1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 MACHINE DESIGN Machine design is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of machines and expressing those ideas in the form of plans and drawings Design Procedure : The procedure for designing a machine usually involves the following important steps. j, Statement of problem ii, Analysis of the problem iii, Selection of mechanism, materials and stresses iv. Preparation of the preliminary design y. Revision of design vi, Making the final drawings i, Statement of problem. Involves writing down all the data and also what is required. This information will indicate the nature of the problem and purpose of the design.2. Dov sign of Machine Elements - | Analysis of the problem It is the analysis of all external and internal forces acting on the machine part, The various forces are, (i) Forces or load due to the energy transmitted by the parts (ii) Forces due to dead weight (iii) Forces due to frictional resistance (iv) Inertia forces due to changes in velocity, (v) Centrifugal forces due to changes in the direction of motion (vi) Forces due to changes of temperature (vii) Forces due to procedures in manufacturing (viii) Forces due to the shape of the part ete, Assumptions, sketches, direction of forces, magnitude, point of application of the forces ete must be considered while analysing the problem. iii. Selection of mechanism, material and stresses ‘The most important part in designing a machine is to select the proper mechanism, material and allowable stresses. Mechanism : While selecting a mechanism importance must be given to strength, accuracy of motion, efficiency and cost. Material : While selecting a material consideration must be given to the life of various parts, availability, application and cost. Stress : The selection of proper allowable stress while designing a machine element requires the working knowledge of materials. The selection must be based on the analysis of load variations, stress distribution due to abrupt changes in sections and other working conditions. iv. Preparation of preliminary design The purpose of the preliminary design is to determine the probable dimensions of all the parts. While deciding the dimensions strength, rigidity and resistance to wear must be considered. The shapes decided upon in the preliminary design must be drawn on paper in the form of free hand sketches. Also in preliminary design all calculations must be completed as far as possible and noted in a neat legible form. y. Revision of design Before working drawings are made from the sketches of the preliminary design, these sketches must be revised to take into account of all practical requirements such as manufacturing requirement, operation requirement, assembly requirement eteInraduction 3 Manufacturing Requirements ‘The first step in revision is to consider the problems of manufacturing such as those involved in the making of patterns, methods of forging, machining etc. Operation requirements The second step in revision is to consider the problems in operation such as provision for lubrication, safety problem, holding the part, adjustment for wear etc, Assembly Requirement ‘The last and final step in revision begins when the designer starts to make assembly drawings. Here ease of assemblying, dismantling and maintenance should be considered. ‘The assembly drawing should give, all the dimensions and information needed for assembly and installing the machine. vi Making final drawings Once the assembly drawings are ready, all possible revision has to be taken into account while preparing the working drawings, ‘A working drawing must be clear, concise and complete. It must have enough views and cross-section to show all the details. Every dimension must be given, so that there will be no scope for guess work. ‘A working drawing must give all the information needed for the men in shops working on it for such as making the pattern, mould, cast the piece, welding, machining, heat treatment etc. Bill of material : ‘When the design of a mechanism and the assembly of a machine is completed, a bill must show the details of components or parts, number of parts and the material in which the parts are made etc., the bill of material must also contain details of all standard parts such as bolts, nuts, cotters, pins etc. 1.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL : Classification of Engineering Materials: ‘The engineering materials are mainly classified as: () Metals and their alloys such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium ete (i) Non-metals such as glass, rubber, plastic etc. ‘The metals may be further classified as : (a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals. ‘The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituent such as cast iron, wrought iron and steel, ‘The non — ferrous metals are those which haye a metal other than iron as their main constituent such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc ete,Design of Machine Elements - | 4 Choice or Selection of Engineering Material ‘The choice of materials depends upon the following factors. 