Food, Culture, and Asia

Making Sense of Vietnamese Cuisine

By Nir Avieli

“Tell me what you eat, and I shall tell you who you are.”
(Brillat-Savarine, a French gastronome)

e live in an exciting culinary era. Food is not only extremely abundant allow for a comprehensive analysis. While I refer mainly to Vietnamese food,

W in the West, but also more varied than ever before. Any Western me-
tropolis features a huge array of ethnic restaurants from all corners of
the earth, while the presence of Italian, Greek, Mexican, Chinese, Japanese, or
the categories are intended as analytical tools to help make sense of most Asian
cuisines. Once the culinary rationale of a cuisine is clear, fear and suspicion
fade away, and a sense of confidence and control emerges. Yet before turning
Thai restaurants in most American towns is almost taken for granted. Chinese to Vietnamese food, let us examine the dual nature of food as a physiological
food is so common in America that members of other ethnic groups, New York necessity and as a cultural artifact.
Jews for example, conceive of it as part of their own culinary heritage.1
Yet how familiar are we with foods from other ethnic groups? Are we gen- Food as Nature and Culture
uinely flexible, open minded, and experienced when it comes to the food we Food, like the air we breathe, is essential for our survival as biological beings.
eat? Sociologists Alan Warde and Lydia Martens, who studied “eating out” in It is also the most perfect cultural artifact, the outcome of a detailed differen-
the UK, found that “only 20 percent of the people had experience of three or tiation process whereby wheat grains are transformed into French baguettes,
more different cuisines, while 48 percent had never eaten in an ethnic restau- Chinese dumplings, or Italian pasta that encompasses personal, social, and cul-
rant in the last twelve months.”2 And when Britons do opt for ethnic restau- tural identities.5 Brillat-Savarine’s famous aphorism, “Tell me what you eat, and
rants, almost half of them (47 percent) order only dishes with which they are I shall tell you who you are,” suggests that when we eat, we become perfect con-
already familiar.3 While Americans are more accustomed to ethnic fare, it sumers of our culture, physically internalizing its principles and values, swal-
seems that beyond a narrow echelon of highly educated cosmopolitans, many lowing and digesting them into our bodies. Thus, when American cowboys
are only vaguely acquainted with ethnic foods. bite into their bleeding steaks, they reaffirm the masculine and violent vitality
that distinguishes their way of living, while devout Southeast Asian Buddhists
The most demeaning way to refer to the express their commitment to non-violence and the sanctity of life by opting
for a vegetarian diet.
food of others is to argue that “they eat Human beings are the most flexible omnivores in nature. No other
species consumes such a wide range of edibles. From abundant tropical
everything,” implying a lack of moral, forests to scarce deserts, from the warmest regions to the coldest parts of
cultural, and esthetic standards and, that earth, we always manage to find “something nice to eat,” whether forest in-
sects, desert lizards, or the fresh blood of arctic marine mammals. It is even
they, therefore, are not fully human. argued that our culinary versatility and our willingness to eat virtually any-
thing explains human domination over all other creatures. We are not the
In my own research on tourism in East and Southeast Asia, I found that fastest, strongest, or fiercest, but we manage to inhabit all corners of the earth
most visiting Westerners were reluctant to eat at local restaurants and would because we can always find food.
only eat in tourist-oriented establishments where the setting was familiar, the Humans are the only living beings that cook, and virtually all human cul-
menu comprehensible, hygiene was up to their standards, and the food itself re- tures process their food to some extent. Cooking sets humans apart from the
sembled the ethnic foods with which they were familiar from ethnic restau- rest of the animal kingdom and defines us. To cook is to be human. Cooking,
rants back home.4 Thus, despite the extreme popularity of Asian restaurants in however, is what also sets people and cultures apart from each other. As we
the West, Westerners often find themselves at odds when facing the food ac- roam the earth, consume a huge variety of foodstuffs, and cook them in so
tually eaten in Asia. many different ways, food has become one of the strongest markers of cultural
However, during almost two decades of leading tourists and training tour difference and a common source for mostly negative stereotypes: the French are
guides in East and Southeast Asia, I have learned that eating the local food is “froggies,” the Germans are “krauts” (after sauerkraut), while the Koreans (and
one of the most effective and powerful ways to overcome the gap between many other East Asians) are “dog eaters.” Most food stereotypes are based on
tourists and the culture they visit. Gobbling dumplings at a Beijing street stand scant and inflated evidence that is removed from its original context.
with the Chinese hordes or having a fish in a clay pot in a Saigon sidewalk Yet the most demeaning way to refer to the food of others is to argue that
restaurant surrounded by feasting Vietnamese families are moments that allow “they eat everything,” implying a lack of moral, cultural, and esthetic standards
for the sense of “really being there” so much cherished by tourists. and, that they, therefore, are not fully human. Research shows, however, that no
I learned that the most effective way to achieve this moment of glory is by human group eats everything. In fact, members of most cultures consume
responding to the most common question asked by tourists and students when roughly 20 percent of the edibles available in their environment, while other ed-
facing unfamiliar food: “What is this?” ible foodstuffs are shunned due to moral, religious, or esthetic considerations.
In this article, I share categories I developed precisely to deal with this This is an important point. Members of certain cultures may eat things that
question and familiarize students in my classes with the Vietnamese cuisine others find strange and repulsive, but the fact that they eat differently doesn’t
and its meanings. The categories are “Basic Ingredients,” “Cooking Techniques,” mean that they eat everything. Indeed, they probably find our food as strange
“Meal Structures,” “Strange Foods,” and “Foreign Influences,” which together as we find theirs.

