An example of a substance that sublimes is carbon dioxide.

At ordinary pressures, there is no such thing as liquid carbon dioxide

- it turns directly from a solid to a gas at -78.5 °C.
- Solid carbon dioxide is known as dry ice.
 Practice
Page 12
Chapter Question No.3

 Solid is below the melting point

 Liquid is between the melting
point and the boiling point
 Gas is above the boiling point
Extra (ii) for instance, the maximum mass that would
dissolve in 34.6g of water at 40°C

(iii) 51 .0g shows the maximum mass that will dissolve at 80°C and
therefore crystals will first appear at temperatures below this.
1. What name is given to each of the following changes of state?
a Solid to liquid a melting
b Liquid to solid b freezing
c Solid to gas c subliming/sublimation
d Gas to solid d subliming/sublimation
 2 a Draw diagrams to show the arrangement of the particles in a solid, a liquid and a gas.
b Describe the difference between the movement of particles in a solid and a liquid.
c The change of state from a liquid to a gas can be either evaporation or boiling.
Explain the difference between evaporation and boiling.

Note: Solids should have regularly packed particles touching.

Liquids should have most of the particles touching at least
some of their neighbours, but with gaps here and there, and no
regularity. Gases should have the particles well spaced.

b
Solids: vibration around a fixed point.
Liquids: particles can move around into vacant spaces,
but with some difficulty because of the relatively close packing.

c
Evaporation: Some faster moving particles break away from the surface of the liquid.
Boiling: Attractive forces are broken throughout the liquid to produce bubbles of vapour.
 3 The questions refer to the substances in the table. b Which substance has the greatest distance between its
particles at 25 °C? Explain your answer.

A, because it is a gas.

c Why is no boiling point given for substance C?

It sublimes and therefore is converted directly from a
solid to a gas without going through the liquid stage.
d Which liquid substance would evaporate most quickly in the
open air at 25 °C? Explain your answer.

D - because it has a lower boiling point the forces of

attraction between particles will be weaker therefore it
will also evaporate more easily than substance B (the
a Write down the physical states of each compound at only other substance that is a liquid at 25 °C).

i 30°C i) A - gas; B - liquid; C - solid; D - liquid; E – solid

ii - 100°C ii) A - gas; B - solid; C - solid; D - liquid; E - solid
iii 80°C iii) A - gas; B - liquid; C - solid; D - gas; E - solid
4 Refer to Figure 1.14 on page 7 showing the diffusion experiment.

a Explain why the ring takes a few minutes to form.

a The ammonia and hydrogen chloride particles have to diffuse through the air in the tube,
colliding with air particles all the way.
b If you heat a gas, what effect will this have on the movement of the particles?
i Its particles will move faster.

ii In the light of your answer to i, what difference would you find if you did this
experiment outside on a day when the temperature was 2 °C instead of in a warm lab at
25 °C? Explain your answer.
ii It would take slightly longer for the white ring to form,
because the gas particles would be moving more slowly at the lower temperature.
c Explain why the ring was formed nearer the hydrochloric acid end of the tube.
c Ammonia particles are lighter than hydrogen chloride particles and so move faster.
The ammonia covers more distance than the hydrogen chloride in the same time.
d Suppose you replaced the concentrated hydrochloric acid with concentrated
hydrobromic acid.
This releases the gas hydrogen bromide (HBr). Ammonium bromide.
Hydrogen bromide also reacts with ammonia to form a white ring.
i Suggest a name for the white ring in this case.

ii Hydrogen bromide particles are about twice as heavy as hydrogen chloride particles.
What effects do you think this would have on the experiment?
Ii The heavier hydrogen bromide particles would move more slowly than the hydrogen chloride particles, and so
the ring would form even closer to the hydrobromic acid end than it was to the hydrochloric acid end.
The ring will also take slightly longer to form because of the slower moving particles.
5. Use the words given below to complete the following paragraph. Each word may be used once, more than once
or not at all.

boils solution solute saturated evaporates solvent condenses

Sodium chloride dissolves in water to form a ___ . The water is called the ___ and the sodium chloride is the ___ .
If the solution is heated to 50 °C some of the water ___ until the solution becomes ___ and sodium chloride
crystals start to form.

Sodium chloride dissolves in water to form a solution. The water is called the solvent and the sodium chloride is the solute.
If the solution is heated to 50°C some of the water evaporates until the solution becomes saturated and sodium chloride
crystals start 10 form.
 6 The solubility of sodium chlorate in water was measured at a number of different temperatures.
Temperature/°C 0 20 40 60 80 100
Solubility/g per 3 8 14 23 38 55
100g of water

a Use these figures to plot a solubility curve, with the temperature on the horizontal axis and the solubility on the vertical one.
 6 The solubility of sodium chlorate in water was measured at a number of different temperatures.
Temperature/°C 0 20 40 60 80 100
Solubility/g per 3 8 14 23 38 55
100g of water

a Use these figures to plot a solubility curve, with the temperature on the horizontal axis and the solubility on the vertical one.

c Determine the maximum mass of sodium chlorate

that will dissolve in 40g of water at 30°C.
From the graph, the solubility at 30°C is 10g per 100g
of water.
(40 / 100 ) x 10 = 4g
Therefore 4g of sodium chlorate will dissolve

b Use your graph to find the solubility of sodium chlorate at 50°C.

18 +/-1 g per 100g

6 The solubility of sodium chlorate in water was measured at a number of different temperatures.
Temperature/°C 0 20 40 60 80 100
Solubility/g per 100g of water 3 8 14 23 38 55

d 20 g of sodium chlorate was added to 100 g of water

and the mixture heated to about 70°C. It was then
left to cool with the thermometer in the solution.
Use your graph to answer the following questions.
i At what temperature would crystals first appear in
the solution?
d i 53+/-1 °C

ii If the solution was cooled to 17 °C, calculate the total mass of crystals formed.

The solubility at 17 °C is 7 ±1 g per 100g, therefore 20 - 7 = 13g must precipitate out of the solution.
Answers of 13 ± 1 g are acceptable.