1. Availability of the materials 2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service 3. The cost of the materials The important properties which determine the usage of the materials are physical, chemical and mechanical properties, Physical Properties of Materials ‘The important physical properties of the materials are lustre, colour, size, shape, density, electrical conduetivity, thermal conductivity and melting point. Mechanical Properties of Materials [VTU, Dec.2011] ‘The important mechanical properties of the materials are: (i) Elasticity (ii) Plasticity (iii) Ductility (iv) Brittleness (v) Malleability (vi) Toughness (vii) Hardness (viii) Strength (ix) Stiffness (x) Resilience (xi) Creep Elasticity Itis the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is removed. If'a body regains completely its original shape, it | is said to be perfectly elastic. In Fig 1.1, the specimen is loaded only upto point A, well within the | elastic limit E. When the load, corresponding to point A, is gradually removed the curve follows the same path AO and the strain completely disappears, Such a behaviour is known as the elastic behaviour, This property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines, Steel is more elastic | than rubber. strain (¢) ve Fig. Ld Plasticity It is the converse of elasticity. It is the property of a material which retains the deformation | produced under load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forging, stamping | images on coins and in ornamental work. |5 Introduction Ductility It is the property of a material which permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section under the action of tensile force, A ductile material must be strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage elongation or percentage reduction in c/s area of the test specimen. The property of ductility is utilised in wire drawing, The commonly used ductile materials are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead. Brittleness It is the property of a material opposite to that of ductility i., lack of ductility, A material i said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by tension to smaller section. In a brittle material failure takes place under the load without significant deformation. This property is usually undesirable, Examples of brittle materials are cast iron, high carbon steel, concrete, stone, glass, ceramic materials etc. Glass is an ideal brittle material in which stress-strain curve in tension is essentially a straight line. Malleability It is the property of a material which permits the material to be extended in all directions without rupture. ( i.¢., to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets ). A malleable material possesses ahigh degree of plasticity but not necessarily great strength. This property is utilised in forging, hot rolling, drop stamping etc, The commonly used malleable materials are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium. Toughness Tt is the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy without fracture (i.e, to resist fracture due to high impact loads). This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads, Toughness is measured in terms of energy required per unit volume of the material to cause rupture under the action of gradually increasing tensile load. Fig 1.2 shows the stress-strain curves for mild steel as well as high carbon steel. The toughness is represented by the area under the stress-strain curve for the material. High Carbon Steel unit stress Mild Steel Unit strain —> Fig. 1.26 Bz sign of Machine Elements = fi Hardness Itis the ability of material to resist indentation or surface abrasion. Itembraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and machinability etc. ‘Tests on hardness may be classified into (i) Scratch Test (ii) Indentation Test The Scratch test consists of pressing a loaded diamond into the surface of the specimen and then pulling the diamond so as to make a scratch. The Indentation test consists of pressing a body of standard shape into the surface of the test specimen. Example Brinelll hardness test, Rockwell hardness test and Vickers hardness test. Strength ‘This is the most important property of a material from design point of view. Itis the ability of material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking or yielding. The load required to cause fracture divided by the area of the test specimen is termed as the ultimate strength of the material and is expressed in the unit of stress. Stiffness Itis the ability ofa material to resist deformation under stress, The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness in axially loaded members. Resilience It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads, It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit, This property is important for spring materials. Creep When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered in designing LC. engines, boilers and turbines 1.