COLOUR DETECTION USING OPENCV AND

PANDAS

MINI PROJECT

Submitted in partial fulfillment for award of the degree of

B.COM COMPUTER APPLICATION

BY
DHANASEKAR.R
Reg. No. 2113141040018

Under the Guidance of

Dr.D.Karthika MCA., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor,
Department of B.com Computer Application

GURU NANAK COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

Guru Nanak Salai, Velachery,
Chennai – 600 042.

Accredited at ‘A++’Grade by NAAC

2023-2024
 GURU NANAK COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

Guru Nanak Salai, Velachery,

Chennai – 600042

B.COM COMPUTER APPLICATION

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the mini project entitled “COLOR DETECTION USING
OPENCV AND PANDAS” in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award
of the degree B. Com of Computer Applications is an original project work
carried out by DHANASEKAR. R, Register No. 2113141040018 under my
guidance during the academic year 2022-2023.

Signature of Signature of
Project Guide Head of the Department

Submitted for the Viva-Voce held on at Guru Nanak College,

Guru Nanak Salai, Velachery, Chennai.

Signature of Signature of
Internal Examiner External Examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I thank the "God Almighty" for the immense grace and blessings at
each stage of this project.

I express my profound sense of indebtedness to Dr.D.Leelavathi, M.COM.,

M.Phil.,B.ed.,Phd.,Mba., Head of the Department and Assistant professor Department
of B.COM COMPUTER APPLICATION for permitting and encouraging me to carry out
the mini project. I am very much obliged to my project guide, Dr.D.Karthika
MCA.,M.PHIL.,PH.D.., for her profound guidance for the successful completion of
this project with great enthusiasm; I express my gratitude to all the faculty members of
Bachelor of Computer Applications for their timely help and support.

I am extremely fortunate for having the guidance all along the completion of my
project work. The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of support from
many people. I would not forget to thank each and every one.

Finally, I express my deep gratitude to all my friends and family members for their
moral support and encouragement they have given to complete this project successfully.
 INDEX
SI.NO CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 PROBLEM DESCRIPTION AND OVERVIEW

1.2 OBJECTIVE

2. SYSTEM STUDY AND ANALYSIS

2.1. SYSTEM ANALYSIS

2.2. EXISTING SYSTEM
2.3. PROPOSED SYSTEM
2.4. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
2.4.1 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
2.4.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
2.5. FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT
2.6. NON-FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT

3. SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

3.2 DATA FLOW DIAGRAM LEVELS
3.3 UML DIAGRAM
3.3.1 USE-CASE DIAGRAM
3.3.2 COLLABORATION DIAGRAM
3.3.3 CLASS DIAGRAM
3.3.4 ACTIVITY DIAGRAM

4. PROJECT DESCRIPTION

4.1 ABOUT THE PROGRAM

4.2 COLOUR DETECTION FEATURE

5. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

5.1 PYTHON
5.2 OPEN CV
5.3 NUMPY
5.4 IMAGE MODULE
5.5 CAMERA MODULE
5.6 OBJECT MODULE
5.7 PANDAS
5.8 PYCHARM

6.
FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS

7.
CONCLUSION

8.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABSTRACT:
Colour detection [1] is the process of detecting name of the color.
Here this is easy task for humans to detect the color and choose one. But
computer cannot detect the color easily. This is tough task for computer to
detect the color easily.So that’s why we choose this project. Many of the
project and research papers are written on this problem. But we use different
techniques for this project. Naive Bayes algorithm, Pandas and OpenCV
libraries used in python languages. Naive Bayes may be a simple technique for
constructing classifiers: models that assign class labels to problem instances,
represented as vectors of feature values, where the category labels are drawn
from some finite set. There’s not one algorithm for training such classifiers, but
a family of algorithms supported a standard principle: all naive Bayes classifiers
assume that the worth of a specific feature is independent of the worth of the
other feature ,given the category variable. Open Source Computer Vision
Library. OpenCV was designed for computational efficiency [2] and with a
robust specialize in real-time applications. Dedicated video encoding within the
cloud. Panda may be a cloud-based platform that gives video and audio
encoding infrastructure.
Programming language :
Python

Libraries :
pandas, Numpy, imutils, cv2
 1.INTRODUCTION

Before going into the speculations of the project it is important to

know the definition of color detection. The process of detecting the name of
any color in an image or video is known as color detection. This is an
exceedingly simple task for humans, but it is not that simple for computers.
The eyes and brains of humans work together to convert light into color.
The signal is transmitted to the brain via light receptors in our eyes. The
color is then recognized by our brain. But for the Computer it is a difficult
task. A color can be represented in around 16.5 million different ways.
We’ll be working with a dataset that contains RGB values along with their
names. OpenCV usually captures images and videos in 8-bit, unsigned
integer, BGR format. Captured images can be considered as 3 matrices of
BLUE, GREEN and RED with integer values ranges from 0 to 255.

RGB colour space describes colours in terms of the amount of red, green, and
blue present. In situations where colour description plays an integral role,
Sorting of objects is necessary in industries where products are manufactured on
large scale. This process is simplified by automation. We can design
mechatronics system using the concepts of image processing. Objects are
classified based on different characteristics like shape, colour and weight.
Colour based sorting is used in many industries like crayon colour factory,
agricultural machineries like rice sorter, beans sorter, peanut sorter etc.

Now a days , importance and the study over the computer vision in field of
industrial, academics are on a hike. Specifically when dealing with the
industrial environment, This design can be used for various application based
upon vision through computer for the purpose of identifying, differentiating and
collection of various object are done based upon colour , shape and size which
are the primary factors. This can be done with help of an OpenCV. This design
7
system can be implemented in various field for various purposes such as
Defence, industrial purposes, games, automation, security, monitoring etc .Even
these systems can also play a vital role in field of radar and navigating such as
detecting, tracking of a moving coloured object etc Detection of colour play an
important role even in the field of medical, such as detection of colour of
skin ,identification of a face, recognizing license plate .Major purpose is to
determining the colour of packages passing over a conveyor belt and also
providing the quality of a particular colour packages by outnumbering. Which is
fulfilled by a processing unit i.e. a raspberry pi along with a USB camera for
capturing the package,a display unit for displaying the count and the packaging
along with its identified colour which is done through OpenCV.

