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DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Animals use various reproductive strategies to increase their reproductive success in different
environments
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
EXTERNAL INTERNAL
DESCRIPTION Large amount of sperm and egg cells The male deposits its sperm inside the
are released reproductive organs of the female
Sperm cells can be released close to the Fertilisation occurs inside the female’s
eggs reproductive organs.
The sperm fertilises the egg outside the
body of the female, usually in water.
ADVANTAGES - Water prevents the eggs from drying out Allows terrestrial animals to reproduce
and allows the sperm to swim towards the in a dry environment without the need
egg for water.
Internal fertilisation is more certain
than external fertilisation.
developing embryo is protected
less energy used to produce gametes
DISADVANTAGES Eggs are exposed to predators -fewer offspring produced
Eggs are also exposed to negative
environmental conditions
more energy is needed to produce
large number of gametes
EXAMPLES Fish, amphibians, Mammals, reptiles, birds and insects
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OVIPARY, OVOVIVIPARY & VIVIPARY
Reproductive strategies that indicate where the embryo develops and receives nutrients
OVIPARY OVOVIVIPARY VIVIPARY
DESCRIPTION Embryo develops in an Embryo develops in an Embryo develops
egg outside the females egg in the females body without a shell in the
body Eggs hatch inside the female’s body
Fertilization can be female’s body Fertilization is internal
external or internal fertilization is internal
ADVANTAGES Egg provides: Embryos obtain their Physical connection to
- nutrition for the nutrients from the egg mother to receive
developing embryo yolk. nutrients
- protects the embryo. The eggs are protected Nutrients are received
from predators until for a longer period from
A shelled egg frees these hatching occurs. the mother’s.
animals from the need to Embryo is protected in
reproduce in water. the body of the mother.
EXAMPLES Fish, amphibians, reptiles & Snakes,sharks Mammals
birds
AMNIOTIC EGG
Oviparous vertebrates have an amniotic egg and the embryo develops inside the egg
Embryo protected by the shell of the egg; egg consists of many extraembryonic membranes that
serve different functions.
Shell – protects the egg
Albumen – serves as reserve food
Yolk – provides nutrients to the embryo
THE EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
Chorion – outermost membrane that allows gaseous
exchange
Amnion – surrounds embryo and protects it from shock,
injuries, temperature changes and dehydration
Allantois – stores waste products/gaseous exchamge
Yolk sac – provides nutrients
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PRECOCIAL AND ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT
Describes the extent of development of the embryo when it is hatched or born
Relates to food supply and protection
PRECOCIAL ALTRICIAL
DESCRIPTION species in which the young are Development in organisms which are
relatively mature and mobile from the incapable of moving around on their
moment of birth or hatching own soon after hatching or being
They are able to walk, run or swim born
Eyes open directly after The young needs to be fed and taken
birth/hatchling care of for a long duration.
Can regulate own body temperature Often hairless or with no feathers
Hatchlings are more independent Can’t regulate own body temperature
Can’t feed themselves
Depend on parents for protection
EXAMPLES Chickens, ducks, sheep, cattle Humans, doves, cats, dogs, primates
PARENTAL CARE
Parental care offered through building of nests, protecting the eggs, protecting the young,
teaching the young.
Increases chances of survival of the young.
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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The male reproductive system
mainly consists of:
Testes
Tubules for transport of
the sperm
Accessory glands
Penis
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THE TESTES
- The testes occur in the scrotum and hang away from
the body in order for them to have a lower
temperature than the body temperature to ensure
optimal temperature for sperm production
- The scrotum protects the testes
- Seminiferous tubules are lined with germinal
epithelial cells that give rise to sperm cells
- The seminiferous tubules also contain Sertoli cells and
Cells of leydig
- Sertoli cells provide food for the developing sperm
cells
- Cells of leydig produce the hormone testosterone
Function of the testes
Produce sperm cells
Produce testosterone
TUBULES FOR TRANSPORT OF THE SPERM & ACCESSORY GLANDS
THE TUBULES FOR TRANSPORT
- Seminiferous tubules join to form the epididymis
- Epididymis stores sperm cells till they mature
- Vas deferens transports sperm cells from the
testes/seminiferous tubules to the urethra
- Urethra transports both urine and sperm to the
exterior of the body
- The release of sperm is called Ejaculation
ACCESSORY GLANDS
- Seminal vesicle secretes a fluid filled with
nutrients to provide energy for the sperm cells
- Prostate gland secretes a fluid that helps with
mobility of the sperm and also neutralizes the
acidity of the vagina
- Cowper’s gland secretes a fluid that clears the
urethra of urine and also lubricates the head of
the penis
- Semen is a combination of the fluids of the
accessory glands and sperm cells
THE PENIS
- The penis is an organ that transfers sperm from
the male into the vagina of the female
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THE STRUCTURE OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system mainly consists of the following parts:
Ovaries
Organs responsible for the transportation and care of the ovum and zygote
External genitalia
Fallopian tubes – transports the ovum from the ovary to the uterus and is also the site
where fertilization occurs. Also transports the zygote to the uterus
Uterus – responsible for the care of the embryo from implantation to birth
Endometrium – a membrane lining the uterus that is the site of implantation
Cervix – allows flow of menstrual blood from the uterus to the vagina
Vagina – where sperm is deposited and also acts as a birth canal
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THE OVARIES
Function of the ovaries
Produces ova
Produces the female hormones
Oestrogen & Progesterone
PUBERTY AND THE HORMONES INVOLVED
1. Testosterone
Description Functions during puberty
Produced by seminiferous tubules in the testes stimulates:
The deepening of the voice
The development of muscles
The growth of facial, pubic and body hair
Development of the penis and testes
The production of sperm in the testes
2. Oestrogen
Description Functions during puberty
Produced by the Graafian follicles in the ovaries stimulates:
Causes the lining of the The widening of the pelvis/hips
uterus/endometrium to become thicker in The growth and development of the breasts
preparation for a possible implantation of The growth of the female sex organs
the embryo and development of the The start of the menstrual cycle, ovulation and
foetus menstruation
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GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis is the formation of gametes by meiosis
Male gametes formed by spermatogenesis
Female gametes formed by oogenesis
The production of gametes is controlled by sex hormones
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
in the seminiferous tubules/testis
Diploid cells • diploid cells in the ovary undergo mitosis
undergo meiosis • to form numerous follicles.