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Based on the circumstances and the need, quite a number of characteristics must be considered in designing a part. Some of the important characteristics are as follows : (i) Strength (ii) Safety (iii) Stiffness (iv) Surface finish (v) Shape (vi) Size (vii) Styling (viii) Utility (ix) Reliability (x) Cost (xi) Life (xii) Wear (xiii) Corrosion (xiv) Weight (xv) Noise (xvi) Flexibility (xvii) Control (xviii) Lubrication (xix) Maintenance (xx) Liability (xxi) Volume (xxii) Friction (xxiii) Processing (xxiv) Thermal Properties. 1.4 CODES AND STANDARDS [VTU, DEC.2011) Code isa set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture and construction of something. The main purpose of code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency and quality. Standard is the set of specifications for parts, materials or processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and a specified quality.Infroduction 7 ‘The organisations and socicties listed below have established specifications for standards and safety or design codes. Aluminium association (AA) American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Industrial Fasteners Institute (IF1) British Standards Institution (BSI) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Institution of Mechanical Engineers (1. Mech, E) National Bureau of Standards (NBS) American Welding Society (AWS) International Standards Organisation (ISO) American Society of Metals (ASM) Antifriction Bearing Manufacturers Association (AFBMA) American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standardisation Standardisation aims at establishing mandatory or obligatory norms or standards to which the different types, grades, parameters such as length, diameter, etc, quality characteristics, test methods, rules of marking, packing, storage of finished items, raw materials and semi-finished articles should confirm. The main purpose of standardisation is to minimise variety. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has standardised a number of items for the benefit of designers. They are: i) (ii) (ii) (iv) (yy @ (i) Gi (ivy Rules for preparing drawings. Symbols and notations for mechanical quantities and their units. Engineering materials, their chemical composition, mechanical properties, method of heat treatment and methods of mechanical testing. Dimensions and preferred sizes of various machine components. Fits and tolerances for various machine elements from assembly considerations. The advantages for the standardised parts are : Standardised products have better quality and are more reliable. As the standardised parts are easily available for replacement, maintenance is easy. Service life for the standardised parts is higher. Time and effort required to manufacture a new machine is less with the use of standard components,8 —_—_—_ Dassign f Machine Elements -| 4.5 DISCUSS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF A SUITABLE MATERIAL FOR A MACHINE ELEMENT [B.U. Feb. 96, Feb. 97, VTU, May/June 2010) ‘All materials have certain inherent characteristics which must be considered for the selection of a particular design, The factors to be taken into account are strength (yield and ultimate), stiffness or rigidity, ductility, toughness, resistance, fatigue resistance, ductile to brittle transition, creep resistance, wear resistance, oxidation and corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductance, friction characteristics, hardenability, castability, formability, weldability, machinability and specific weight etc. The material selected should be readily available in required quantity. Sometimes multiple choice may be possible and the cost and maintenance of the finished product decides the final choice. The broad classification of the engineering materials are given below. From this study the basic characteristics of each metal and select the proper one : Engineering Materials Non-Metallic (plastic, rubber, leather, wood, i | glass, ceramic & carbon ) Ferrous (Iron and its Non-Ferrous: alloys such as cast iron, carbon steel and alloy steels ) Metallic Copper alleys White metals (Ni, Silver and their alloys) Light weight metals and their alloys (Zn, Al, Mg and their alloys) lOthers (Rare metals and their alloys) After selecting a proper material, the final selection of a material for the design is based on the) most economical production method. The following chart gives the brief account of various, manufacturing process from the designers point of view.Fig 9) $$$ $i $i i$ ia $a$@$i@i$ai ns SAAISoUPY “8 Surppom sosey pue wreaq woxj3[q “2 Sureig, puy FurpULD “> pue Suuapjog -g umma pray, “¢ Surpjemwansyy, °s ee Sunseo enya °¢ BuIppm seg “p —-o10 “dupreoys Suwesp Sunse-21q “p Surmyseu — SUIpjem e810 “g ‘Burppearq ‘uorsnnxa Sunseo queunsaauy -¢ Teuompen-uon Z ‘Supjam ‘Suped = “Buyjorse qons Suse (ASanqqeour souwisisoy “Z — “Burdeys ‘Turret Bunpom POD “Z IuFoyarq J ppnow: quaueuuag -Z Jepmog “| Suppway “| ‘Sump Sumy, “T= Surpomopy "1 Suey pg -T Sunsva pueg “T SYaH.LO ONINIO£ foxintovav] ONINHOT ONIDUOT [ ONLISVO | | | ] " I | spoyjay, Supnjoejnueyy10 Design of Machine Elements -| 1.6 STRESS, STRAIN, HOOKE’S LAW, STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS & DEFINITIONS 1.6.1 Load Itis defined as any external force acting on a machine part. The following four types of loads are important, they are (i) Dead or Steady load : A load is said to be a dead or steady load when it does not change in magnitude or direction. Gi) Live or Variable load : A load is said tobe live or variable load when it changes continually. (iii) Suddenly applied or Shock load ; A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load when it is suddenly applied or removed. (iy) Impact load : A load is said to be an impact load when it is applied with some initial velocity. 