1.1 Problem Description And Overview

Colour detection is the process of detecting name of the color. Here

this is easy task for human to detect the color and choose one. But computer
cannot detect the colour easily. This is tough task for computer to detect the
color easily. So that's why we choose this project. Many of the project and
research papers are written on this problem. But we use different techniques for
this project. Pandas and open CV libraries used in python languages. Open
Source Computer Vision Library. Open CV was designed for computational
efficiency and with a robust specialize in real-time platform that gives video and
audio encoding infrastructure.

1.2. Objective

The main objective of the proposed system is to find exact color with
accuracy and the application can be used to find colors from a real-time input
(webcam). This can be achieved by implementing the correct OpenCV concepts
along with the existing model.

8
9
 2. SYSTEM STUDY AND ANALYSIS

2.1 System Analysis

The system analysis includes existing system limitations, proposed

system with features, and requirements of the system which includes both
hardware and software requirements and also the functionality of each module

2.2 Existing System

In the existing system they have gone through with the opencv but while
extraction of the colors they got the wrong outputs. There is no exact
representation of colors with accuracy and the application can be used to find
colors present only in the images by specifying its path and not from a webcam.

2.3 Proposed System

In the proposed system, we are introducing the Webcam Access and a

CSV database and according to the CSV database the number of shades that can
be identified are 865 color names along with their RGB and hex values.
Whenever the cursor hovers over the screen, it automatically shows the RGB
shades color values along with its hex values.

2.4 System Requirements

The requirements specification is a technical specification of requirements for

the software products. It is the first step in the requirements analysis process it
lists the requirements of a particular software system including functional,
performance and security requirements. The requirements also provide usage
scenarios from a user, an operational and an administrative perspective.

10
The purpose of software requirements specification is to provide a detailed
overview of the software project, its parameters and goals. This describes the
project target audience and its user interface, hardware and software
requirements. It defines how the client, team and audience see the project and
its functionality

2.4.1 Hardware Requirements

• Hard disk 200GB and above

• Ram 2GB and above

• Processor i3 and above

• A proper working webcam

2.4.2 Software Requirements

• OS: Windows 7 and above

• Pycharm IDE

• Programming Language: Python

• Version: Python 3.8

• Tools used: Numpy ,Opencv

11
2.5 Functional Requirements

Functional requirement defines a function of a system or its component, where a

function is described as a specification of behaviour between outputs and inputs.

Functional requirements may involve calculations, technical details, data

manipulation and processing, and other specific functionality that define what a
system is supposed to accomplish.

Behavioural requirements describing all the cases where the system uses the
functional requirements are captured in use cases.

Functional requirements are supported by non- functional requirements (also

known as "quality requirements"), which impose constraints on the design or
implementation (such as performance requirements, security, or reliability).

Generally, functional requirements are expressed in the form "system must do

<requirement>," while non- functional requirements take the form "system shall
be <requirement>. The plan for implementing functional requirements is
detailed in the system design, whereas non-functional requirements are detailed
in the system architecture.

As defined in requirements engineering, functional requirements specify

particular results of a system. This should be contrasted with non- functional
requirements, which specify overall characteristics such as cost and reliability
Functional requirements drive the application architecture of a system, while
non-functional requirements drive the technical architecture of a system.

In some case a requirements analyst generates use cases after gathering and
validating a set of functional requirements. The hierarchy of functional
requirements collection and change, broadly speaking, is: user/stakeholder
request → analyse → use case → incorporate. Stakeholders make a request;
systems engineers attempt to discuss, observe, and understand the aspects of the
12
requirement; use cases, entity relationship diagrams, and other models are built
to validate the requirement; and, if documented and approved, the requirement
is implemented/incorporated. Each use case illustrates behavioural scenarios
through one or more functional requirements. Often, though, an analyst will
begin by eliciting a set of use cases, from which the analyst can derive the
functional requirements that must be implemented to allow a user to perform
each use case.

2.6 Non-Functional Requirements

In systems engineering and requirements engineering, a non- functional

requirement (NFR) is a requirement that specifies criteria that can be used to
judge the operation of a system, rather than specific behaviours.

They are contrasted with functional requirements that define specific behaviour
or functions. The plan for implementing functional requirements is detailed in
the system design. The plan for implementing non-functional requirements is
detailed in the system architecture, because they are usually architecturally
significant requirements.

Non-functional requirements are often called "quality attributes" of a system.

Other terms for non-functional requirements are "qualities", "quality goals",
"quality of service requirements","non- behavioural requirements", or "technical
requirements". Informally these are sometimes called the "qualities", from
attributes like stability and portability.

Qualities—that is non-functional requirements can be divided into two main

categories:

1. Execution qualities, such as safety, security and usability, which are

observable during operation (at run time).
13
2. Evolution qualities, such as testability, maintainability, extensibility and
scalability, which are embodied in the static structure of the system.

Consistency

The application provides consistency user interface design to user. The designs
of the screen are standardize and consistent that make the user feel comfortable
to use it.

Convenience

The application give convenience to the user to modify the details if required
and can view the details.

Size

The size of a particular application plays a major role, if the size is less then it
occupies less space and Efficiency will be high.

Accessibility

The extent to which the software system can be used by people with the widest
range of capabilities to achieve a specified goal in a specified context of use.

Availability

The degree to which users can depend on the system to be up (able to function)
during “normal operating times”.

Efficiency

The extent to which the software system handles capacity, throughput, and
response time.

Integrity
14
The degree to which the data maintained by the software system are accurate,
authentic, and without corruption

Reliability

The extent to which the software system consistently performs the specified
functions without failure

Safety

The degree to which a software system prevents harm to people or damage to

the environment in the intended context of use

Survivability

The extent to which the software system continues to function and recovers in
the presence of a system failure.

Maintainability

The ease with which faults in a software system can be found and fixed

Scalability

The degree to which the system is able to expand its processing capabilities
upward and outward to support business growth.

Interoperability

The extent to which the software system is able to couple or facilitate the
interface with other systems.

15
Portability

The ease with which a software system can be transferred from its current
hardware or software environment to another.

Reusability

The extent to which a portion of the software system can be converted for use in
another system.

16
 3. SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1 Architectural Design

In the above architecture shows the capability for the project. It consists of a
well-defined sequence diagram that is abstracted from the source code. It
leverages the rich capabilities of the technology such as OpenCV library in the
python. The above architecture makes the process more efficient based on
principles and properties related to each other. As we know the red, green and
blue are the primary colors that can be mixed to produce different colors. The
present color detection project takes the path of an image as an input and looks
for the composition of three different color red, green and blue in an image.