to form 4 haploid spermatids • One cell inside a follicle enlarges and
which mature undergoes meiosis.
to form 4 mature spermatozoa • Of the four cells that are produced, only one
occurs under the influence of Testosterone survives to form a mature, haploid ovum.
Under the influence of FSH
GAMETES
SPERM CELL OVUM
Acrosome – contains enzymes to digest wall of Layer of jelly – protects the fertilized egg cell
egg cell for fertilization Nucleus – contains the 23 maternal
Nucleus – contains 23 paternal chromosomes chromosomes
Mitochondria – provide energy for movement
of sperm cells
Tail – used for swimming
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THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual cycle is a series of events that occur in the female body to prepare it for
possible pregnancy. Involves ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle it takes an average of 28
days.
(1) The pituitary (5) High levels of (6) LH cause ovulation to (8) Corpus
gland secretes FSH Oestrogen stimulates occur and stimulates the luteum
the hypophysis to formation of the corpus secretes the
secrete LH luteum progesterone
(2) FSH stimulates
the development
of follicles in the
ovary
(3) The
developing
Graafian follicle
secretes
oestrogen
(4) Oestrogen
stimulates the
thickening of the
lining of the uterus
endometrium
(7) During ovulation (10) High levels of progesterone (9) Progesterone
the Graafian follicle inhibits the production of FSH so that stimulate the
bursts and its no new follicles develop and also thickening of the
remains forms the prevents ovulation endometrium
corpus luteum
If fertilization occur, If fertilization does not occur,
the corpus luteum develops the corpus luteum degenerates
Progesterone levels remain high stops producing progesterone (decreases)
FSH is inhibited FSH is no longer inhibited and increases
No follicles develop New follicles develop
Endometrium is maintained in Endometrium is no longer maintained and
preparation for implantation degenerates (Menstruation)
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FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION
Fertilization – fusion of a haploid sperm and haploid ovum to produce a diploid zygote
Copulation – transfer of reproductive cells from one individual to another
Implantation - the attachment of the blastocyst to the wall of the uterus
FERTILISATION IMPLANTATION
Semen is deposited from the male into the The zygote
vagina of a female undergoes mitosis
In the Fallopian tubes until a ball of cells is formed called a morula
one sperm cell makes contact with the ovum's The morula continues to divide and forms a
membrane mass of cells with a hollow cavity called a
The nucleus of the sperm enters the ovum blastocyst
Then the ovum membrane becomes the outer membrane of the blastocyst forms
impenetrable to other sperms chorionic villi which attaches to the
The nucleus of the sperm fuses endometrium
with the nucleus of the ovum the chorionic villi and the maternal
to form a diploid zygote endometrium form the placenta
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GESTATION
The placenta
The endometrium forms large blood filled spaces called sinuses and the chorionic villi grow into
these spaces
Therefore the chorionic villi are surrounded by maternal blood
The maternal blood and the foetal blood are in close contact but never mix
Transfer of substances (diffusion) occurs via the thin membrane separating the maternal blood
and foetal blood
Functions of placenta
Nutrition –dissolved nutrients (such as glucose, mineral salts, water and vitamins) are
transported from the placenta via the umbilical cord to the foetus
Excretion – metabolic waste products such as urea are transported from the foetus via umbilical
cord to the placenta
Gaseous exchange – oxygen is transported from the placenta to the foetus, and carbon dioxide
from the foetus to the placenta
Acts as a microfilter – the placenta prevents the entry of pathogenic microorganisms into the
blood of the foetus. But HI virus may cross the barrier and infect the foetus
Endocrine function – after 12th week the placenta takes over the function of the corpus luteum.