1.6.2 Stress When a body is acted upon by external force or load, internal resisting force is set up, such a body is said to be ina state of stress, hence stress is the resistance offered by the body to deformation, ‘The internal resistance offered against the external force may be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the whole area of cross section. Thus this internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as stress. It is denoted by o (sigma). A loaded member remains in equilibrium when the resistance offered by the member against deformation and applied load are equal i.e, F = F FF cao, 5 ‘ 2) Stress = = 35 where F = Resisting foree, F= Applied force, A = Area of c/s normal to the axis or direction of applied load 1A F< ' |—>F iB Al rt. Resisting force (F') Bi A Resisting force (F') +F i AL re—| po Sr | sr —_— B,Introduction. uv ‘The following are the important types of stresses. (i) Normal stress. It is classified as (a) Tensile Stress, (b) Compressive Stress (ii) Shear Stress or Tangential Stress (iii) Bearing Stress (iv) Bending Stress (v) Twisting or Torsional Stress Axial Load ‘The force acting along the axis of the rod is known as axial load as shown in fig 1.4 SSS Fig. Ld @ di) Normal Stress ‘The internal forces and the corresponding stresses acting in the direction perpendicular to the surface is known as normal stress or direct stress. Normal stresses are of two types (a) Tensile stress and (b) Compressive stress, (a) Tensile Stress When a load is acting in such a way that it tends to pull apart the particles of the material causing extension in the direction of application of load, then the load is called tensile load and the corresponding stress ‘tensile stress’ Ay Fa r) Fig. 15 (a) iB Fig. 1.5 (b)4. $A Daaisign of Machine Elements -1 ow +o Fig. 15 (¢) Fig: 1.5 (a) shows a bar subjected to the tensile force F, Fig: 1.5 (b) shows resisting force at section AB. For equilibrium, resisting force F'= Applied force F Fig : 1.5 (c) shows an element in the material which is subjected to tensile stress. Resisting force F’ + Tensile Stress & = Cos Sectional Area A F = F where F = Tensile load) ©. 6 = E/ Némm? or Nim? | | Compressive Stress When the load is acting in such a way that it pushes the particles of the material nearer) causing shortening in the direction of load, then it is called compressive load and the corresponding stress "compressive stress”. 1 Fig. 1.6 (b)— 13 Grane Fig. 1.6 (c) Fig : 1.6 (a) shows a bar and an element subjected to a compressive load. Fig : 1.6 (b) shows resisting force at section AB. For equilibrium resisting force F'= Applied Infoduction Compressive load F Fig : 1.6 (c) shows an element in the material which is subjected to compressive stress Compiessive streas = Resisting a ( F=R Cross Sectional Area A. elves onarae. sieeae # Compressive load F sgive stress = lence Compressive stress o ‘Cross Secnonel (ii) Shear Stress : Shear stress is the one which acts parallel or tangential to the surface, Thus the stress induced ina body when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are acting tangentially across the resisting section is known as shear stress. As a result of which the body tends to shear off across the section. Resisting force (F') F F Fig. 17 (a) Fig. 1.7 (b) Fig : 1.7 (a) shows a rectangular block and a force F applied tangentially along the top face ( CD, Such a force acting tangentially along a surface is known as shear force. For the equilibrium of the block, the surface AB will offer a tangential reaction F equal and opposite to the applied tangential force F.14 Design of Machine Elements - | ‘Now consider a section x-x parallel to the applied force. The upper part will be in equilibrium, if, resisting forceF' = Applied force F. Similarly the lower part will be in equilibrium if, resisting: force F' = Applied force F. It is shown in Fig 1.7 (b). This resistance is known as shear resistance and the shear resistance per unit area is known as shear stress which is denoted by t (tau). Since the distribution of shearing stress across the section cannot be uniform. Shearresistance — F* F To = Shear area An Shear stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins and rivets. F) Consider two plates A and B connected by bolt or rivet as shown in the Fig 1,7 (c). Now if the plates are subjected to tensile forces of magnitude F, stresses will develop in the section x-x, From the diagram, it is concluded that the shear resistance F’ in the section is equal to F F -+ Average Shearing Stress = 4. where A = e/s area of the shearing portion. Fig. 1.7 (c) ‘Now consider the case shown in Fig : 1.7 (d). Here shear takes place in two planes x-x and