42 EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA Volume 16, Number 3 Winter 2011

 Food, Culture, and Asia

The Basic ingredients of the Vietnamese Cuisine

This combination of rice and four
Anthropologists suggest that when studying cultural systems, a distinction
should be made between culture and practical reason.6 In order to understand
side dishes adheres to the important
the cuisine of a given culture, we must distinguish between the practical as-
pects—nutritional demands, ecology, and locally available ingredients—and
Chinese-derived cosmological principles
cultural traits—cooking modes, eating arrangements, and the dishes them- of am and duong (yin and yang) and
selves—shaped by social and historical processes. I therefore begin with a dis-
cussion of the main ingredients of the Vietnamese diet and then turn to their ngu hanh (the five elements).
cultural transformation into dishes.
The Vietnamese cuisine evolved within a tropical ecology of warm
weather, plenty of rainfall, and profuse rivers that allowed for intensive agri- of the processing is done squatting on the floor, while the hearth itself is low-
culture. The other dominant natural element was the sea, which provided fish lying and requires squatting too. Elevated cooking surfaces are modern and
and seafood. The third influence was hardworking people who settled in relatively rare additions.
densely populated river deltas, valleys, and lowlands. Women do most of the cooking, and the kitchen is considered an exclu-
Under these conditions, growing rice as the staple was an ecologically sively feminine sphere. Hence, it may be argued that the kitchen setting reflects
sound practical choice.7 Irrigated, transplanted, labor-intensive paddy rice the low status of women in Vietnamese society, embodied by their squatting
grown in the major river valleys and deltas was the most effective crop under position. However, the status of Vietnamese women is relatively higher than
the conditions of limited soil, plenty of water, high temperatures, perennial hu- that of women in neighboring Confucian societies. Vietnamese society is more
midity, and a large number of available working hands. bilateral than patriarchal, with women holding a complex social status, being
Yet, while rice provides most of Việt Nam’s carbohydrates and energy, pol- charged with transforming nature into culture, ingredients into food, and ba-
ished white rice is nutritionally unwholesome and lacks fat, protein, vitamins, bies into members of society.
minerals, and fiber. Nutritionally speaking, the Vietnamese cuisine is all about
balancing these shortcomings with local edibles. Fish and seafood provide pro- Meal Structure
tein; aromatics and leafy greens (and some other fruits and vegetables) supply Vietnamese-style eating is all about food sharing, and mealtime is when the
vitamins, minerals, and fiber; and ground nuts and coconuts supply fats. Raw communal character of this society is most evident. Tables and trays are round,
greens and aromatics in great variety (basils, mints, corianders, lettuces) are defining a sense of equality between the diners, and there is no “head of the
essential components of any Vietnamese meal. Mixed with other foods, they are table.” Food is served in common dishes, and morsels are picked with chop-
the elements that provide exceptional variation in taste and texture. sticks into personal bowls. The diners are attentive to each other, avoiding glut-
While fresh and dried fish and seafood are essential meal components, tony and doing their best to ensure that the food is shared equally.
the most common way to consume them is in the form of nuoc mam (fish In the countryside, meals are usually taken on the floor or on a mat with
sauce), which is produced by fermenting fish in brine. This is actually a preser- the food served on a large tray. In more urban settings, people use tables and
vation technique, and the outcome is nutritionally rich. While many of my stu- chairs. While most other Southeast Asians use forks, spoons, or the right hand