17
3.2 Data Flow Diagram Levels:

A data flow diagram has been classified into different levels. The different
levels are as follows:

1. Context level or Level-0

2. Top level or Level-1

1. Context Level Diagram:

This level shows the overall context of the system and its operating
environment and shows the whole system as just one process user register
into the application and then and then get the response the entire
application is installed on the mobile.

2. Top Level Diagram:

This level (level 1) shows all processes at the first level of numbering, data
stores, external entities and the data flows between them. The purpose of this
level is to show the major high-level processes of the system and their
18
interrelation. A process model will have one and only one level-1 diagram. A
level -1 diagram must be balanced with its parent context level diagram.

3.3 UML Diagrams

The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a graphical language for visualizing,

specifying, constructing and documenting of a software intensive system. The
UML gives a standard way to write a system blueprints, covering conceptual
things, such as classes written in a specified programmed language, database
schemas and reusable software components.

There are 5 types of diagrams

 Class Diagram

 Use case Diagram

 Sequence Diagram
19
  Collaboration Diagram

 Activity Diagram
The above diagrams are described below with explanation with their diagrams.

3.3.1 Use-Case Diagram:

A use-case in software engineering and systems engineering is a description of a
system behaviour as it responds to a request that originates from outside of that
system. In other words, a use case describes “who” can do “what” with the
system in question. The use case technique is used to capture a system’s
behavioural requirements by detailing scenario-driven threads through the
functional requirements.

In software engineering a use case in the Unified Modelling Language (UML) is

a type of behavioural diagram defined by and created from a Use-case analysis.
Its purpose is to present a graphical overview of the functionality provided by a
system in terms of actors, their goals and any dependencies between those use
case.

Actor:

20
An actor portrays any entity (or entities) that perform certain roles in a given
mobile. The different roles the actor represents are the actual business roles of
users in a given mobile. An actor in a use case diagram interacts with a use case
to identify an actor, search in the problem statement for business terms that
portray roles in the system.

Use Case:

A use case in a use case diagram is a visual representation of distinct business

functionality in the system. The key term here is “distinct business
functionality”. To choose a business process as a likely candidate for modelling
as a use case, you need to ensure that the business process is discrete in nature.
The figure use case diagram of color detection describe

3.3.2 Collaboration Diagram:

A collaboration diagram is an inter action diagram that emphasizes the

structural organization of the objects that send and receive messages. It shows a
set of objects, links among those objects and messages sent and receive by the
objects. The objects are typically named or anonymous instances of classes but

21
may also represent instance of other things such as collaborations, components
and nodes.

3.3.3 Class Diagram:

A “Class Diagram” shows a set of classes, interfaces and collaborations and

their relationships. These diagrams are most common diagram in modeling
object-oriented systems

22
Relationships:

1. Dependency:

Dependency is a semantic relationship between two things in which change to

one thing may affect the semantics of other things. Graphically a dependency
rendered as a dashed-line, possibly directed occasionally including a label.

Figure: Dependency

2. Association:

Association is a structural relationship that describes set of links. A link being a

connection among objects. Aggregation is a special kind of association a
structural relationship between a whole and its parts. It is graphically rendered
as a solid-line.

_________________

Figure: Association

3. Generalization:

Generalization is a specialization/generalization relationship in which objects of

specialized element (child) are substitutable for object of the generalized
element (parent).in this way the child shares the structure and behavior of the
parent. Graphically rendered as a solid-line with a hollow over-head pointing to
the parent.

23
 Class Diagram Of Color Detection

3.3.4 Activity Diagram:

Activity diagrams are a loosely defined diagram technique for showing
work flows of stepwise activities and actions, with support for choice, iteration
and concurrency.

24
Action State:
It indicates actions performed by the state.

Objects:

A Concrete manifestation of abstraction; an instance of a class.

25
Activity Diagram Of Color Detection

26
 4.PROJECT DESCRIPTION

OpenCV, Pandas, and numpy are the Python packages that are necessary for
this project in Python.

The project folder contains 2 files:

 main.py – main source code of our project.

 Colors.csv – a csv file that contains our color dataset.

4.1 About The Program

Taking An Input From The User’s Webcam

camera = cv2.VideoCapture(0)

Read The CSV File With Pandas

The pandas library is very useful when we need to perform various operations
on data files like CSV. pd.read_csv() reads the CSV file and loads it into the
pandas Data Frame. We have assigned each column with a name for easy
accessing.
index = ['color', 'color_name', 'hex', 'R', 'G', 'B']
df = pd.read_csv('colors.csv', names = index, header = None)

27
Set A Mouse Callback Event On A Window

First, we created a window in which the input image will display. Then, we set a
callback function which will be called when a mouse event happens. With these
lines, we named our window as ‘image’ and set a callback function which will
call the identify_color() whenever a mouse event occurs.

cv2.namedWindow('image')
cv2.setMouseCallback('image',
Create the Draw Function identify_color)

It will calculate the rgb values of the pixel which we double click. The function
parameters have the event name, (x,y) coordinates of the mouse position, etc. In
the function, we check if the event is double-clicked then we calculate and set
the r,g,b values along with x,y positions of the mouse.

28
Calculate Distance to Get Color Name

We have the r,g and b values. Now, we need another function which will return
us the color name from RGB values. To get the color name, we calculate a
distance(d) which tells us how close we are to color and choose the one having
minimum distance.

Our distance is calculated by this formula:

d = abs(Red – ithRedColor) + (Green – ithGreenColor) + (Blue –ithBlueColor)

def getColorName(R,G,B):
minimum = 10000
for i in range(len(df)):
d = abs(R - int(df.loc[i,"R"])) + abs(G - int(df.loc[i,"G"])) + abs(B -
int(df.loc[i,"B"]))
if (d <= minimum):
minimum = d
cname = df.loc[i, 'color_name'] + ' Hex=' + df.loc[i, 'hex']
return cname

Display Image On The Window

Whenever a hover event occurs, it will update the color name and RGB
values on the window. Using the cv2.imshow() function, we draw the image on
the window. When the user hovers the window, we draw a rectangle and get the

29
color name to draw text on the window using cv2.rectangle and cv2.putText()
functions.

4.2 Color Detection Feature

Various image feature detection methods have been discussed to extract locale
imag structures such as edges, corners and circles. As there are many color
invariant models available, the inherent difficulty is how to automatically select
the weighted subset of color models producing the best result for a particular
task. In this section, we outline how to select and weight color (invariant)
models for discriminatory and robust image feature detection.