The placenta then secretes large quantities of Progesterone and Oestrogen to maintain
pregnancy
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Umbilical cord
The foetus is connected to the placenta by an umbilical cord
The umbilical cord consist of two arteries and one vein
The two umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste products from the foetus to
the placenta
The umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood (rich in oxygen and nutrients) from the placenta to
the foetus
Structural suitability of the placenta
Has villi to enlarge the surface area
Enriched with blood vessels for transport of gases/nutrients/ waste products
Selective permeable membranes to promote diffusion of gases/ substances
Contains blood sinuses to bring blood of mother in close association with that of foetus
Structural suitability of the chorionic villi
The villi increase the surface area across which exchange of substances can take place between
foetal blood and maternal blood
Transport of substances
From mother to foetus From foetus to mother
Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Nutrients/glucose Nitrogenous waste/urea/ammonia
Antibodies Metabolic waste
Water
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THE GESTATION PERIOD
The cells of the embryo continues to divide to form
the different organs and limbs
and is now called a foetus
The foetus is enclosed in a sac called the amnion filled
with amniotic fluid
which protects the foetus against temperature
fluctuations
protects the foetus against dehydration
and acts as a shock absorber
The chorionic villi and the endometrium form the
placenta
where the blood of both the foetus and the mother
run close to each other allowing for nutrients to
diffuse into the blood of the foetus
The umbilical vein carries the absorbed nutrients from
the mother to the foetus
THE AMNION
The amnion encloses the amniotic cavity which is filled with
amniotic fluid
FUNCTIONS OF AMNIOTIC FLUID:
acts as a shock absorber
Protects the foetus from drying out
allows for movement of the foetus
prevent great variation in temperature
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PROTECTION OF THE FOETUS DURING GESTATION
The foetus develops inside the uterus
And is protected by the mother’s body
Antibodies from the mothers blood
Placenta acts as a microfilter preventing toxins from the mother entering the foetal blood
The foetus is enclosed by the amnion
Which contains amniotic fluid provides protection against dehydration and acts as a shock
absorber and temperature changes
NATURAL BIRTH
A normal pregnancy lasts for 40 weeks
When a baby is ready to be born turns head down and
puts pressure on the cervix
This pressure on the cervix stimulates the hypophysis to
secrete Oxytocin
Oxytocin stimulates the muscles of the uterus to contract
Due to afterbirth which decreases progesterone levels
drop and the hypophysis secretes Prolactin
Prolactin stimulates the mammary glands to secrete milk
Therefore Prolactin is inhibited by the high levels of
progesterone during pregnancy hence milk is not
secreted while pregnant
Functions of the vagina
Serves as a birth canal
Allows for passage of blood/ endometrial lining/amniotic fluid/placenta
Facilitates sexual intercourse /receives semen
Secretes acid which prevents infections
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Functions of the uterus
Encloses and protects the developing embryo/foetus
Forms part of the placenta
Which provides for the nutrition/ gaseous exchange/ excretion of the embryo
Allows for implantation/attachment of the embryo
Contracts during labour for child birth
Difference between fraternal and identical twins
Non-identical/fraternal/dizygotic twins Identical/monozygotic twins
Produced when two egg cells are fertilised by two Formed when one sperm fuses with one egg cell
sperms to form a zygote which then splits up into two
Different gender Same gender
Different DNA Same DNA
Reasons for infertility
Man has low sperm count
Blocked Fallopian tubes
Sexually transmitted diseases
Irregular menstrual cycles
Imbalance of the hormones concerned with ovulation
Progesterone
Produced by the corpus luteum and placenta
Progesterone causes further thickening of the endometrium so that it is ready for implantation
of the embryo should fertilisation occur
High levels of progesterone inhibits the secretion of FSH by the pituitary gland which in turn
prevents the further development of any new ovum in the ovary
Relationship between FSH and progesterone
High levels of progesterone in a pregnant woman inhibits the secretion of FSH / Follicle stimulating
hormone by the pituitary gland this prevents the further development of any new ovum and no
further ovulation occurs
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BIRTH CONTROL (CONTRACEPTIVES)
Withdrawal The penis is taken out of the vagina before ejaculation but is not a safe method
because sperm can be released before ejaculation
Rhythm Sexual intercourse is avoided three to four days before and after ovulation
condom Acts as a barrier, stops sperm getting into the vagina
Female condom Acts as a barrier, stops sperm getting into the uterus/fallopian tubes
(femidom)
Diaphragm Acts a barrier as it covers the cervical opening and prevents sperm from entering
the uterus. Used with spermicides
Cervical cap Fits over the cervix and prevents the entry of sperm
Intra-uterine It prevents fertilized ova/embryos from becoming attached to the uterine wall
device (IUD)/loop
Spermicides Contain a chemical substance that kills sperm and it also acts as a barrier, which
prevents sperm from entering through the cervix
Contraceptive Contain progesterone or a combination of Oestrogen and progesterone which
injection stops ovulation. Works for 2 to 3 months
Contraceptive pill Contains artificially produced hormones which prevents the production of
ova/ovulation
Male sterilization The vas deferens are cut and tied. Semen is without sperm is produced
(vasectomy)
Female The fallopian tubes are cut and tied during a small surgical operation preventing
sterilization (tubal the fusion of sperm and ovum
ligation)
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