dents found the smell of raw fish sauce hard to cope with, once cooked or to eat, the Vietnamese use chopsticks and eat out of bowls.
diluted with lime juice and spices, the sharp smell is transformed into a rich and Although the Vietnamese cuisine features hundreds and even thousands
appealing aroma that is the main marker of Vietnamese food. of dishes, daily meals eaten at home are surprisingly uniform. Lunch and dinner
The most common spices—chili, lime, ginger, garlic, shallot, and pep- are similar—dinner often consists of leftovers—and composed of a large quan-
per—are all important sources of vitamins and minerals. There is a preference tity of steamed rice with a set of side dishes that flavor and color it. These usu-
for sour tastes (for instance, the pulp of unripe tamarind), which are considered ally include a mild soup, a bowl of mixed raw greens, a dish of cooked protein
cooling and appropriate for the warm weather. Vietnamese food is not as hot (small quantities of fish, meat, or tofu) with vegetables, and a bowl of fish sauce.
as Thai food, and diners determine the level of spiciness by adding shredded This combination of rice and four side dishes adheres to the important
fresh chili into their dishes or biting into one while eating. Chinese-derived cosmological principles of am and duong (yin and yang) and
Altogether, the Vietnamese cuisine is shaped by specific ecological condi- ngu hanh (the five elements). Yin-yang is an all-encompassing Daoist princi-
tions and is clearly devised to supply human nutritional demands. Presenting ple that champions a dynamic balance between the obscure, dark, wet, cold,
Vietnamese cuisine as ecologically and biologically sound may demystify it when feminine energy of yin and the hot, powerful, shining, violent male energy of
studying its cultural characteristics. yang.8 White, bland, neutral rice is compatible with am, while the colorful, sa-
vory, varied side dishes are considered duong. Within the culinary realm, the
Cooking Techniques am and duong principle is translated into the cold-hot paradigm, within which
Despite the sophisticated dishes they produce, Vietnamese kitchens are sur- some ingredients (such as ginger, beef), cooking modes (frying), and dishes
prisingly simple when compared to Western kitchens. The most important (fried beef with ginger) are heating, while other tastes (sour, bitter), cooking
kitchen utensil is a large oval iron pan (chao, Chinese wok), which distributes modes (steaming), and dishes (fish in tamarind sauce) are cooling. The dishes
heat evenly for fast cooking (stir-frying), saves expensive fuel, and maintains themselves are not necessarily hot or cold, but their physical effect is of heat-
crispiness as well as nutritional value. Another crucial utensil is a heavy cleaver, ing or cooling. Thus, sour fish soup is eaten hot but has a cooling influence.
which—along with a wood block—facilitates slicing ingredients for stir-fry- The five elements theory suggests that the world and everything in it are
ing. Pestle and mortar come third, mainly to process the spices. These utensils composed of water, fire, wood, metal, and earth. The elements are interrelated
do most of the work, with ladles, large chopsticks, and strainers doing much of in cycles of production, destruction (e.g., water produces wood and extin-
the rest. Gas stoves are gradually replacing the traditional wood-fed hearth, guishes fire), and their relations and transformations generate the movement
and rice is cooked in electric rice cookers, but other modern cooking utensils that is life. The culinary realm is also structured by this paradigm, with rice
such as ovens or microwaves are rarely used. standing for earth (and center), soup for water, greens for wood, fish sauce for
The kitchen is usually located at the back of the house or in a separate fire, and the dry dish for metal. This scheme also informs the five basic cook-
structure behind the house and is often low-lying, dark, sooty, and wet. Most ing modes: raw, steamed, boiled, fried/grilled, and fermented; the five tastes:

43
 Food, Culture, and Asia

Insect-eating was an important source If there is one kind of flesh that scares most visitors to Việt Nam, it is dog
of protein for humans before the meat. Being “man’s best friend,” the dog is perceived in Western culture as al-
most human, and eating it is considered repulsive. In Việt Nam, dogs live next
development of farming, and it is still to men but are not considered pets—with the exception of the educated urban
elite—or quasi-humans but, rather, working animals like the buffalo. Most Viet-
common among hunter-gatherers namese avoid dog meat, mainly due to religious and moral reasons, while Bud-
dhists consider dogs polluting, possibly because dogs eat their own excrements
and subsistence farmers and are highly incestuous. Vietnamese farmers avoid both dog and buffalo meat,
as they work shoulder to shoulder with these animals. Most Vietnamese find dog
in many parts of the world. meat as repulsive as do Westerners, though for different reasons.
Dog meat, however, is popular among northern Vietnamese men as an
aphrodisiac. While this is probably the outcome of Chinese influence, south-
ern Vietnamese argue that as Buddhists, they avoid dog meat, but the north-
spicy, sour, bitter, salty, and sweet; and the five textures: crispy, crunchy, chewy, erners, who “converted” to Communism, eat it avidly. While Communism may
soft, and silky. not be the best explanation for dog meat popularity in the north, Chinese in-
Street foods are extremely popular, and cooked food is sold from millions fluence and its political impact are an important factor. In southern Việt Nam,
of stands that dot urban and rural streets. Some vendor stands offer a variety of Catholic immigrants from the north are the main consumers of dog meat. Par-
dishes served over rice, while others feature elaborate cooking. A new urban and adoxically, then, Christianity, imported from the West, is related to the con-
increasingly popular kind of stand offers “take away,” a variety of cooked dishes sumption of dog meat. However, it is mainly popular because of its nourishing,
purchased to be consumed at home. However, most stands specialize in a single warming, and libido-enhancing qualities.
“whole-meal dish” that includes all the ingredients necessary for proper nutrition. It is important to note that jungle meat and dog meat are relatively rare
There are several kinds of whole-meal dishes (pancakes, porridge, stuffed and usually quite expensive. Insects, though cheap and abundant, are rarely
baguettes, and different kinds of fried rice and noodles), but the most promi- eaten in Việt Nam. Therefore, they are never offered to uninterested or obliv-
nent and popular is a bowl of noodles. There are dozens of kinds of noodles and ious guests but rather are only served to those who actively ask for them and
thousands of variations regarding ingredients and seasoning. Most Vietnamese are ready to pay their high price.
would argue that their own town or village has at least one unique noodle dish.
Yet the basic nutritional logic is common—fresh or dry noodles made of rice, Foreign influence
wheat, and other starches provide carbohydrates; bones, meat, and seafood broth Like all cuisines, Vietnamese cuisine was deeply shaped by contact with external
provide water; a small amount of meat or other animal protein such as fish-balls cultures. Most prominent were China and France—and to a lesser extent India,
or wontons provide protein and fat; leafy greens, aromatic herbs, and fish sauce and recently, contemporary global cuisine appeared. Yet foreign influence was al-
contribute more protein, minerals, and vitamins; and chili and lime supply vita- ways adjusted to the local ecological conditions, nutritional demands, cultural
mins and flavor. As such, a bowl of noodles is a complete meal, nutritionally and norms, and local tastes. Some foreign culinary aspects are evident in Vietnamese
psychologically, and it includes all the ingredients of a proper meal. food, while others are deeply transformed and hard to observe.
China ruled Việt Nam for over a millennium and has always exerted po-
Strange Food litical and cultural influence. Its culinary legacy in Việt Nam is therefore sub-
Part of Việt Nam’s mystery and exoticism has to do with specific ingredients stantial. The Chinese cosmological theories of yin and yang and the five
and dishes that are perceived by non-Vietnamese as exotic, strange, and even elements directly affect Vietnamese cooking and eating. Noodles, a Chinese
repulsive. These food items can be grouped into three categories: insects, jun- invention, are probably the most popular food in the country, with many other
gle beasts, and dogs. dishes and cooking techniques adopted into the culinary framework. Rice was
Insect-eating was an important source of protein for humans before the domesticated in Southeast Asia and later introduced to China, but the culinary
development of farming, and it is still common among hunter-gatherers and influence was never unilateral.
subsistence farmers in many parts of the world. However, it is a powerful taboo A more recent and direct Chinese culinary effect is the outcome of re-
in Western cultures. Insect-eating is still practiced in Việt Nam among the peated waves of Chinese immigrants who, in the last few centuries, settled in
poorer subsistence farmers and among some of the ethnic minorities. each and every urban trade center in the country, introducing their respective
Two points are important. First, insects are cheap and abundant, require southeast Chinese cuisines or fusing them with the local foodways into unique
minimal resources, exert little ecological pressure, and thus make for accessi- local cuisines.
ble “green” protein. Second, insect-eating is always selective. Only certain kinds It should be noted, however, that Vietnamese cuisine had an impact on
of insects or larva are consumed—particularly those that are farmed. For ex- Chinese foodways as well. Rice was probably domesticated in Việt Nam and in-
ample, silk producers often consume silkworms. Other popular insects include corporated into the Chinese cuisine only after their conquest of north Việt
grasshoppers, crickets, water beetles, scorpions, and spiders. Despite common Nam during the first century BCE. Seafood sauces from the southern part of
myth, cockroaches are inedible and are not eaten anywhere. Việt Nam are another culinary contribution to southern Chinese cuisines, es-
The meat of jungle beasts is a rare, expensive, and sought-after delicacy. pecially Cantonese and Fujienese.
Dishes made of monkey, bear, tiger, elephant, snake, and lizard are sold in Indian culinary influence arrived in Việt Nam infused with Malay, Khmer,
restaurants that specialize in “forest meat.” It is a cross-cultural convention that, and Thai cooking, which had absorbed Indian spices such as cumin, coriander, gin-
when eating the flesh of specific animals, the eater absorbs their power.9 In ger, and turmeric; in ingredients such as coconut milk; in cooking methods such as
Western culture, red meat, and especially beef, is considered highly nutritious spice-pastes; and in dishes such as cary, the Vietnamese version of Indian curry.
and power enhancing. Thus, the British Royal Guards are called “beefeaters.” Western merchants, notably the Portuguese, Dutch, and French, intro-
In Việt Nam, the flesh of wild animals known for their prowess is considered duced staples such as maize and sweet potatoes, as well as European vegetables
both physically and sexually invigorating. Forest food is therefore a man’s af- and herbs such as carrots, cauliflower, onions, potatoes, string beans, and dill.
fair and is often associated with heavy alcohol consumption and prostitution. The French left a powerful culinary legacy. Baguettes with pork pate, yogurt,

