
• In one study, following the model resulted in effective decisions 68% of
the time.
• Not following the model resulted in effective decisions 22% of the time.
Leaders’ instincts usually violate the model.
• Leaders overuse consultative styles and underutilize autocratic and
facilitative.
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Figure 14-3 The Time-Driven Model of Leadership
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Day-to Day Leadership Behaviors
1 of 2
Leaders engage in about 1,800 behaviors in 8 categories:
• Initiation
• Organization
• Production
• Membership
• Integration
• Communication
• Recognition
• Representation
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Day-to-Day Leadership Behaviors
2 of 2
Two broad dimensions encompass day-to-day leadership behaviors:
• Initiating structure: the extent to which the leader defines and
structure the roles of employees for goal attainment
• Consideration: the extent to which leaders creating job relationships
characterized by mutual trust, respect, and consideration of
employees’ feelings
Might the importance of initiating structure and consideration vary
across followers and situations?
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Table 14-3 Day-to-Day Behaviors Performed by Leaders
Source: Stogdill, R. M. Manual
for the Leader Behavior
Description Questionnaire-Form
XII. Bureau of Business Research,
The Ohio State University, 1963.
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Initiating Structure and Consideration Assessment
Average
Score: 38
Average
Score: 40
Source: R.M. Stogdill, Manual for the Leader
Behavior Description Questionnaire–Form
XII (Columbus, OH: Bureau of Business
Research, The Ohio State University, 1963).
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Life Cycle Theory of Leadership
The optimal combination of initiating structure and consideration depends on
the readiness of the employees in the work unit.
• Also called the situational model of leadership
• Readiness: the degree to which employees have the ability and the willingness to
accomplish their specific tasks
Leader behaviors based on readiness of work unit:
• Telling: Leader provides specific instructions and closely supervises performance.
• Selling: Leader provides support and encouragement to protect the confidence
levels of the employees.
• Participating: Leader shares ideas and helps the group conduct its affairs.
• Delegating: Leader turns responsibility for key behaviors over to the employees.
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Figure 14-4 The Life Cycle
Theory of Leadership
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Something Is Missing
Think about the most effective leaders you can name.
Do the leader behaviors and styles discussed thus far capture what it
was that made these leaders so effective?
So what’s missing?
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Transformational Leadership Behaviors
1 of 2
Transformational leadership
• Inspires followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to
their work
• Establishes the leader as a role model who helps followers reach their
potential
Laissez-faire leadership is the absence of action.
Transactional leadership relies on rewards and punishments.
• Passive management by exception
• Active management by exception
• Contingent reward
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Figure 14-5 Laissez-Faire, Transactional, and
Transformational Leadership
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Transformational Leadership Behaviors
2 of 2
Four dimensions of transformational leadership called “the Four I’s”:
• Idealized influence: Behaviors earn the admiration, trust, and respect of
followers, causing followers to want to emulate the leader.
• Inspirational motivation: Behaviors foster an enthusiasm for and
commitment to a shared vision.
• Intellectual stimulation: Behaviors challenge followers to be innovative
and creative.
• Individualized consideration: Behaviors help followers achieve their
potential through mentoring.
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OB on Screen
Darkest Hour
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Table 14-4 Transformational Rhetoric among U.S.
Presidents
PRESIDENT TERM REMARK WHICH “I”?
Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865 “Fourscore and seven years ago our forefathers brought forth on this continent, a
Idealized
new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are
influence
created equal.”
Franklin Roosevelt 1933–1945 “First of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear
Inspirational
itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to
motivation
convert retreat into advance.”
John F. Kennedy 1961–1963 “And so, my fellow Americans … ask not what your country can do you for you—ask
what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: Ask not what Intellectual
America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.” stimulation
Lyndon Johnson 1963–1969 “If future generations are to remember us more with gratitude than sorrow, we
must achieve more than just the miracles of technology. We must also leave them a Idealized
glimpse of the world as it was created, not just as it looked when we got through influence
with it.”
