BM-341T BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION-I

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

SENSORS FOR BIOMEDICAL
APPLICATIONS

Course Teacher: Engr. Nageen Shahid

Assistant Professor, BMED, SSUET
Assistant Professor, BMED
 LECTURE OUTLINE

◾Differentiate between the terms “Sensor”, “Transducer” & “Actuator”

◾Active and Passive Transducers/Sensors
◾Sensors used in Biomedical Instruments
◾Sensor Error Sources
◾Sensor Terminology
◾The Wheatstone Bridge
◾Displacement Transducers (Resistive, Inductive, or Capacitive type)
◾Temperature Transducers (Thermocouples, Thermistors, PN Junctions)
◾Piezoelectric Transducers
 DEFINITIONS

◾Transducer
◾A transducer is a device which converts energy from one form to another.

◾Sensor
◾A sensor is a device which converts a physical parameter to an electrical output.

◾Actuator
◾An actuator is a device which converts an electrical energy to a mechanical or physical output.
 ACTIVE SENSORS

◾Active Sensors

◾Active sensors generate electrical output directly in response to an applied

stimulation or measurand.

◾An active sensor doesn’t require an external voltage source to produce electrical
output.

◾Example: Solar Cell, Piezoelectric Material, Thermocouple, etc.

 PASSIVE SENSORS

◾Passive Sensors

◾Passive sensors produce a change in some passive electrical quantity, such as capacitance,
resistance, or inductance, in response to an applied stimulus or measurand.

◾Therefore, a passive sensor does require an external ac or dc voltage source in order to

convert passive electrical quantity such as capacitance, resistance, or inductance in to
electrical output.

◾Example: Photo Diode, Thermistor, Strain Gauge, etc.

 EXAMPLES OF SENSORS USED IN BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTS

• Sensors are now available to measure many parameters of clinical and laboratory interest.

• Some types of sensors are summarized in the Table below.

 SENSORS IN MEDICAL INSTRUMENTS

◾Example of sensors used in typical medical instruments.

 SENSOR ERROR SOURCES

◾Sensors, like all other devices, sustain certain errors.

◾The error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value.
◾Sensor errors Can be break into five basic categories:

◾Insertion Errors
◾Application Errors
◾Characteristic Errors
◾Dynamic Errors
◾Environmental Errors
 SENSOR ERROR SOURCES

◾Insertion Errors
◾The insertion errors occur during the act of inserting the sensor into the system being measured.

◾Application Errors
◾Application errors are caused by the operator .

◾Characteristic Errors
◾The characteristic errors are inherent in the device itself. i.e., the difference between the ideal
characteristic transfer function of the device and the actual characteristic.

◾This form of error may include a dc off-set value (a false pressure head), an incorrect slope, or a
slope that is not perfectly linear.
 SENSOR ERROR SOURCES

◾Dynamic Errors
◾Many sensors are characterized and calibrated in a static condition. i.e., with an input
parameter that is either static or quasi-static.
◾Many sensors are heavily damped so that they will not respond to rapid changes in the input
parameter.
◾Dynamic errors include response time, amplitude distortion, and phase distortion.

◾Environmental Errors
◾These errors are derived from the environment in which the sensor is used.
◾They most often include temperature but may also include vibration. shock, altitude, chemical
exposure, or other factors.
◾These factor most often affect the characteristic errors of the sensor, so are often combined
with that category in practical application.
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾Some of the most common ◾ Accuracy

sensor terms are; ◾ Offset
◾ Linearity
◾ Sensitivity ◾ Hysteresis
◾ Sensitivity Error ◾ Response time
◾ Range ◾ Dynamic linearity
◾ Dynamic Range ◾ Transfer function
◾ Precision ◾ Noise
◾ Resolution ◾ Bandwidth
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾Sensitivity

◾ The sensitivity of the sensor is defined as the slope of the output characteristic curve (ΔY/ΔX).

◾ More generally, the minimum input of physical parameter that will create a detectable output change.

◾ In some sensor, the sensitivity is defined as the input parameter change required to produce a standardized
output change.
◾
◾ In others, it is defined as an output voltage change for a given change in input parameter.

◾ For Example: a typical blood pressure transducer may have a sensitivity rating of 10 μν/ν/mm-Hg; i.e., there
will be a 10 μv output voltage for each volt of excitation potential and each millimeter of mercury of applied
pressure.
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾Sensitivity Error
◾ The sensitivity error is a departure from the ideal slope of the characteristic curve.

