II.
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN THE WORLD
THE HUMAN CONDITION BEFORE THE COMMON ERA
A. The Stone Age
This era, which started at the beginning of human existence until about 3,000 BCE, is marked by the
invention and use of stone tools by our early human ancestors and the eventual transformation of the society
from a culture of hunting and gathering to farming and food production. This period is practically difficult for
our ancestors because resources are not abundant, and they are also living in the midst of wild animals making
them easy targets/prey. We know relatively little about this era because there are limited to no written
accounts of the human activities that occurred here. Only cave drawings, unearthed artifacts (such as stone
tools, bone tools) are available for us to study, leaving us with little capacity to contemplate. Archaeologists
have found Stone Age tools 25,000-50,000 year-old all over the world. The most common are daggers and
spear points for hunting, hand axes and choppers for cutting up meat and scrapers for cleaning animal hides.
Other tools were used to dig roots, peel bark and remove the skins of animals. Later, splinters of bones were
used as needles and fishhooks. A very important tool for early man was flakes struck from flint. They could cut
deeply into big game for butchering. The Stone Age is divided into three separate periods – Paleolithic,
Mesolithic, Neolithic period – based on the degree of sophistication in the fashioning and use of these stone
tools.
1. Paleolithic Period
Throughout the Paleolithic, humans were food gatherers/hunters, depending on hunting wild animals and
birds, fishing, and collecting wild fruits, nuts, and berries. They are nomads with no permanent shelters. The
record of this long interval is very incomplete; it can be studied from imperishable objects made of flint, stone,
bone, and antler. There are notable tools and ornaments created by our forerunners during this old stone
period. First, we have the “Venus”, a carving of a voluptuous woman out of ivory of stone. It is not definite as
to what this carving means to the early humans, but historians infer that this is an ancient representation of
beauty while for some, a penchant for fertility. The Paleolithic people are credited with inventing the needle
for sewing. Their needles even had eyes to put the ''thread'' through! Some needles were large, and probably
used animal tendons or leather to stitch clothes with, but some were much smaller and probably used
horsehair thread. Fur clothing were also made from the fur of the animals they hunted, as well as leather from
animal skin and linen from flax. They also invented pit houses, temporary shelters that they can bring with
them and reassemble to a new location. Likewise, personal ornaments and crude (not polished) hunting tools
made of stone were invented during this time. Paleolithic people also invented containers like pottery and
baskets, which they used for gathering and storing various liquid and dry goods, to keep them from spoiling.
2. Mesolithic Period
This period marked the end of the last Ice Age, which resulted in the extinction of many large mammals and
rising sea levels and climate change that eventually caused man to migrate. Humans used small stone tools
(microliths), now also more polished and sometimes crafted with points and attached to antlers, bone or
wood to serve as spears and arrows. This tool was also used for digging the ground and stitching clothes. They
often lived nomadically in camps near rivers and other bodies of water. Agriculture was introduced during this
time, which led to more permanent settlements in villages. Some Mesolithic settlements were villages of huts
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and walled cities.
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3. Neolithic Period
Finally, during the Neolithic period, ancient humans switched from hunter/gatherer mode to agriculture and
food production. With the development of agriculture, technology and the inventions of more sophisticated
tools, people of the Neolithic Era were able to build permanent shelters. This gave them the ability to grow
crops in the surrounding area. They domesticated animals and cultivated cereal grains. People started to
develop their control over fire, which allowed for different uses soon after this. They used polished hand axes
for ploughing and tilling the land and started to settle in the plains. Advancements were made not only in tools
but also in farming, home construction, and art, including pottery, sewing and weaving using the loom,
allowing them to begin making textiles and clothing with the materials they harvested from nature and their
livestock.
B. Bronze Age
During the Bronze Age, advances in metallurgy to lworking were made, as bronze, a copper and tin alloy, was
discovered. Bronze is made up of 88% copper and 12% tin. Metals are obtained from ores (a naturally
occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable mineral can be extracted) through smelting. Now used
for weapons and tools, the harder metal bronze replaced its stone predecessors and helped spark innovations,
including the ox-drawn bronze plow and the wheel. The Bronze Age changed the face of farming with the
invention of irrigation, the process of using man-made canals and ditches to divert water from natural sources
or floodplains to fields for crops or to reservoir lakes to use at a later time, and the field system, wherein they
rotate the crops planted in a number of fields to replenish nutrients in the soil.