To achieve proper color model selection and fusion, we discuss a method that
exploits non-perfect correlation between color models or feature detection
algorithms derived from the principles of diversification. As a consequence, an
optimal balance is obtained between repeatability and distinctiveness. The result
is a weighting scheme which yields maximal feature discrimination. OpenCV
color detection is just a starting point. The ultimate goal is to eventually locate
the coloured element position within a video stream frame using Python 3 code.
So, if I can isolate and track the element in the video stream,

30
 5. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Python

What is Python?

Python is an interpreter, high-level programming language for general-purpose

programming by “Guido van Rossum” and first released in 1991, Python has a
design philosophy that emphasizes code readability, and a syntax that allows
programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code, notably using
significant whitespace. It provides constructs that enable clear programming on
both small and large scales.

Python features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management. It

supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented,
imperative, functional, procedural, and has a large and comprehensive standard
library. Python interpreters are available for many operating systems. Python,
the reference implementation of Python, is open source software and has a
community-based development model, as do nearly all of its variant
implementations. Python is managed by the non-profit Python Software
Foundation.

Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high level and interpreted programming

language. It supports object-oriented programming approach to develop
applications. It is simple and easy to learn and provides lots of high level data
structures. The Application Programmer’s Interface to Python gives C and C++
programmers access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels. The API is
equally usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally referred to as the
Python/C API. There are two fundamentally different reasons for using the
Python/C API. The first reason is to write extension modules for specific
31
purposes; these are C modules that extend the Python interpreter. This is
probably the most common use. The second reason is to use Python as a
component in a larger application; this technique is generally referred to as
embedding Python in an application.

Open source libraries: Pandas, Numpy, SciPy, matplotlib, OpenCV

Python Versions

Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000 and had many major new features,
including a cycle-detecting, garbage collector, and support for Unicode. With
this release, the development process became more transparent and community-
backed.

Python 3.0 (initially called Python 3000 or py3k) was released on 3 December
2008 after a long testing period. It is a major revision of the language that is not
completely backward-compatible with previous versions. However, many of its
major features have been back ported to the Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x version
series, and releases of Python 3 include the 2to3 utility, which automates the
translation of Python 2 code to Python 3. Python 2.7 s end-of-life date (a.k.a.
EOL, sunset date) was initially set at 2015, then postponed to 2020 out of
concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to
Python 3.In January 2017, Google announced work on a Python 2.7 to go
Tran’s compiler to improve performance under concurrent workloads. Python
3.6 had changes regarding UTF-8 (in Windows, PEP 528 and PEP 529) and
Python 3.7.0b1 (PEP 540) adds a new &quot;UTF-8 Mode&quot; (and
overrides POSIX locale).

32
WHY PYTHON?

 Python is a scripting language like PHP, Perl, and Ruby.

 No licensing, distribution, or development fees

 It is a Desktop application.

 Linux, windows

 Excellent documentation

 Thriving developer community

5.2 OpenCV:

OpenCV-Python is a library of Python bindings designed to solve computer

vision problems. Python is a general purpose programming language started by
Guido van Rossum that became very popular very quickly, mainly because of
its simplicity and code readability. It enables the programmer to express ideas in
fewer lines of code without reducing readability. Computer Vision is one of the
techniques from which we can understand images and videos and can extract
information from them. Python OpenCV is the most popular computer vision
library. By using it, one can process images and videos to identify objects,
faces, or even handwriting of a human. When it is integrated with various
libraries, such as NumPy, python is capable of processing the OpenCV array
structure for analysis.

33
Installation:

To install OpenCV, one must have Python and PIP, preinstalled on their system.

After installing both Python and PIP, type the below command in the terminal.
pip install opencv-python

Features Of OpenCV:

OpenCV has a modular structure, which means that the package includes
several shared or static libraries. The following modules are available:

 Core - a compact module defining basic data structures, including the

dense multi-dimensional array Mat and basic functions used by all
other modules.

 Imgproc - an image processing module that includes linear and non-

linear image filtering, geometrical image transformations (resize,
affine and perspective warping, generic table-based remapping), color
space conversion, histograms, and so on.

 Video - a video analysis module that includes motion estimation,

background subtraction, and object tracking algorithms.

 Calib3d - basic multiple-view geometry algorithms, single and stereo

camera calibration, object pose estimation, stereo correspondence
algorithms, and elements of 3D reconstruction.

 Features2d - salient feature detectors, descriptors, and descriptor

matchers.

 Object detection - detection of objects and instances of the predefined

classes (for example, faces, eyes, mugs, people, cars, and so on).

34
  High GUI - an easy-to-use interface to video capturing, image and
video codecs, as well as simple UI capabilities.

 GPU - GPU-accelerated algorithms from different OpenCV modules.

 Some other helper modules, such as FLANN and Google test

wrappers, Python bindings, and others. Compared to languages like
C/C++, Python is slower. That said, Python can be easily extended
with C/C++, which allows us to write computationally intensive code
in C/C++ and create Python wrappers that can be used as Python
modules. This gives us two advantages: first, the code is as fast as the
original C/C++ code (since it is the actual C++ code working in
background) and second, it easier to code in Python than C/C++.
OpenCV-Python is a Python wrapper for the original OpenCV C++
implementation.

Advantages Of OpenCV:

 OpenCV is written in C++ and its primary interface is in C++, because

C++ is very fast language and have slow run time. This is very useful
because we are going to develop real-time computer vision applications
for that we need really high processing.

 OpenCV is a versatile module. One of the important features of OpenCV

is that, there are bindings in python, java and MATLAB/OCTAVE
programming languages. This allowed many developers to build their
applications using Python, Java, JavaScript or MATLAB.

 It is the reason why millions of developers from the world use OpenCV
to build computer vision applications. Vision gesture, Color Detection,
35
 Object detection, Segmentation and Recognition are great examples of
Uses OpenCV.