◾For Example: the pressure transducer in the previous sensitivity example may have an actual
sensitivity of 7.8 μν/ν/mm-Hg instead of 10 μν/ν/mm-Hg.

◾Range
◾The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum values of applied parameter that can
be measured.

◾For Example: a given pressure sensor may have a range of -400 mm-Hg to +400 mm-Hg.
◾Sometimes the positive and negative ranges often are unequal.
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾Dynamic Range
◾ The dynamic range is the total range of the sensor from minimum to maximum.

◾Precision
◾ The precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement.

◾Resolution
◾ The resolution is defined as the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal.

◾Accuracy
◾ The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference that will exist between the actual value (which must be
measured by a primary or good secondary standard) and the indicated value at the output of the sensor.
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾Offset
◾The offset error of a transducer is defined as the output that will exist when
it should be zero.
◾Alternatively, the difference between the actual output value and the specified
output value under some particular set of conditions.

◾Linearity
◾The linearity of the transducer is an expression of the extent to which
the actual measured curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve.
Ideal versus measured curve showing linearity error
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾Hysteresis
◾A transducer should be capable
of following the changes of the
input parameter regardless of in
which direction the change is
made, hysteresis is the measure
of this property.
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾ Response Time
◾Sensors do not change output state immediately when an input parameter change occur.
Rather, it will change to the new state over a period of time, called the response time.

◾The response time can be defined as the time required for a sensor output to change from its
previous state to a final settled value within a tolerance band of the correct new value.

◾ Dynamic Linearity
◾The dynamic linearity of the sensor is a measure of its ability to follow rapid changes in the
input parameter.
◾Amplitude distortion characteristics. phase distortion characteristics, and response time are
important in determining dynamic linearity.
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾ Transfer Function
◾The functional relationship between physical input signal and electrical output signal.

◾Noise
◾Almost all type of sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output
signal.
◾The noise of the sensor limits the performance of the system.
◾Most common types of noise are 50 Hz supply noise, and white noise which
is generally distributed across the frequency spectrum.
 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY

◾ Bandwidth
◾All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change in physical signal.

◾In addition, many sensors have decay times, which would represent the time after a
step change in physical signal for the sensor output to decay to its original value.

◾The reciprocal of these times correspond to the upper and lower cutoff frequencies,
respectively.

◾The bandwidth of a sensor is the frequency range between these two frequencies.
 DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS

◾Displacement transducers are typically used to measure physical changes in the

position of an object or medium.

◾They are commonly employed in detecting changes in length, pressure, or force.

◾Variations in these parameters can be used to quantify and diagnose abnormal

physiological functions.

◾Displacement transducers can be resistive, inductive, or capacitive type.

 POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

◾A potentiometer is a resistive-type transducer that

converts either linear or angular displacement
into an output voltage by moving a sliding
contact along the surface of a resistive element.

◾Figure below illustrates linear (a) and angular (b)

type potentiometric transducers.

◾A voltage Vi is applied across the resistor R (at

terminal a and b). The output voltage Vo between
the sliding contact (terminal c) and one terminal
of the resistor (terminal a or b) is linearly
proportional to the displacement.
 POTENTIOMETRIC SENSORS

◾it is simplest type of displacement sensor

◾it involves the action of displacement in moving
the wiper of a potentiometer.
◾it convert the linear or angular motion into a
changing resistance that may be converted
directly to voltage or current signals.
◾A wire is wound around a form, making a wire-
wound resistor with fixed resistance, R, between
its endpoints, 1 and 2.
◾A wiper assembly is connected in such a way that
motion of an arm causes the wiper to slide across
the wire wound turns of the fixed resistor.
◾An electrical connection is made to this wiper, 3.
 POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

◾Example: Calculate the change in output voltage of a linear potentiometer transducer that
undergoes a 20 percent change in displacement.