Ronald Reagan 1981–1989 “General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the
Idealized
Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate!
influence
Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”
Bill Clinton 1993–2001 “To realize the full possibilities of this economy, we must reach beyond our own
borders, to shape the revolution that is tearing down barriers and building new Intellectual
networks among nations and individuals, and economies and cultures: stimulation
globalization. It’s the central reality of our time.”
Sources: Mio, J. S., R. E. Riggio, S. Levin, and R. Reese. “Presidential Leadership and Charisma: The Effects of Metaphor.” Leadership Quarterly 16 (2005): pp. 287–294; http://www.usa-patriotism.com/quotes/_list.htm.
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Transformational Leadership Assessment
1 2
STRONGLY DISAGREE
3 4
NEUTRAL AGREE
5
STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1. I inspire others through my actions.
2. I serve as a role model for the values that I hold.
3. I encourage others to come at problems from new angles.
4. I act in a way that builds a sense of trustworthiness.
5. I do things to encourage the development of the people around me.
6. I communicate an optimistic vision for our work.
Average Score: 18
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Figure 14-6 Why Are Some Leaders More Effective
Than Others?
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How Important Is Leadership?
Transformational leadership affects the job performance of the employees who
report to the leader.
• Higher levels of task performance
• Higher levels of citizenship behaviors
• Higher levels of motivation and empowerment
• Set more demanding work goals
Transformational leadership affects the organizational commitment of employees
who report to the leader.
• Stronger emotional bond with the organization
• Stronger sense of obligation to remain engaged in the work
• Have higher levels of job satisfaction
• Feel more optimism and less frustration
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Figure 14-7 Effects of Transformational Leadership on
Performance and Commitment
Sources: T.A. Judge and R.F. Piccolo, “Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity,” Journal of
Applied Psychology 89 (2004), pp. 755–68; J.P. Meyer, D.J. Stanley, L. Herscovitch, and L. Topolnytsky, “Affective, Continuance, and Normative
Commitment to the Organization: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 61 (2002),
pp. 20–52; and P.M. Podsakoff, S.B. MacKenzie, J.B. Paine, and D.G. Bachrach, “Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the
Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research,” Journal of Management 26 (2000), pp. 513–63.
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Substitutes for the Leadership Model
Characteristics of the situations can constrain the influence of the
leader, making it more difficult for the leader to influence employee
performance.
Substitutes reduce the importance of the leader while providing a
benefit to employee performance.
• For example, a cohesive work group that provides its own governing
behaviors, motivation, and job satisfaction
Neutralizers reduce the importance of the leader without improving
employee performance in any way.
• For example, spatial distance
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Table 14-5 Leader Substitutes and Neutralizers
SUBSTITUTES DESCRIPTION
Task feedback Receiving feedback on performance from the task itself
Training & experience Gaining the knowledge to act independently of the leader
Professionalism Having a professional specialty that offers guidance
Staff support Receiving information and assistance from outside staff
Group cohesion Working in a close-knit and interdependent work group
Intrinsic satisfaction Deriving personal satisfaction from one’s work
NEUTRALIZERS DESCRIPTION
Task stability Having tasks with a clear, unchanging sequence of steps
Formalization Having written policies and procedures that govern one’s job
Inflexibility Working in an organization that prioritizes rule adherence
Spatial distance Being separated from one’s leader by physical space
Source: Adapted from Kerr, S., and J. M. Jermier. “Substitutes for Leadership: Their Meaning and Measurement.” Organizational Behavior and Human
Performance 22 (1978): pp. 375–403.
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Application: Leadership Training
Organizations spend more than $150 billion on employee learning and
development, and much of it is devoted to management and
supervisory training.
• Can be specific, such methods for conducting performance evaluations
• Can focus on leader behaviors such as initiating structure and consideration
Research shows that training programs focused on transformational
leadership have been effective in increasing performance and
organizational commitment of employees.
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Next Time
Chapter 15: Organizational Structure
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