EE-8002 DESIGN OF

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS

UNIT – 1
Major considerations in Electrical Machine Design –
Materials for Electrical apparatus

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 Learning Overviews

 Objectives
 Syllabus
 Outcomes
 Books
 Prerequisite
 Major considerations in Electrical Machine
Design
 Materials for Electrical apparatus
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 Syllabus

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 Prerequisite

Knowledge on

EE8301 Electrical Machines – I

EE8401 Electrical Machines - II

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 UNIT-I
DESIGN OF FIELD SYSTEM AND
ARMATURE

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 What is meant by electrical machine design?

 Design may be defined as a creative physical

realization of theoretical concepts.

 Engineering design is application of science,

technology and invention to produce machines
to perform specified tasks with optimum
economy and efficiency.

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 Basic considerations to develop a design are

1.Design base

 matching the existing experience with R and D

 bringing in the latest material technology
 limitations in design
 convenience in production line and
transportation
 working safety and reliability
 maintenance and repair
 environmental conditions

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 2. Specification
meeting with the customer’s requirements
 guarantees
 satisfy the national and international standards
3. Design transfer
 Transfer of design to factory foreman i.e. drawings,
processes instructions ,job flow, meeting the delivery
schedule.
4. Information updating

Technical journals, R and D papers and reports,

interaction in meetings, seminars and conferences

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Major considerations to develop a design are

The design should be carried out based on the given

specification using available materials economically
and to achieve the following

1. Lower cost

2. Durability

3. Conformity with performance criteria as laid

down in specifications

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 LIMITATIONS IN DESIGN

1. Saturation of magnetic parts

Increased core losses and excitation at higher flux density
resulting in higher cost for the field system.

2. Temperature rise

 Increased temperature rise under higher output weakens

the insulation and affects the life of machine.
2. Insulation

It should be able to withstand the electrical, mechanical and

thermal stresses which are produced in the machine.
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 4. Mechanical strength

Specially in turbo machine due to large size and high speed.

5.Efficiency

 If high efficiency is the aim, the machine becomes costly, for

lower efficiency higher running cost and temperature rise
with associated problems. cy
6. Customer’s specifications

Imposes limitations to identify criterion for best design

7. Commutation

In DC machine output is limited because of

commutation problem
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 8. Power factor

Power factor imposes a limitation specially in case of

3 phase induction motor.

9.Standard specification

 Specification is biggest strain

cy the on the design because
both the manufacturer as well as the consumer cannot
get away from them without satisfying them.

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 Basic structure of electrical machine

1. Magnetic circuit : core ,yoke, air gap etc.

2. Electric circuit : stator, rotor winding and

transformer
cy winding

3. Dielectric circuit : insulation

4. Thermal circuit : heating and cooling medium

5. Mechanical parts : frame, bearings and shaft

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A standards organization, standards
body, standards developing organization (SDO),
or standards setting organization (SSO) is an
organization whose primary function to create
uniformity across producers, consumers, government
agencies, and other relevant parties regarding
terminology, product specifications (e.g. size,
including units of measure), protocols, and more.

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 https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/7-
most-common-motor-enclosure-types-
defined-by-nema-standards

https://electrical-engineering-
portal.com/motor-service-factor-sf-defined-by-
nema

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 Electrical Engineering Materials

1. High conductivity Magnetic materials Insulating materials

materials
2. High resistivity
materials.
3. Electrical carbon
materials
4. Super
conductivity

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 High conductivity materials

for making all types of

windings required in electrical
machines , distribution of
electrical energy through
transmission lines

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 Requirements of high conductivity materials

highest possible conductivity

least possible temperature co-efficient of resistance

adequate mechanical strength

rollability and drawability

adequate resistance to corrosion

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 High conductivity materials

Copper
Aluminium

Iron steel

Alloys of copper

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 Relative immunity from oxidation and corrosion,
highly malleable & Ductile metal - it can be cast,
forged, rolled, drawn, machined, easily soldered.