yy. ive., the bolts or rivets are subjected to double shear. ‘From the diagrams and the portion of the bolt or rivet located between the two planes, it is F concluded that for equilibrium the shear resistance in each plane is equal to-> [v F=F+F =2F] EE + Average shearing stress “= <2 Is Fig. 1.7 (a)\nvroduction 15 Bearing Stress Bolts, pins and rivets create stresses in the member they connect along the bearing surface or surface of contact. A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine part that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress. Consider two plates connected by a bolt as shown in the Fig 1.8. The bolt exerts a force F’ equal and opposite to the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt, The force F! represents the resultant of elementary forces distributed on the inside surface of a half cylinder of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘t’ equal to the thickness of the plate. Since distribution of these forces and the corresponding stresses is quite complicated, the average nominal value of g, called the bearing stress is obtained by dividing the load F' by the area of the rectangle representing the projection of the bolt on the plate section. . FOF v-Bearing stress 0, = = 77 where ( = Thickness of plate and d = Diameter of the bolt mm r + UD Fig. 18Design of Machine Elements - | 16 1.6.3 Strain When a foree or load acts on a body it undergoes deformation. This deformation per unit Jength is known as unit strain or simply strain, It is denoted by © (epsilon) or € . Strain € = > where & = Deformation 1 = original length Stain is dimensionless. Strain may be ti) Tensile strain ‘Compressive strain Volumetric strain Shear strain Superficial strain Tensile Strain Let AB be the initial length of the bar before the application of the load and AC be the final length after the application of the tensile load F as shown in Fig 1.9 . Extension or Change in length = AC— AB = BC = 8, Original length = [ ‘The extension per unit length is defined as tensile strain, Original length of bar <. Tensile suaine = A B Cc T ' t P<— ;—_+—F [na Fig. 19 (i) Compressive strain : Consider a uniform bar AB of initial length ! subjected to a compressive force F. The length of the bar reduces to AC as shown in Fig 1,10 . Shortening or change in length = AB - AC = BC= 8,toduction $a @i@i_$_s MAM 17 Compressive strain is defined as shortening per unit length, Shortening of the bar 8, ‘Original length of bar ~ j- ¢. Compressive strain © = Fig. 1.10 Shear Strain : Consider an element ABCD as shown in Fig 1.11 is subjected to shearing stresses on faces ‘AB and CD, It undergoes deformation and this deformation is expressed in terms of the angular displacement, Ti : Di Transverse displacement _ DD, _ 810... 96) Distance AD ADR ©. Shear strain Fig. LH18 (iv) Volumetric Strain : Volumetric strain is defined as change in volume per unit volume Design of Machine Elements - | . Volumetric strain = —* ¥ (v) Superficial Strain Superficial strain is defined as change in area per unit area ©. Superficial strai 1.6.4 Elastic limit When an external foree acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation, If the external force is removed the body comes back to its original shape and size. The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the external force is within a certain limit. The value of the force corresponding to this limit is called limiting force. The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the material. 1.6.5 Hooke's Law Itstates that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly propertional to the strain. i.e, the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or “Young’s Modulus”, Stress = strain Stress — = constant in ies Strai = Young's modulus o — =E where E e 1.6.6 Poisson’s Ratio When a body is subjected to direet stress, it undergoes deformation in the direction of load and at right angles to the direction of load. There is an increase in length in the direction of load but decrease in the lateral direction as shown in Fig 1,12, The strain in the direction of load is known as longitudinal strain and the strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is defined as Poisson’s ratio and is a constant. I Itis normally denoted by o orf oru(nu) . The value of m for most of the material lies between 3 and 4.Intoduction. 19 Lateral strain L Possion's ratio = — = ————__— m_ longitudinal strain Decrease in depth =D-d Decrease in width = B-b Increase in length 5p Oa -D__B rae ~. Poisson's ratio a eats 5 9, In the case of a tension member, if the strain in the direction of load Bi then the strain 1 (6, l(o in the other two directions are ~~ (2) and— (S:) respectively, 1.6.7 Stress-strain diagram [VTU, June/July 2011, June/July 2014] ‘The mechanical properties are commonly determined from a standard tensile test, The testing machine is called universal testing machine (UTM). The test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a material and noting the corresponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures. The load is applied and measured by a testing machine, The stress is determined by dividing the load