5.3 Numpy

Numpy, which stands for Numerical Python, is a library consisting of

multidimensional array objects and a collection of routines for processing those
arrays. Using Numpy, mathematical and logical operations on arrays can be
performed. This tutorial explains the basics of Numpy such as its architecture
and environment. It also discusses the various array functions, types of
indexing, etc. An introduction to Matplotlib is also provided. All this is
explained with the help of examples for better understanding. Numpy is a
Python package. It stands for Numerical Python. It is a library consisting of
multidimensional array objects and a collection of routines for processing of
array. Numeric, the ancestor of Numpy, was developed by Jim Hamelin.
Another package Numara was also developed, having some additional
functionality. In 2005, Travis Oliphant created Numpy package by
incorporating the features of Numara into Numeric package. There are many
contributors to this open source project.The Python programming language was
not initially designed for numerical computing, but attracted the attention of the
scientific and engineering community early on, so that a special interest group
called matrix-sig was founded in 1995 with the aim of defining an array
computing package. Among its members was Python designer and maintainer
Guido van Rossum, who implemented extensions to Python’s syntax (in
particular the indexing syntax) to make array computing easier.

36
Operations Using Numpy

Using Numpy, a developer can perform the following operations :

 Mathematical and logical operations on arrays.

 Fourier transforms and routines for shape manipulation.

 Operations related to linear algebra. Numpy has in-built functions for

linear algebra and random number generation.

Arrays

A Numpy array is a grid of values, all of the same type, and is indexed
by a tuple of nonnegative integers. The number of dimensions is the rank of the
array; the shape of an array is a tuple of integers giving the size of the array
along each dimension. Every Numpy array is a grid of elements of the same
type. Numpy provides a large set of numeric datatypes that you can use to
construct arrays. Numpy tries to guess a datatype when you create an array, but
functions that construct arrays usually also include an optional argument to
explicitly specify the datatype.

5.4 Image Module

Functions Of Image Module:

 Read An Image Using OpenCV

Use the function cv2.imread() to read an image. The image should be in the
working directory or a full path of image should be given.Second argument is a
flag which specifies the way image should be read.

 cv2.imread_color : Loads a color image. Any transparency of image will

37
 be neglected. It is the g. default flueg.

 cv2.imread_grayscale : Loads image in grayscale mode

 cv2.imread_unchanged : Loads image as such including alpha channel

 Display An Image
Use the function cv2.imshow() to display an image in a window. The window
automatically fits to the image size.

First argument is a window name which is a string. second argument is our

image. You can create as many windows as you wish, but with different
window names.

cv2.imshow('image',img)

cv2.waitKey(0)

cv2.destroyAllWindows()

 cv2.waitKey() is a keyboard binding function. Its argument is the time

in milliseconds. The function waits for specified milliseconds for any
keyboard event. If you press any key in that time, the program continues.
If 0 is passed,it waits indefinitely for a key stroke. It can also be set to
detect specific key strokes like, if key a is pressed etc which we will
discuss below.

 cv2.destroyAllWindows() simply destroys all the windows we

created. If you want to destroy any specific window, use the function
cv2.destroyWindow() where you pass the exact window name as the
argument.

38
5.5 Camera Module

 Capture Video From Camera

Often, we have to capture live stream with camera. OpenCV provides a very
simple interface to this. Let’s capture a video from the camera (I am using the
in-built webcam of my laptop), convert it into grayscale video and display it.
Just a simple task to get started.To capture a video, you need to create a
VideoCapture object. Its argument can be either the device index or the name of
a video file. Device index is just the number to specify which camera. Normally
one camera will be connected (as in my case). So I simply pass 0 (or -1). You
can select the second camera by passing 1 and so on. After that, you can capture
frame-by-frame. But at the end, don’t forget to release the capture.

5.6 Object Module

The Object module will allow you to draw different geometric shapes with
OpenCV

You will learn these functions : cv2.line(), cv2.circle() , cv2.rectangle(),

cv2.ellipse(), cv2.putText() etc.

In all the above functions, you will see some common arguments as given
below:

 img: The image where you want to draw the shapes

 color: Color of the shape. for BGR, pass it as a tuple, eg: (255,0,0) for
blue. For grayscale, just pass the scalar value.

 thickness: Thickness of the line or circle etc. If -1 is passed for closed

figures like circles, it will fill the shape.

 default thickness = 1

39
  lineType : Type of line, whether 8-connected, anti-aliased line etc. By
default, it is 8-connected. cv2.LINE_AA gives anti-aliased line which
looks great for curves

Drawing Line in OpenCV

To draw a line, you need to pass starting and ending coordinates of line. We
will create a black image and draw a blue line on it from top-left to bottom-right
corners.

import numpy as np

import cv2

img = cv2.line(img,(0,0),(511,511),(255,0,0),5)

Drawing Rectangle

To draw a rectangle, you need top-left corner and bottom-right corner of

rectangle. This time we will draw a green rectangle at the top-right corner of
image.

img = cv2.rectangle(img,(384,0),(510,128),(0,255,0),3)

5.7 Pandas

Pandas is an open-source library that is made mainly for working with relational
or labeled data both easily and intuitively. It provides various data structures
and operations for manipulating numerical data and time series. This library is

40
built on top of the NumPy library. Pandas is fast and it has high performance &
productivity for users.

To install Pandas, type the below command in the terminal:

pip install pandas

Features Of Pandas

 Great Data Handling:

The Pandas library provides its users with Series and DataFrames,
both of which are efficient and fast ways of managing data and
exploring it. They also aid us in representing our data efficiently,
allowing us to manipulate it in a variety of ways. This feature is the
one that makes Pandas so efficient for data scientists.

 Handling Of Missing Data:

Data is often complex and very confusing to decipher. But that is just
the beginning. The unprocessed nature of data creates many problems,
one of which is the frequent occurrence of missing values and data. It
is very important to handle all the values which are missing properly
otherwise they tend to contaminate the end results of our study.
Pandas have the handling of missing data integrated into its library
and some of its features have you covered on this front.

 Indexing And Alignment:

41
 You may have a lot of data but all of it is useless when you don't know
what it depicts or where any of it actually belongs. Therefore it is
paramount that the data is labeled. Another important note is to keep it
organized. If the organization is not done correctly, the data will be
impossible to read. Pandas have several unique methods of indexing
and aligning its data which takes care of the needs for the organizing
and labelling of data.

 Tools For Input And Output:

Pandas offer you a large variety of tools that are built-in which help
you in reading and writing data. When you try to understand your
data, you will obviously have to write it into databases, data
structures, web services, etc. and read them from these sources too.
Pandas' built-in tools have made these tasks very simple.

 Data Clean-Up:

Like we discussed, data can be quite unprocessed. This often makes it

extremely adulterated and performing any research or analysis on such
unprocessed data can lead to results that are far from reality. Thus
cleaning our data is very important and Pandas provides this feature to
us.They help in making our code cleaner and the data clean enough for
the human eye to see what's happening. Cleaner data gives better
results.