44 EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA Volume 16, Number 3 Winter 2011

 Food, Culture, and Asia

Vietnamese cuisine is based on fresh ingredients, minimal cooking, lots of leafy greens
and fish, very limited amounts of animal protein and fat, and moderate use of sugar.
NoTeS
1. Gary Tuchman and Harry Gene Levine, “New York Jews and Chinese Food: The Social
Construction of an Ethnic Pattern,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 22 no. 3 (1993):
382–407.
2. Alan Warde and Lydia Martens, Eating Out: Social Differentiation, Consumption and Pleas-
ure (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
3. Ibid.
4. Erik Cohen and Nir Avieli, “Food in Tourism: Attraction and Impediment,” Annals of
Tourism Research 31 no. 4 (2004): 755–778.
5. Claude Fischler, “Food, Self and Identity,” Social Science Information 27 no. 2 (1988): 275.
6. Marshal D. Sahlins, Culture and Practical Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1976).
7. Pierre Huard and Maurice Durand, trans.Vu Thien Kim, Viet-Nam: Civilization and Culture
(Hanoi: Ecole Francaise d’Etreme-Orient, 1998); Samuel Popkin, The Rational Peasant: The
Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979).
8. Kristofer Schipper, The Taoist Body, trans. Karen C. Duval (Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1993).
9. Nick Fiddes, Meat: a Natural Symbol (London: Routledge, 1991).