Copper

Annealed high conductivity copper and Hard

drawn copper wires are used for windings of
electrical machines
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 Alluminium
The existing copper deposits are fast exhausting and the
price of copper fluctuates widely, therefore it replaces
copper in many applications.

Alluminium when used in small transformer, decreases

overall cost (comparatively lesser than copper) and
weight (approximately 3.3 times lighter than copper)

Alluminium when used in large transformer, increases

overall cost ( its resistivity 1.62 times higher than
copper and size ( its volume approximately 2.04 times
greater than copper)
while designing due account should be taken of their
differences in resitivity,cost,weight,conductivity,temp. etc.,
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 With enameled

Without enameled

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 Iron and Steel

Steel alloyed with chromium and Alluminium (robustness

with good heat dissipation) – for making starter rheostats.

Cast iron – resistance grids to be used in starters of large

motors.

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 Starter rheostats(resistance grids)

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 Alloys of copper
1. Bronze (copper base alloys containing
tin,cadmium&berryllium)
possesses higher resistivity and mechanical strength.
Beryllium copper – current carrying springs, brush holders,
sliding contacts and knife switch blades.
Cadmium copper- contact wires and commutator segments.

2. Brass(66% Cu and 34% Zinc) has greater mechanical

strength ,wear resistance and lower conductivity – widely used
in current carrying materials .

3. Copper silver alloy (99.10% and 0.06% to 0.1%) has

resistance to thermal shortening and creep(turbo-alternators)
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Brush holder

Current carrying spring

Sliding contact
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 Knife switch

Commutator

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 Silver –bearing –copper alloy

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 High resistivity materials

It is usually called high

resistance conductors as
resistors, resistance coils ,
resistance elements or heating
elements- are used to dissipate
electrical energy as heat i.e., in
starting and regulating devices
for motors

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 Categories according to their purposes

I Group – Materials used for Precision work- for making

standard resistances and resistance boxes.
Properties

* Stability of resistance over the period of time and

during fluctuations of temperature .

* Low temperature co-efficient.

* Minimum thermo electric effect at contact of material

-does not introduce errors into measurements.

Material – Manganin (Cu 86%,Mn 12%and Ni 2%)

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 II Group – Materials used for making rheostats

Properties

* Should have large thermo-emf

* large resistance temperature co-efficient.

Special requirements

* High permissible working temperature and low cost

Material – Constantan (Cu 65% and 40 to 35% Ni)

Sometimes small amounts of manganese and iron
also included.
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 III Group – Materials used for making heating devices
in electric furnaces and loading rheostats

Special requirements

* High permissible working temperature, low cost and

should have non-corrosive

Material – Nichrome (Nickel, chromium and iron)

(optimum working temperature-900˚-to 1000˚)

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 Electrical carbon materials
Electrical carbon materials are made from graphite and
other forms of carbon coal

Properties
* negative temp. co-efficient (contact voltage drop decreases
with increasing temp)
* Low wear and tear (due to self lubricant property)

Material – Carbon, carbon graphite, graphite, electro

graphite, metal graphite- used for making
brushes for electrical machines.

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 Electro graphite
Carbon
brushes

Graphite carbon
Copper
Wednesday, carbon
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 Super conducting materials
Materials exhibiting zero value of resistivity are known as
Super conductors. A large number of metals become super-
conducting below a particular temperature characteristic of
the particular metal. This temperature is known as the
transition temperature.

For example : Alluminium – Trans.temp.- 1.18 K

Uranium – 0.80 K

It is interesting to note that copper, silver ,gold etc., are

very good conductors at room temp., but do not exhibit
superconducting properties. (vice versa for other metals
and alloys)

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 Magnetic materials

1 Ferromagnetic materials
Relative permeability -µr >> 1
(Nickel, cobalt, iron, steel, silicon steel etc.,)

2 Paramagnetic materials
Relative permeability -µr > 1
(Air, Alluminium, palladium etc.,)

3 Diamagnetic materials
Relative permeability - µr < 1
( Bismuth, silver, lead, copper ,water etc.,)

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 Ferromagnetic materials are very useful for
electrical engineering applications. Why?