Historical records also tell us that the first ever soap of Human History was invented during the Bronze Age. An
equation for soap was found on the Babylonian earth tablet that dated 2800 B.C. The three main ingredients
of soap at that time were cassia oil, water and soluble base also known as Alkali.
Organized government, law and warfare, as well as beginnings of religion, also came into play during the
Bronze Age. It was during this time that ancient Egyptians built their pyramids to honor their dead pharaohs.
Likewise, the earliest written accounts, including Egyptian hieroglyphs and petroglyphs (rock engravings), are
also dated to this age. It was also marked by the rise of states or kingdoms—large-scale societies joined under
a central government by a powerful ruler.
C. Iron Age
The Iron Age lasted roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, depending on the region. During this era, people across
much of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa began making tools and weapons from iron and steel. Iron was first
smelted from ore in South Caucasus (a region presently occupied by Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan).
Smelting iron, a metal harder than copper and tin, requires a more intensive process and with the
development of better smelting pits (equipment for smelting) that the ability to produce higher temperatures
paved the way to the extraction of iron from ores. At this time, iron was seen as more precious than gold!
Better, sturdier, and more reliable agricultural tools were produced in this age making agriculture a lot easier
than the previous period.
Gold and silver weights existed during the Bronze Age, but the first coins, imprinted metal pieces for exchange,
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seem to have emerged in Iron Age around 600 B.C. in Lydia, a kingdom on the Anatolia peninsula (modern-day
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Turkey). These coins, imprinted with images like lions, had similar weight and purity, and so may have been
used as a form of currency.
Agriculture, art, and religion all became more sophisticated, and writing systems and written documentation,
including alphabets, began to emerge, ushering in the early historical period.
MIDDLE AGES
Middle Ages is also known as the Medieval Period and has started with the fall of the Roman Empire that
lasted for 1,000 years until 1450. The beginning of the Middle Ages is called the Dark Ages because the great
civilizations of Rome and Greece had been conquered.
Life in Europe was very hard in the Middle Ages. Very few people could read or write. Their lack of knowledge
often led to superstitious beliefs. The people thought that fate ruled their existence; therefore, there was little
hope for the improvement of their condition. During the years of the Roman Empire, the poor people were
protected by the emperor’s soldiers. When the empire fell, there were no laws to protect them, so they
turned to the lords to keep the peace and to act on their behalf. This willingness to be ruled by the lords led to
the beginnings of feudalism. Some peasants were free, but most became serfs to a lord. This meant they were
bound to the lord’s land and paid very high rent to the lord. The peasants work the lands of their lords and are
obliged to give their lords homage, labor, and a share of the produce in exchange for military protection.
Despite the constant fear of death, there was enough calm during the Middle Ages for great leaps forward in
science and invention. Some of the most notable inventions by Europeans in these times were horse collar
that pulls on horse’s shoulders to enable it to plough and carry wagons, watermill that rotates and generate
electricity from that movement, magnetic compass that provides direction to European
mariners/conquistadors and of course the clock. The development of the verge escapement lead to the
creation of the first mechanical clocks in around 1300 AD and had become the standard timekeeping device in
this period.
It is in cloth making that the first industrialization occurred during the Middle Ages. All cloth was woven by
hand on a loom and the most common materials of this time period were wool, cotton, silk, and linen. Another
key innovation in the 13th century was the introduction into Europe of the spinning wheel. "The Great or
Jersey” wheel, introduced around 1350, was the first improvement made in the process of cotton spinning.
Thread could be spun faster on the wheel than with the traditional distaff. The final Medieval technical
improvement to the spinning wheel was the addition of a foot treadle that powered the wheel.
A. China: Middle Ages
While there was a decline in the economy and overall progress in the European region, different countries in
Asia flourished during this era, one of them was China. A lot of useful inventions were made by medieval
Chinese during these times. First is the seismoscope, an early type of seismograph that determine the
presence and direction of an earthquake. Likewise, Chinese paper making started in 140 BC but was officially
used in writing at a later time (105 AD). The early uses of this paper were for clothing, wall décor, artworks,
and even in toilets. Next was the magnetic compass. The first compasses were made of iodestone, a
magnetized stone of iron, in Han dynasty. It comes with a spoon that shows the direction, and is often used in
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divination, a ritual to see and understand the future, during the Han dynasty. Cannon was also developed in
this time as weapons for military
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activities, as well as gun powder, followed by vigorous development of explosive weapon about three
centuries before it appeared in Europe. They also had the acupuncture that utilizes needles for medical
therapy, first movable type printing made from pottery, wheel barrow to carry heavy loads and wagons as
well as carry royalties around when they need to travel.