values by the eriginal cross sectional area of specimen, The elongation is measured by determining the amount that two reference points on the specimen are moved apart, The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge length. The strain is determined by dividing the elongation values by the gauge length. ‘The values of the stress and the corresponding strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram of the material tested. The Fig: 1.13 shows the stress-strain diagram for mild steel. The various properties of material are discussed below.20. $A Dirsigrn of Machine Elements - | Truc stress strain curve Nominal or Conventional or Engineering stress-strain curve Stress—> o Strain —> Fig. 1.13 (New DDHB Fig 1.1) 1. Proportional limit From O10 P the curves a straight line, i, stress is directly proportional to strain, Therefore it is clear that Hooke’s law holds good up to the point P and this point is known as proportional limit, It is defined as a point at which the stress begins to deviate from the straight line. 2. Elastic limit Up to the point E the material will regain its shape and size, when the load is removed. It means that the material has elastic properties up to the point E. This point is known as elastic limit. 3. Yield point If the material is stressed beyond the point E, the plastic stage will reach i.e, on the removal of Joad, the material will not be able to recover its original shape and si At point Y, there is an increase in strain without appreciable increase in load, ‘Thus the curve drops down to the point Y, . Then again with the increase in load the strain increases and is practically constant up to the point Y. This phenomenon of increase in strain without any appreciable increase in load is called yielding, The point Y, is called upper yield point and the point Y,,is called lower yield point. In practice the lower yield stress is more important and hence this point is cal led yield point. 4, Ultimate stress Between the points Y and U the ductile extension takes place. Here the relationship between stress and strain depends upon the rate of loading also. During the extension the cross-sectional areadecreases uniformly all over the length such that the volume remains constant. At the point U, the stress attains its maximum value which is known as ultimate point. The stress at this point is known as ultimate stress, It is defined as the maximum stress obtained by dividing the maximum value of the load reached to the original cross-sectional area of the test specimen.Introduction: 21 5. Breaking stress After the maximum load is reached, local yielding takes place and a neck or waist is formed. [As the cross-sectional area decreases considerably the load carrying capacity of the specimen reduces and hence in the portion UB the strain increases for decrease in stress. Even though the nominal stress is decreasing, the actual (true) stress which is equal to the load divided by actual cross-sectional area at neck will be continuously increasing. At point B the specimen breaks. The stress at this point is called breaking stress and the corresponding load is called breaking load. The nature of fracture for mild steel will be in the form of cup and cone. 1,6.8 Stress — strain curves for other materials Fig 1.14 shows stress — strain curves for steel having carbon content varying from 012% to 1%, From these, it is concluded that with high carbon content it is similar to brittle materials even though the ultimate stress is much greater. 1400p 1260: 1120 980 840 700 560 420: at 280 140 0.5%0C — ‘Stress (N/mm’) [3s 5 0 10 20, 30 40 Percentage strain Fig. 114 Fig: 1.15 shows typical stress — strain diagram for common materials such as high earbon steel, nickel-chrome steel, mild steel, wrought iron, cast iron, copper and cast aluminium. From these it is noticed that for steel and wrought iron proportionality exists almost until yielding takes place, For copper, cast aluminium and high alloys, no clearly defined limit of proportionality, elastic limit or yield point, Cast iron behaves like a brittle material which fails without any visible elongation or reduction in area.22 ———_—___————————— Design of Machine Elements - | 1120 [SS _itigh = 980 TOT ERT A 840 n 3 Nickel chfome steel 5 «700 5 560 3 a 420 280 Wipught iron 140 Soper. Cast alumi 0 10 20 30 40 30 es Percentage strain Fig. LIS Fig : 1.16 shows stress - strain diagram for aluminium alloy. It exhibits considerable ductility, though it does not have clearly definable yield point. 