When a ferromagnetic material is placed

in a magnetic field ,there is considerable distortion and,
therefore, the force exerted is very large. This property
makes ferromagnetic materials are very useful for
electrical engineering applications.

Example : Iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys.

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Types of magnetic materials based on hysteresis loop
1. Soft magnetic materials- making magnetic core
used in alternating magnetic fields – hysteresis
loops are more or less narrow.(Silicon steel, nickel-
iron alloys etc.,)
Classifications:
a. Solid core materials
b. Electrical sheet and strip
c. Special purpose alloys
2. Hard magnetic materials- used in low power rating
machines and instruments- broad hysteresis loop .
(carbon steel, tungsten steel, cobalt, hard ferrites
etc.,)
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a. Solid core materials for steady fluxes
These materials are normally used for parts of
magnetic circuits carrying steady flux as cores
of d.c . Electromagnets, relays and field frame
(i.e., yoke) of d.c. machines.
Examples: cast iron, cast steel and Ferro-cobalt

b. Laminated core material for pulsating fluxes

These materials are normally used for parts of
magnetic circuits carrying pulsating flux as
cores of d.c. armature, stator and rotor of ac
machines

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 Electrical steel sheets

Dynamo grade steels Transformer grade steels

(low silicon content) (high silicon content)
are used in rotating are used in transformers.
Electrical machines

Cold rolled grain oriented steel (CRGO) is suitable

for use in large transformers and turbo alternators

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c. Special purpose alloys are used in instrument
transformers, induction coils and choke.
Example : permalloys, superpermalloy, perminvar
etc.,

Good qualities
1. High magnetic permeability
2. High electrical resistivity
3. The hysteresis loop of the magnetic material
should be narrow and must have a small area.

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 Insulating materials

Electrical properties
1 high dielectric strength ,sustained at elevated
temperatures.

2 high resistivity or specific resistance

3 low dielectric hysteresis

4 good thermal conductivity

5 high degree of thermal conductivity

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 Factors affecting the electrical properties

(i) dimensions of test piece

(ii) r.m.s. value, wave form and frequency of

impressed voltage.

(iii) temperature and moisture content of test piece

(iv) mechanical pressure on test piece

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 Classes of insulating materials and its maximum allowable
temperature

Class Temperature
Y 90˚ C
A 105˚ C
E 120˚ C
B 130˚ C
F 155˚ C
H 180˚ C
C above 180˚ C

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Examples
Class Y – Cotton, silk , paper, cellulose ,wood
without impregnation

Class A - class Y materials impregnated with

natural resins cellulose esters, insulating
oil etc.,

Class E- Synthetic resin enamels, cotton and paper

laminates with formaldehyde bonding

Class B - Mica, glass fibre ,asbestos with suitable

bonding substances
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Class F – Materials of class B with bonding
materials of higher thermal stability.

Class H –Glass fibre and asbestos materials and

built up mica with silicon resins.

Class C – Mica, ceramics ,glass, quartz without

binders.
Class C Materials are not directly involved in
machine design.

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 Insulating materials used in modern electric
machines
Fibrous glass, cotton fibre, polyamides, synthetic resin
enamels - for wires of field coils

Petroleum based mineral oils and Askarels(60/40

mixture of hexachlorodiphenyl and trichlorovenzine)-
are synthetic non-flammable insulating liquids-
used for cooling and insulation of immersed
transformers.

Wood and two , three-ply varnished cotton-

slot lining materials
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 Applications of insulating materials

Employed for the insulation of

1. Wires for magnet coils and windings of machine

2. Laminations

3. Machines and transformers

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