◾Solution

◾Assuming that the current flowing through the transducer is constant, from Ohm’s law,

◾Hence, since the resistance between the sliding contact and one terminal of the resistor is
linearly proportional to the displacement, a 20 percent change in displacement will produce a
20 percent change in the output voltage of the transducer.
 ELASTIC RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

◾An elastic resistive transducer consists of a thin elastic tube filled with an electrically
conductive material, as illustrated in the Figure below.
◾The resistance of the conductor inside the flexible tubing is given by;

◾Where;
◾ρ is the resistivity of the electrically conductive
material in ohm-meter (Ω-m)
◾L is the length in meters (m)
◾A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor in square ‘
meters (m2)
 ELASTIC RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

◾Example: A 0.1 m long by 0.005 m diameter elastic resistive transducer

has a resistance of 1 kΩ. Calculate the resistivity of the electrically
conductive material inside the transducer.
◾Calculate the resistance of the transducer after it has been wrapped
around a patient’s chest having a circumference of 1.2 m. Assume that the
cross-sectional area of the transducer remains unchanged.

◾Solution
 ELASTIC RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

◾Example: Calculate the change in voltage that is induced across the elastic transducer in the previous
example assuming that normal breathing produces a 10 percent change in chest circumference and a
constant current of 0.5 mA is passed through the transducer.

◾Solution

From Ohm’s law (V = I×R)

V1 = 0.5 mA × 12 kΩ
V1 = 6 V

◾If R changes by 10 percent i.e. new value of R= 13.2k ohm then;

◾V2= 0.5 mA x 13.2 kohm = 6.6V
◾ΔV = V2-V1= 0.6 V
 APPLICATION OF ELASTIC RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

◾In certain clinical situations, it is desirable to measure changes in the peripheral volume of a leg when the venous
outflow of blood from the leg is temporarily occluded by a blood pressure cuff.

◾This volume-measuring method is called plethysmography.

◾The measurement can be performed by wrapping an elastic resistive transducer around the leg and measuring the
rate of change in resistance of the transducer as a function of time.

◾This change corresponds to relative changes in the blood volume of the leg.

◾If a clot is present, it will take more time for the blood stored in the leg to flow out through the veins after the
temporary occlusion is removed.

◾A similar transducer can be used to follow a patient’s breathing pattern by wrapping the elastic band around the chest.
 POTENTIOMETRIC SENSORS

◾Example: A potentiometric displacement sensor is to be used to measure work piece motion from 0 to
10cm. The resistance changes linearly over this range from 0 to 1kΩ. Develop signal conditioning to
provide a linear, 0 to 10v output.
◾ Solution :
◾We use potentiometric sensor as a feedback resistor of op-amp, because
��
◾ ��� � = − ���
��

◾We use –ve input voltages to get rid of the –ve sign at output voltage. lets assume fixed -5.1v as input
voltages
◾For Ri, 10v at 1k Ω (10cm)
◾ 10 = − 1000 −5.1
��
◾Ri = 510 Ω

74
 STRAIN SENSORS

◾Strain sensors are used as a secondary step in sensors to

measure many other process variables, including flow,
pressure, weight, and acceleration.
◾Strain is the result of the application of forces to solid
objects.
◾If a force is applied to a solid object and the solid object
deforms, this effect of applied force is referred to as a
stress, and the resulting deformation as a strain.
◾The three most common type of stress-stain relationships
are:
◾Tensile Stress-Strain
◾Compressional Stress-Strain
◾Shear Stress-Strain
28
 STRAIN SENSORS

◾Tensile Stress-Strain:
◾The tensile stress is produced in a material when a force is applied to
the material to elongate or pull apart that material.
◾Tensile stress = � : its unit is N/m2.
�
◾The strain in this case is defined as the fractional change in length of
the sample.
◾Tensile strain = ∆�
: it is unit less quantity.
�

29
 STRAIN SENSORS

◾Compressional Stress-Strain:
◾The only differences between compressional and tensile stress are
the direction of applied force.
◾Compressional stress = �
: its unit is N/m2.
�

◾The strain in this case is defined as the fractional change in length of

the sample.
◾Compressional strain = ∆� : it is unit less quantity.
�
30
 STRAIN SENSORS

Shear Stress-Strain:
◾In this, the force is applied as a couple (that is, not along the same line),
tending to shear off the solid object that separates the force arms.
◾The stress is given by same equation
◾Shear stress = �
�
◾The strain in this case is defined as the fractional change in dimension of
the sheared member.
◾Shear strain = ∆�
�

31
 STRAIN SENSORS

◾Stress-Strain Curve:
◾If a specific sample is exposed to a range of applied stress and the resulting strain is measured, a graph is
obtained.
◾if the stress is kept with in the linear region, the material is essentially elastic in that, if the stress is
removed, the deformation is also gone.
◾if the elastic limit is exceeded, permanent deformation results.
◾further increase in the stress may result in the necking and finally break.
◾A specific type of material will always follow the same curves, despite different physical dimensions.
◾ Thus, we can say that linearity and slope are constant of the type of
material only.
◾ This constant is called modulus of elasticity or Young’s Modulus

������ �/� 32

� = ������ = ∆�/�
 STRAIN SENSORS

◾In an exactly similar fashion, the shear modulus is defined for

shear stress-strain as
◾� = ������ =�/�
����� � ∆� /�

Material Modulus (N/m2)

Aluminum 6.89 x 1010
Copper 11.73 x 1010
Steel 20.75 x 1010
Polyethylene(plastic) 3.45 x 1010
33
 STRAIN SENSORS

Example: Find the strain that results from a tensile force of 1000N applied to a 10-m
aluminum beam having a 4 x 10-4-m2 cross-sectional area.

Solution :
◾The modulus of elasticity for aluminium E = 6.89 x 1010 N/m2.
�/� �/�
◾� = =
∆�/� ������
�
◾������ =
��
◾strain = 3.63 x 10-5 or 36.3 μm/m

34
 STRAIN GAUGE PRINCIPLE

◾The resistance of metal is given by

��
◾ �� = �
��
◾ Where Ro is sample resistance
◾ � is resistivity
◾ lo is length in m
◾ Ao is cross-sectional area in m3
◾if the metal is stressed by the force, then the material elongates by some amount, Δl.
◾For stress-strain condition, the sample lengthens, but its volume will nearly remain constant.
◾Mathematically, � = � � � � = �� + ∆� �� − ∆�
◾Due to stress the Area is changed, the new resistance of the sample will be
� � +∆�
�= � � � −∆� 35
 STRAIN GAUGE PRINCIPLE

��
◾� ≅ � 1 + 2 ∆�
�� ��

◾This implies that ∆� ≅ 2�� �∆�� (it shows that strain is directly converted into a resistance change)

◾Example: Find the approximate change in a metal wire of resistance 120Ω that result from a strain of
1000μm/m.

◾ Solution :
∆�
◾∆� ≅ 2� � �
�

◾∆�=0.24 Ω
36
 STRAIN GAUGE PRINCIPLE

◾Measurement Principles:
◾Basic measurement involve attaching (gluing) of strain gauge to the metal whose stain
is to be measured.
◾if the metal deforms, then strain gauge will experience the same deformation.
◾Temperature Effects:
 The metals used in strain gauges have linear temperature coefficients of α≅0.004/oC. if the
temperature change for previous example is 1oC then resistance change due to temperature will be
 � � = � �0 1 + �0∆�
 R(T) - R To = ∆�� = R(To)( �0∆�) = 120 x 0.004 x 1
 ∆�� = 0.48Ω

37
 METAL STRAIN GAUGE
◾Construction: The strain gauge design in a way to make it very long in order to give
large enough nominal resistance.
◾The gauge sensitivity is often made unidirectional; that is, it responds to strain in only
one direction.
◾by folding the material back and forth we achieve a long length to provide high
resistance.
◾If a strain is applied transversely to the strain gauge length, the pattern will tend to
unfold rather than stretch, with no change in resistance.
◾These gauges are usually mounted on paper backing
◾that is bonded to the element whose stain is to be
measured.
◾The nominal values for strain gauges are 60, 120,
240, 350, 500, and 1000Ω.
38
 METAL STRAIN GAUGE

◾Signal Conditioning: Two effects are critical in the signal

conditioning techniques used for strain gauges.
◾First, the resistance measurement circuit should be carefully design
because of small, fractional change in the gauge resistance.
◾Second, it requires compensation for temperature effects.
◾We can use strain gauge in bridge configuration.
◾By adding a dummy gauge we can provide temperature
compensation.
◾both the gauges will change the resistance due to temperature
change.
◾only the active gauge change resistance due to strain in the
material.
◾This is called one-arm bridge.
 METAL STRAIN GAUGE

◾The bridge off-null voltage will be given by

�� ��
◾∆� = �� −
� � +� 1 � � +� 2
◾substituting, �1=�2 = �� = �
◾and �� = �(1 + ∆�
�
) in above. we get