B. India: Middle Ages
India also made notable inventions that are still beneficial until this present day. They were the ones to divide
a year in 12 months. They also developed metallurgy (science of smelting). The Ayurveda or Ayurvedic
medicine was also established during this time in India which is based on the belief that health and wellness
depend on a delicate balance between the mind, body, and spirit, and its main goal is not to fight diseases but
to promote good health. With the Indians’ great minds, they were also able to come up with the concepts of
square root and linear equation.
PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA
Christopher Columbus, an Italian master navigator, completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that
opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization of the Americas. So is it correct to say
that Columbus “discovered” the Americas? No! Because long before he invaded the region, there were already
flourishing civilizations in this part of the world. These are the Maya, Aztec, and Inca.
These civilizations thrived not in the present-day New York or in Texas but in the Meso-American region or
Middle America, which now extends from central Mexico down through Central America, including the
territory which is now made up of the countries Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.
A. Maya
The Mayans excelled at agriculture, pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar-making, and mathematics, and left
behind an astonishing amount of impressive architecture and symbolic artwork. They made pyramids made
out of limestone as a display of their architectural prowess. Also, another notable fact about Mayans is that
they used cocoa beans as monetary units. And lastly, the most noteworthy of these inventions is the Mayan
solar calendar that sparked intrigue and even fear some 8 years ago (2012).
B. Aztec
Another civilization that existed in the pre-Columbian America was the Aztec. They recorded astronomical
observations in stone sculptures. They practiced farming by slash and burn, a process of clearing forested
lands by cutting trees and plants and burning the remaining vegetation to create a land for agriculture. Also,
one peculiar ritual of the Aztecs is the human sacrifice. They used razor-sharp obsidian blades and sliced open
the chests of the sacrificial humans and offered their still beating hearts to their gods.
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C. Inca
Contrary to the Aztecs’ slash and burn technique, the Incas utilized more advanced farming method which was
terraces farming, just like what the Igorots did in Benguet. They also built irrigation canals to provide access
to stream water along with retaining walls which deflected heat during the hot days but trapped it in at night,
preventing crops from dying from frostbite during the bitterly cold highland evenings. Incans made their
clothes by removing animals’ fluffy wool, such as that of the llamas and alpacas. The Incas also worked out
that it was possible to save the lives of their injured men using a primitive form of brain surgery. The
operations were designed to reduce inflammation caused by serious head injuries and incorporated basic
anesthetics such as coca, tobacco and alcohol to reduce discomfort.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Scientific revolution is the name given to this period of drastic change in scientific thought that took place
during the 16th and 17th centuries. It replaced the Greek view of nature (more on philosophical rather than
empirical) that had dominated Science for almost 2,000 years ago. Scientific Revolution is characterized by an
emphasis on abstract reasoning, quantitative thought, an understanding of how nature works, the view of
nature as a machine, and the development of an experimental scientific method.
The establishment of printing machine in this era paved the way for the faster spread of new ideas and
discoveries. Scientists and scholars publish their works in order to spark interest and even challenge
contemporary ideologies at their time. This fast method of communication hustled up the scientific interest of
people.
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human, formulation of scientific ideas, and
transformation of the society. When humans produce scientific ideas, it benefits the society and in turn, will
definitely benefit individual humans in the society and the cycle goes on. Just take a good look around you and
be grateful of the things that arose from the advancement of science.
The 3 Cs – creativity, curiosity, and critical thinking, when merged are the characteristics of a scientist
influencing the ideas, discoveries, and technologies developed and produced. We can all agree with this – our
science and technology will only be as good as our scientists and skilled people.
Some Intellectuals and their Great Revolutionary Ideas
A. Nicolaus Copernicus
In the early years, when virtually everyone believed Earth was the center of the universe, Polish scientist
Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the planets instead revolved around the sun. It was later on proven to be
true with the invention of telescopes. Although his model wasn't completely correct, it formed a strong
foundation for future scientists to build on and improve mankind's understanding of the motion of heavenly
bodies. Copernicus also argued that Earth turned daily on its axis and that gradual shifts of this axis accounted
for the changing seasons.