42
 Support For Multiple File Formats:

There are various different file formats these days in which data is
present. Therefore it becomes important that there are libraries that
can read and analyze different file formats. Pandas leave its peers far
behind with the number of file formats it supports. Pandas can support
JSON, CSV, HDF5, and Excel. This is one of the biggest selling
points of Pandas.

 Multiple Features For Time Series:

If you are a beginner, this feature might not make complete sense to
you now but you will love it in the days to come. These set of features
include frequency conversion and moving window statistics as well.
As we learn more about Pandas, we will realize how important these
features are for people working in data science.

 Joining And Merging Datasets:

When we analyse data, there is a constant need to join and merge

different datasets to create a final one for analysis. A robust system for
this is required because if the datasets don’t get joined or merged
properly, our results will get affected and that is not good. Pandas is
extremely efficient in merging various datasets.

 Support For Python:

 This feature just eliminates any opposition that Pandas has. Python,
with a scarcely believable number of powerful libraries at its disposal,

43
 has become one of the leading programming languages used by data
scientists.

 Pandas can be a part of Python and give us access to other helpful

libraries like MatPlotLib and NumPy.

 Grouping Of Data:

Pandas have various features, one of them being GroupBy, which

helps you to separate data into chosen categories according to criteria
given by you. This function splits the data and implements the given
function on them. It then combines the results.

 Visualization Of Data:

 A huge part of data science is the visualization of data. This is what

makes the study's results understandable to normal human eyes.

 Pandas offer in-build abilities that help you in plotting your data and
analyzing the different kinds of graphs which form. If there is no
visualization, any analysis of data would make no sense to almost
anyone.

 Unique Data:

 In unprocessed data, there is a lot of repetition. Therefore it is

essential that we analyze only those data that have unique values.

 Pandas offer us this feature which lets us see all the values in the
dataset which are unique. This function

44
 is dataset.column.unique() where the keywords column and dataset are
the respective names of your column and dataset.

 Masking Data:

There is always unnecessary data present in our datasets which we

don't require. Therefore it is essential that we filter these data which
we don't want. The mask function which Pandas provides helps us in
doing exactly data as it turns any data that meets our given criteria for
elimination, it turns it into missing data.

 Mathematical Operations:

Pandas have a function called apply which allows its users to

implement all kinds of mathematical operations on their data. This is
of enormous help as one's dataset may or may not be of the correct
order. This is taken care of by a simple mathematical operation.

Applications Of Pandas

 Economics:

 Data analysis is a constant need for Economics because it's always

changing. The data needs to be analyzed to create patterns and trends
which are then analyzed and interpreted to understand how the
economy in various sectors is faring, something which is of extreme
importance to economists. A lot of modern-day economists have taken
to pandas and python to handle huge datasets and interpret that data.
45
 Pandas have an extensive list of inbuilt tools and functions that make
it the efficient package it is.

 Tools like file-handling and data frames are extremely useful to access
data and manipulate it to get the results we want. These applications of
Pandas has helped Economists all over the world to make
breakthroughs and studies they could not do earlier.

 Neuroscience:

 Understanding how our brains (and consequently the entire nervous

system) work has been an unfulfilled wish of doctors since time
immemorial because they believe that it will help discover answers to
many mysteries that our body holds.
 Machine Learning, driven by the numerous applications of pandas, has
helped this field a lot. Once again, pandas' great capability of data
manipulation has played a huge role. They have helped compile
copious amounts of data and analysed it to produce results which are
quite significant for neuroscientists.

 Prediction Of Stocks:

 Few things in the world are as volatile as the stock market. This is
literally one of the biggest datasets in the world. Although it is almost
impossible to predict the changes in stock market, with the correct
application of Pandas and some help from a few libraries like
MatPlotLib and NumPy, you can easily make models which can
predict (to a large extent) how the stock market will turn out to be.

46
  This is only possible because of the huge datasets we have in terms of
the previous behaviour of the stocks which inform the system about
their behaviour both individual ad codependently. By learning these
behaviours and movements, a good model will be able to predict with
quite a bit of accuracy as to what your next move should be.

 Statistical Analysis:

Statistics itself means dealing with loads of data. Hence a library like
pandas is able to help in various ways because it basically deals with
various forms of data handling and its functions. The basic functions
of mean, median, and mode are quite helpful while performing
calculations based on statistics. There are loads of other functions in
pandas which help you with getting better results in Statistics.

 Natural Language Processing (NLP):

A very common buzzword right now, Natural Language Processing or

NLP has announced its arrival to the world in style. The main purpose
of this concept is to help computers understand the normal human
language and the various nuances it possesses. This is quite a difficult
task to accomplish, but with pandas at your service along with Scikit-
Learn, you can create a basic model for NLP which you can enhance
later on. You can use various functions and other libraries to help you
out.

 Analytics:

47
 Analytics is everywhere. Whether you want to analyse a website or
analyse any other platform, pandas helps you in doing it all. Its
efficient data handling capabilities and dynamic data manipulation
combined with its amazing visualization capabilities play a huge role
in helping it ace this field.

 Data Science:

Most of the examples we have discussed are a part and parcel of data
science. It is a huge umbrella which covers any and every field that
deals with the analysis, handling, and manipulation of data. Therefore
almost all of pandas applications fall under it.

 Big Data:

Python has a great link with Spark and Hadoop. Therefore Pandas can
work with Big data too

Advantages

 Fast and efficient for manipulating and analyzing data.

 Data from different file objects can be loaded.

 Data set merging and joining.

 Flexible reshaping and pivoting of data sets

 Provides time-series functionality.

 Excellent representation of data

5.8 PyCharm

48
 Available as a cross-platform application, PyCharm is compatible with
Linux, macOS, and Windows platforms. Sitting gracefully among the best
Python IDEs, PyCharm provides support for both Python 2 and Python 3
versions. PyCharm can be customized as per the development requirements, and
personal preferences call for. It was released to the public for the very first time
back in February of 2010.

PyCharm Features:

 Intelligent Code Editor

PyCharm comes with a smart code editor that facilitates writing
high-quality Python code. It offers an enhanced level of code comprehension
and readability by means of distinct color schemes for keywords, classes,
and functions, i.e., syntax and error highlighting. In addition to offering the
smart code completion feature, the code editor generates instructions for
completing the current code. Identifying errors and issues is much more
comfortable, along with linter integration and quick fixes.