◾∆� ≈ − � � ∆�
= − � � �� ∆�
4 � 4 �
◾Another configuration that is often employed uses active
strain gauges in two arms of the bridge, and thus called a
two-arm bridge.
◾in this all four arms are strain gauges, two are dummy
/temperature compensators only.
◾The sensitivity of the bridge will also double.
◾∆� = − � � �� ∆�
2 �
 METAL STRAIN GAUGE
◾Example: A strain gauge with GF=2.03 and R= 350Ω is used in the one-arm bridge configuration. The
bridge resistors are R1= R2= 350Ω and dummy gauge has R= 350Ω. If a tensile strain of 1450μm/m is
applied, find the bridge offset voltage if Vs=10v. Find the relation between bridge off-null voltage and
strain. How much voltage results from a strain of 1 micron?
◾ Solution :
◾Bridge is balanced with no strain.
◾if strain is applied the gauge resistance will change by
◾∆� = (GF)(������)(R)
◾∆� = 1.03 Ω
◾The bridge off-set voltage is
◾∆V=-0.007v
◾The sensitivity is found from ∆� = − � � �� ∆�
4 �
◾∆� = − 10 (2.03) ∆�
4 �

◾Every micro of strain will supply only 5.75 μV

42
 LOAD CELL

◾One important application of SGs is for the measurement of Force

and Weight.
◾These transducers are known as load cells.
◾It measure deformation produced by the force or weight.
◾Generally, these devices are calibrated so that the force is directly
related to the resistance change.
◾Forces as high as 5MN can be measured with an appropriate
load cell.
◾Load cell may be design in such a way that all of the mounted
SGs exposed to compressional forces applied to the cell.
45
 LOAD CELL

◾Example: Figure shows a simple load cell consisting of an aluminum post of 2.5cm radius with a
detector and compensation strain gauges. The 120Ω strain gauges are used in one arm bridge
configuration, with V=2v, R1=R2=RD=120 Ω, and GF=2.13. Find the variation of bridge offset
voltage for a load of 0 to 5000lb. E=6.89x1010 N/m.
◾ Solution :
◾We can find the strain for a 5000lb load, then the resulting change in resistance, and from that ,
the bridge offset voltage.
◾First convert load in newtons: 5000lb x 4.44 = 22241N
◾Cross sectional area of Post = A=πr2=3.14(0.025m)2=1.9x10-3m2
������
◾� = ������  Strain = 167μm/m
◾Here we have two options
�� ∆ �� ��
◾∆� = − � ��
4 �
or ∆� = �� �� +�1
−
�� +� 2 46

◾ΔV=177 μV
 CAPACITIVE AND INDUCTIVE SENSORS

◾Inductive: If a permeable core is inserted into an inductor as

shown in fig. the net inductance is increased .
◾Every new position of the core produces a different inductance.
◾In this fashion, the inductor and movable core assembly may be used
as a displacement sensor.

75
 VARIABLE-RELUCTANCE SENSORS

◾LVDT: Linear Variable Differential Transformer

◾it consist of three coils of wire wound on a
hollow form. A core of permeable material can
slide freely through the center of the form.
◾the inner coil is the primary, which is excited
by some ac source.
◾Flux formed by the primary is linked to the two
secondary coils, inducing an ac voltage in each
coil. 76
 INDUCTIVE DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS

◾
 VARIABLE-RELUCTANCE SENSORS

◾If two secondary coils are wired in series opposition, then the
two voltages will subtract; that is, the differential voltage is
formed.
◾When the core is centrally located, the net voltage is zero.
◾When the core is moved to one side, the net voltage amplitude
will increase.
◾There is change in phase with respect to the source when the core
is moved to one side to the other.

78
 VARIABLE-RELUCTANCE SENSORS

◾The signal conditioning for LVDTs consists primarily of circuits that perform a phase sensitive detection of
the differential secondary voltage.
◾Practically an IC for LVDT is available that contains a signal generator for the primary, a phase-sensitive
detector and amplifier/filter.

◾A variety of LVDTs are available with linear ranges at least from ± 25 cm down to ±1 mm.
◾The Time response is dependent on the equipment to which the core is connected.
◾The static transfer function is typically given in millivolts per millimeter (mV/mm) for a given primary
79

amplitude.