B. Johannes Kepler
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Johannes Kepler is now chiefly remembered for discovering the three laws of planetary motion, which state
that
(1) the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus; (2) the time necessary to traverse any arc of
a planetary orbit is proportional to the area of the sector between the central body and that arc (the “area
law”); and (3) there is an exact relationship between the squares of the planets’ periodic times and the cubes
of the radii of their orbits (the “harmonic law”). He also did important work in optics when he provided a new
and correct account of how vision occurs; he developed a novel explanation for the behavior of light in the
newly invented telescope he discovered several new, semiregular polyhedrons; gave the first mathematical
treatment of close packing of equal spheres (leading to an explanation of the shape of the cells of a
honeycomb; gave the first proof of how logarithms worked; and devised a method of finding the volumes of
solids of revolution that can be seen as contributing to the development of calculus. Moreover, he calculated
the most exact astronomical tables hitherto known, whose continued accuracy did much to establish the truth
of heliocentric astronomy.
C. Isaac Newton
One of the most influential scientists in history, Sir Isaac Newton contributed significantly to the field of
science over his lifetime. And while the long-told tale of an apple dropping on his learned head is likely
apocryphal, his contributions changed the way we see and understand the world around us.
In optics, his discovery of the composition of white light integrated the phenomena of colors into the science
of light and laid the foundation for modern physical optics. In mechanics, his three laws of motion, the basic
principles of modern physics, resulted in the formulation of the law of universal gravitation. In mathematics,
he was the original discoverer of the infinitesimal calculus.
Before Newton, standard telescopes provided magnification, but with drawbacks. After much tinkering and
testing, including grinding his own lenses, Newton found a solution. Newton’s new “reflecting telescope” was
more powerful than previous versions, and because he used the small mirror to bounce the image to the eye,
he could build a much smaller, more practical telescope. This simple telescope design is still used today, by
both backyard astronomers and NASA scientists.
D. Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution in which he wrote a full account of in his book entitled
“On the Origin of Species.” This theory states that diverse groups of animals evolve from one or a few
common ancestors by natural selection.
Darwin’s contributions also span into entomology, when he referenced at least 50 insects in his The Origin of
Species, including his own observations on the similarity of British and Brazilian fresh water insects, the
importance of insects as pollinators, and the evolution of cell making in honey bees, among other topics.
E. Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most known as the founder of psychoanalysis with
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his development of talk therapy as an approach to treating mental health problems.
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Freud’s theory of personality revolved around the three components of the mind, namely the id, ego, and
superego. The id is made up of the unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and
desires. The superego is composed of people’s internalized ideals (what is right and what is wrong) acquired
from parents and society and works to suppress the impulsive urges. Lastly, the ego mediates the demands of
the id, superego, and reality.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter period of the 18th century that
transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and America into industrialized, urban ones. This era is
the time when the manufacture of goods moved from small shops and homes to large factories. This brought
about changes in culture as people moved from rural areas to big cities in order to work. This revolution
started in the Great Britain.
Gutenberg Revolution
The first European to successfully use movable type printing was Johannes Gutenberg. The books
printed using these presses in the beginning of the Gutenberg era are called incunabula (cradle or birthplace).
The first book of any note to be printed with movable type printer was Gutenberg’s bible, published in 1456.
Copies are still in existence up to this date. With this type of printer, the passing of information was made
easier compared to when this printing press is still not available. Democracy was born and the effects it had on
society. It allowed people to have a voice who weren't able to spread their messages before. It allowed people
to read the Bible in their own language, leaving it free to their interpretation. The printing press made
literature possible as a whole. Printed text taught people the discipline of literacy, a powerful tool used to
understand text and basic communication. If it weren't for printed text and literacy, there would have been no
way to record such media as a hard copy.
Post-Gutenberg Revolution
This revolution’s hallmark was the use of computers, internet, and other information technologies such
as the World Wide Web. Now, we are able to upload and download any material about anything under the
sun with ease and convenience. Therefore, the passing of information is much much easier compared to the
previous ones (e.g. via printing machines). But as we all know, these technologies have great potential both to
benefit and to harm the societies that embrace them.
INFORMATION AGE
The information age began around the 1970s and is still going on today. It is also known as the computer age,
digital age, or new media age. This era brought about a time period in which people could access information
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and knowledge easily. This brought about changes in the society from traditionally industrialized to one reliant
on information computerization.
Rise of the Digital Age
The modern computer was born out of the urgent necessity after the Second World War to face the challenge
of Nazism through innovation. But the first iteration of the computer as we now understand it came much
earlier when, in the 1830s, an inventor named Charles Babbage designed a device called the analytical engine.
It was a general-purpose device that could compute many different problems. It was to be digital, automatic,
mechanical, and controlled by variable programs. In short, it would solve any calculation you wished. It would
be the first computer.
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