 Availability of Integration Tools

PyCharm provides support for integrating a range of tools. These
tools vary from helping in enhancing the code productivity to facilitate
dealing with data science projects. Some of the most essential integration
tools available for PyCharm include:

• Anaconda - A free and open-source Python distribution geared

towards scientific computing with simplified package management
and deployment.

• IPython - A robust command shell for interactive computing.

49
• Kite - An AI-powered autocomplete plugin.

• Pylint - A source-code, bug, and quality checker.

• pytest - A framework for writing small tests for Python code.

 Integrated Debugging And Testing

An IDE comes with support for debugging and testing
programs. To accomplish the same, PyCharm features an integrated
Python debugger and integrated unit testing with line-by-line code
coverage.

 Project And Code Navigation

 The code navigation feature makes it much easier for

developers to navigate to a class, function, or file. It also helps
in significantly cutting-down effort and time required to edit
and enhance the Python code. File structure views and
specialized project views are readily available.
 The lens mode allows a developer to inspect and debug the
entire Python source code thoroughly. With code navigation,
locating an element, variable, etc. is done in almost no time.
Developers can quickly jump between classes, files, and
methods.

 Refactoring

 The refactoring feature in PyCharm helps in improving the internal

structure of a Python program without affecting the external

50
 performance of the same. Making changes to both local and global
variables is efficient and fast.
 The extract method is also there to split up extended classes and
functions. Other useful code refactoring features include:

I. Introduce constant
II. Introduce variable
III. Pull up
IV. Push down

 Remote Development

PyCharm allows running, debugging, testing, and deploying applications

on remote hosts or virtual machines. For the purpose, the Python IDE
offers:

• An integrated SSH terminal

• Docker and Vagrant integration
• Remote interpreters

 Version Control Systems (VCSs) Integration

 In its simplicity, a version control system (VCS) keeps track of the

changes made to files, applications, and other sources of information. It
can be considered as a database of changes.
 PyCharm provides a unified user interface for CVS, Git, Mercurial,
Perforce, and Subversion.

 Other Pycharm Features

• Code generation for generating language-specific code constructs.

51
 • Code reference information for instantly accessing API documentation,
hints on using various programming entities, etc
• File templates for creating scripts, stub classes, etc
• Import assistance for importing missing libraries
• Intention actions and quick fixes for optimizing code
• Language-specific tools for developing, running, testing, and deploying
applications
• Language injections to work with supported languages inside attributes,
tags, or string literals
• Live templates for expanding abbreviations into complicated code
constructs

Installing And Setting Up Pycharm

 Recommended System Requirements

Memory - 8GB
Storage Space - 5GB of SSD
Resolution - 1920x1080
OS - Any latest 64-bit version of macOS/Microsoft Windows/Linux

52
 6. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS

 Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization:

This algorithm can be applied to improve the contrast of the
images. This algorithm works by creating several histograms of the image and
uses all of these histograms to redistribute the lightness of the image. CLAHE
can be applied to greyscale as well as colour images.

 Color Image Enhancement Of Acute Leukemia Cells In

Blood Microscopic Image For Leukemia Detection Sample
Leukemia is a type of cancer that affects the white blood cell.
Early detection of leukemia is important to reduce the rate of mortality. In order
to detect acute leukemia, conventional screening method based on microscopic
image is used, where sample of blood cell will be taken from the suspected
leukemia patient and manually white blood cell (WBC) condition is observed
using microscope. With introduction to a new enhancement method which is a
combination of Particle swarm optimization (PSO), PSO algorithm is used to
perform image segmentation to remove all the unwanted part such as red blood
cell (RBC), platelet and also the background while retain the WBC part. The
segmentation algorithm uses saturation S-component based on Hue, Saturation,
Intensity (HSI) color model.

 Object Segregation:
An object can be segregated on the basis of color

 Object Tracking:
A moving object can be tracked based on its color
53
 Automobiles:
In self-driving car ,to detect the traffic signals.

 Segregation Of Items:
Multiple color detection is used in some industrial robots, to
performing pick-and-place task in separating different colored objects.

54
 7. CONCLUSION

In this paper we defined to get the required color field from an RGB image. In
this various steps are implemented using OpenCV platform. The main positive
point of this method is its color differentiation of a mono color. In the future
scope, the detection of the edge detection techniques has different other
applications like facial detection color conversion for grey scale image etc. That
can also be implemented.

55
CODING:

import numpy as np

import pandas as pd

import cv2

import imutils

camera = cv2.VideoCapture(0)

r = g = b = xpos = ypos = 0

index = ['color', 'color_name', 'hex', 'R', 'G', 'B']

df = pd.read_csv('colors.csv', names=index, header=None)

def getcolorname(R, G, B):

minimum = 10000

for i in range(len(df)):

d = abs(R - int(df.loc[i, "R"])) + abs(G - int(df.loc[i, "G"])) + abs(B - int(df.loc[i, "B"]))

56
 if (d <= minimum):

minimum = d

cname = df.loc[i, 'color_name'] + ' Hex=' + df.loc[i, 'hex']

return cname

def identify_color(event, x, y, flags, param):

global b, g, r, xpos, ypos, clicked

xpos = x

ypos = y

b, g, r = frame[y, x]

b = int(b)

g = int(g)

r = int(r)

cv2.namedWindow('image')

cv2.setMouseCallback('image', identify_color)

while True:

(grabbed, frame) = camera.read()

frame = imutils.resize(frame, width=900)

kernal = np.ones((5, 5), "uint8")

57
 cv2.rectangle(frame, (20, 20), (800, 60), (b, g, r), -1)

text = getcolorname(b, g, r) + ' R=' + str(r) + ' G=' + str(g) + ' B=' + str(b)

cv2.putText(frame, text, (50, 50), 2, 0.8, (255, 255, 255), 2, cv2.LINE_AA)

if (r + g + b >= 600):

cv2.putText(frame, text, (50, 50), 2, 0.8, (0, 0, 0), 2, cv2.LINE_AA)

cv2.imshow('image', frame)

if cv2.waitKey(20) & 0xFF == 27:

break

camera.release()

cv2.destroyAllWindows()

58
OUTPUT WITH SAMPLE SCREENSHOT

The Project’s Code

Goto The Project Folder And Select The Path Location

59
 Copy The Path Location

Open The Command Prompt

60
Enter The Path Name Along With “Cd” Command In The Command Prompt

Enter The File Name In The Cmd Along With “Py” Command

61
 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. R. Haralick and L. Shapiro, Computer and Robot Vision, volume II.