NIR AVIELI is a cultural anthropologist interested in food and tourism. He has been con-
ducting anthropological fieldwork in the central Vietnamese town of Hoi An since 1998
and has conducted further research in Thailand, India, Singapore, and Israel. He is cur-
This photo is from a slide show of Pho 24 restaurants in Hồ Chí Minh city. Source: http://tiny.cc/ntnf2. rently writing on Vietnamese gender and tourism and is compiling a culinary ethnog-
raphy of Israel, focused mainly on issues of food and power. His book, Rice Talks: Food and
ice cream, and coffee are essential elements of contemporary Vietnamese cui- Community in a Vietnamese Town, will be published by Indiana University Press in 2012.
sine. Formal dining, including wedding and death anniversary banquets, fol- He convened the International Conference on Food, Power, and Meaning in the Middle
low French structure and etiquette and include some French dishes, such as East and Mediterranean, Ben Gurion University in June 2010.
lagu or ragu, the Vietnamese version of beef-onion-carrot-potato ragout, served
with a sliced baguette. This, however, is a great example of the deep culinary
modification of foreign dishes. It is cooked in a wok and seasoned with fish Websites about Vietnamese Food and Culture
sauce, coconut milk, turmeric, and coriander, which creates a distinct taste and Vietnamese cuisine, traditions, and etiquette: http://tiny.cc/18wrf
aroma very different from the French original, itself a modification of the orig- Vietnam-culture.com: http://tiny.cc/a0fxb
inal Irish stew. Here again, Vietnamese culinary elements were incorporated Asiarecipe.com: http://tiny.cc/1rytp
into French cuisine and especially into the “nouvelle cuisine,” which emphasizes
Food in Every Country: Vietnam: http://tiny.cc/tmgox
aromatic herbs, freshly cooked ingredients, and light cooking processes.
Finally, “world cuisine” or, more accurately, Western dishes and foodways, VietVentures: http://tiny.cc/zdu1f
have made headway into the country with pasta, pizza, salads, and steaks fea- Activetravel—Vietnam: http://tiny.cc/giuz6
tured in expensive restaurants catering mostly to tourists and local elites. Global Vietnam-Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette: http://tiny.cc/mrelp
chains such as KFC and local McDonalized food venues such as Pho 24, a noo- Wikipedia: Culture of Vietnam: http://tiny.cc/ltxcz
dle franchise, attract the newly emerging Vietnamese middle class. Here again,
local cultural norms, cooking techniques, and culinary preferences shape these General Vietnamese Recipes
imported dishes and foodways to such an extent that they hardly resemble the Food.com: http://tiny.cc/bg6rb
foreign originals. RasaMalaysia Easy Asian Recipes: http://tiny.cc/8dgtv
Vietnamese Recipes & Cuisines: http://tiny.cc/ufdik
Conclusion: Vietnamese Food as a healthy, “green” option
allrecipes.com: http://tiny.cc/eocs6
While my categories are intended to make sense of Vietnamese food by ex-
posing its nutritional and cultural logic, they also emphasize its positive qual- All-fish-seafood-recipes.com (Grouper recipe): http://tiny.cc/aadck
ities as healthy and green. In a world that is increasingly alarmed by the hazards Marc Matsumoto‘s blog: http://tiny.cc/78ugs
of modern nutrition and the negative effects of industrialized, meat-oriented
Recipes from the Viet World Kitchen
agriculture, Vietnamese food is an appealing option that can successfully com-
pete with the currently popular “Mediterranean diet.” Spicy Asian Chicken Wings Recipe: http://tiny.cc/e5plh
Vietnamese cuisine is based on fresh ingredients, minimal cooking, lots of Chicken Pho Noodle Soup Recipe: http://tiny.cc/9p731
leafy greens and fish, very limited amounts of animal protein and fat, and moder- Beef Pho Noodle Soup Recipe: http://tiny.cc/d3xzw
ate use of sugar. Moreover, consuming less meat means that farming systems ori- Trout: http://tiny.cc/56byk
ented toward the Vietnamese culinary system would put less pressure on dwindling
Barbecued Baby Back Pork Ribs: http://tiny.cc/lcedo
ecological resources and result in less pollution. It costs the same to produce one
meat calorie as it does to produce seven to ten vegetal calories. Presenting Viet- Hainan Chicken and Rice Recipe: http://tiny.cc/dj92q
namese cuisine in particular, and Asian cuisines in general, to our students as a Compiled by Willa Davis
viable tool in our arsenal of “green cuisines,” may increase their appeal. n

45