Addison-Wesley, 1992.

2. C. Schmid, R. Mohr, and C. Bauckhage, “Evaluation of interest point

detectors,” International Journal of Computer Vision, vol. 37, no. 2, pp.
151–172, 2000.

3. J. Shi and C. Tomasi, “Good features to track,” in IEEE conference on

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 1994.

4. S. Di Zenzo, “Note: A note on the gradient of a multi-image,” Computer

Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 116–125,
1986.

5. J. Bigun, “Pattern recognition in images by symmetry and coordinate

transformations,” Computer Vision and Image Understanding, vol. 68,
no. 3, pp. 290–307, 1997.

6. J. Bigun, G. Granlund, and J. Wiklund, “Multidimensional orientation

estimation with applications to texture analysis and opitcal flow,” IEEE
trans. on pattern analysis and machine intelligence, vol. 13, no. 8, pp.
775–790, 1991.

7. O. Hansen and J. Bigun, “Local symmetry modeling in multi-dimensional

images,” pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 13, pp. 253–262, 1992.

8. J. van de Weijer, L. van Vliet, P. Verbeek, and M. van Ginkel,

“Curvature estimation in oriented patterns using curvilinear models
applied to gradient vector fields,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 1035–1042, 2001.

9. S. Shafer, “Using color to seperate reflection components,” COLOR

research and application, vol. 10, pp. 210–218, Winter 1985.
62
10. T. Gevers and H. Stokman, “Robust histogram construction from color
invariants for object recognition,” IEEE Trans. On Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence (PAMI), vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 113–118, 2004.

11. T. Gevers and A.W. M. Smeulders, “Color based object recognition,”

Pattern Recognition, vol. 32, pp. 453–464, March 1999.

12. G. Klinker and S. Shafer, “A physical approach to color image

understanding,” Int. Journal of Computer Vision, vol. 4, pp. 7–38, 1990.

13. J. Geusebroek, R. van den Boomgaard, A. Smeulders, and H. Geerts,

“Color invariance,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis Machine Intell., vol.
23, no. 12, pp. 1338–1350, 2001.

14. J. van de Weijer, T. Gevers, and J. Geusebroek, “Edge and corner

detection by photometric quasi-invariants,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis
and Machine Intelligence, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 625–630, 2005.

15. L. Itti, C. Koch, and E. Niebur, “Computation modeling of visual

attention,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 2, pp. 194–203, March
2001.

16. J. van de Weijer and T. Gevers, “Boosting color saliency in image

feature detection,” in Int’l Conf. Computer Vision and Pattern
Recognition, (San Diego, CA, USA), 2005.

17. J. van de Weijer, T. Gevers, and A. Bagdanov, “Boosting color saliency

in image feature detection,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 150–156, 2006.

18. T. Gevers and H. Stokman, “Classification of color edges in video into

shadow-geometry, highlight, or material transitions,” IEEE Trans. on
Multimedia, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 237–243, 2003.

19. T. Gevers and F. Aldershoff, “Color feature detection and classification

63
 by learning,” in Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Image
Processing (ICIP), 2005.

20. J. van de Weijer, T. Gevers, and A. Smeulders, “Robust photometric

invariant features from the color tensor,” IEEE Trans.Image Processing,
vol. 154, no. 1, 2006.

21. S. D. Zenzo, “A note on the gradient of a multi-image,” Computer

Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, vol. 33, pp. 116–125, 1986.

22. G. Sapiro and D. L. Ringach, “Anisotropic diffusion of multivalued

images with applications to color filtering,” IEEE Transactions Pattern
Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 1582–1586, 1996.

23. G. Sapiro and D. Ringach, “Anisotropic diffusion of multivalued images

with applications to color filtering,” IEEE Trans.Image Processing, vol. 5,
pp. 1582–1586, Oct 1996.

24. C. Harris and M. Stephens, “A combined corner and edge detector,” in

Proc. 4th Alvey Vision Conf., vol. 15, pp. 147–151,1988.

25. D. H. Ballard, “Generalizing the Hough transform to detect arbitrary

shapes,” Pattern Recognition, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 111–122,1981.

26. H. Markowitz, “Portfolio selection,” Journal of Finance, vol. 7, 1952.

27. P. Wolfe, “The simplex method for quadratic programming,”

Econometrica, vol. 27, no. 3, 1959.

28. Rafael, C. Gonzalez and Richard E. Woods. “Digital Image Processing,”

2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 2002.

29. Gabriel Thomas, Daniel Flores-Tapia, and Stephen Pistorius, “Histogram

Specification: A Fast and Flexible Method to Process Digital Images,”
IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 60, no. 5,
May 2011, pp.1565-1578
64
30. Mohd Firdaus Zakaria, Haidi Ibrahim, and Shahrel Azmin Suandi, “A
Review: Image Compensation Techniques,”2nd International Conference
on Computer Engineering and Technology 2010, vol. 7, pp. 404-408.

31. Nyamlkhagva Sengee, Altansukh Sengee, and Heung-Kook Choi,

“Image Contrast Enhancement using Bi-Histogram Equalization with
Neighborhood Metrics,” IEEE Trans.Consumer Electronics, vol.56, no. 4,
pp. 2727-2734, Nov

32. Dileep MD, and A. Sreenivasa Murthy, “A Comparison Between

Different Color Image Contrast Enhancement Algorithms,” Proceedings
of IEEE ICETECT 2011, pp. 708-712.

33. Youhei Terai, Tomio Goto, Satoshi Hirano, and Masaru Sakuari, “Color
Image Contrast Enhanncement by Retinex Model”, 13th IEEE
International Symposium on Consumer Electronics 2009, pp. 392-393.

34. Hanumantharaju M.C., Ravishankar M., Rameshbabu D.R., and

Ramchandran S., “Color Image Enhancement using Multiscale Retinex
with Modified Color Restoration Technique,” Second International
Conference on Emerging Applications of Information Tecnology 2011,
pp. 93-97.

35. In-su Jang, Tae-Hyoung Lee, Ho-Gun Ha, and Yeong-Ho Ha, “Adaptive
Color Enhancement Based on Multi-Scaled Retinex using Local Contrast
of the Input Image” 2011.

36. Li He, Ling Luo, and Jin Shang, “An Image Enhancement Algorithm
Based Retinex Theory,” International Workshop on Education
Technology and Computer Science 2009, pp. 350-352.

65