280) 20 & £ = 140) ° 70) 0 0.05 O01 O15 0.2 0.25 strain —> Fig. 1.16 Fig : 1.17 shows stress - strain diagram for hard rubber and soft rubber. The curve for hard rubber is linear up to very large strains, Soft rubber continue to stretch enormously without failure. Had Rubbet Stress (N/mm*)_ Introduction: Fig : 1.18 shows the stress — strain curve for brittle material, It is seen from the diagram that 23 the deviation from Hooke’s law begins very early and fracture occurs suddenly with very small deformation and without necking. The stress — strain diagram for brittle material does not exhibit the yield point. Examples of brittle materials are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass & ceramic materials cte., Glass is an ideal brittle material, exhibiting almost no ductility, Stress — strain ae Fig. 1.18 (New DDHB Fig 1.2) Note: ee el 2 Materials with more than 15% elongation are usually considered ductile, . Materials with less than 5% elongation are considered as brittle. Many ductile materials have the same yield point in tension and compression. Most brittle materials have a higher value for ultimate strength in compression than that for tension. | Percentage elongation is the percentage increase in length of the gauge length. L, +. Percentage elongation = ~T ~~ x 100 where L, = Original gauge length L, = Final length between gauge marks. ‘Percentage reduction in area is defined as the ratio of maximum change in the cross-sectional A L area to original cross sectional area, expressed in percentage reduction in area =~ 4 where A, = Original cross-sectional area of the test specimen A, = Area of cross-section in the waist at fracture For ductile material percentage reduction in area is 50 to 70.2. Design of Machine Elements -| 1.7 STRESSES INDUCED DUE TO NORMAL AND SHEAR LOAD In actual practice at any point in a strained material combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses i.e., different stresses may act on planes. Hence it is necessary to find the resultant stresses which may be greater than the applied ones and also the planes on which they act. The systems in which direct stresses and shearing stresses act simultaneously are called combined stresses or compound stresses. Here the study is limited to two dimensional stress system only. 1.7.1 Methods for determining stresses on oblique section (ie., Inclined plane) ‘The stresses on oblique section are determined by the following methods. (i) Analytical method (ii) Graphical method ‘The following three types of stressed conditions in an element are considered. (i) Uniaxial stress. Gi (iii) General two dimensional stress system. To find the stresses acting on an inclined plane in a stressed material, consider a plane inclined at an angle 8 to the known plane and then find the normal and tangential (shear) stresses on this plane. Bi-axial stress. 1.7.2 Sign Convention (i) Tensile stress is considered as positive (ii) Compressive stress is considered as negative. (iii) Angle 6 is considered positive when it is in the anticlockwise direction. (iv) A shear stress acting on the positive face of an element is considered positive and negative if it acts in the negative direction of the axes, i.¢., shearforce acting x - face giving rise to cow couple is treated as positive and cw couple is treated as negative. t a ¢ 1 x-face |1-face v t - “a y-face ytace Positive shear stress Negative shear stress Fig 1.19 (v) 6, is positive in tension. (vi) 6-is positive when ittends to produce counterclockwise rotation of the element and negative when it tends to produce clockwise rotation of the element.me {nteguetion AA ?>})]N WN\Y}N}NAN TT 25 1.7.3 Principal stresses and Principal Planes Principal planes are the planes on which only normal stresses will act with zero shear stress. The normal stress across the principal plane is known as principal stress. Atany point in a strained material, under three dimensional stress system, there are three such planes mutually orthogonal to each other, which carry direct stresses only and no shear stress. Out ofthese, the plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal plane and the normal stress acting on that plane is called the major principal stress, ‘The plane carrying the minimum normal stress is known as minor principal plane and the corresponding normal stress acting on that plane is called the minor principal stress. In a plane stress or two dimensional stress system, the third principal stress is zero. 1.7.4 Member subjected to direct stress on one plane [i.e., Uniaxial stress] Consider an element subjected to direct uniaxial stress or load as shown in Fig, 1.20 F c Fig 1.20 Consider a rectangular member ABCD of uniform cross-sectional area with unit thickness: subjected to uniaxial tensile load as shown in Fig. 1.21 Fig L20 Let F = Axial tensile force acting on the member. A = Area of cross-section. Consider a plane £F which is perpendicular to the line of action of the force. Area of cross section EF = EFX1=A Axial tensile force - Stress on plane EF,6, = ar ofc/sEF A26 Design of Machine Elements - | The stress on plane EF is entirely normal stress and there is no shear stress, Now consider a plane EG at an angle 6 with the normal plane EF as shown in Fig, 1.21. Angle @ being measured in anticlockwise direction. EF A Area of cross section EG = EG x t=EGx1=——x1=—— cos“ ' = Cos® The applied force F is parallel to the axis of the member and not normal to the plane EG. Since all the parts of the member have the same axial strains, the stresses acting on the plane EG are uniformly distributed as shown in Fig. 1.22(a). The resultant force due to these stresses will be a force, equal in magnitude to the axial force F, This resultant force F acting on plane EG may be resolved into two components as shown in Fig. 1.22 (b) G E Fig, 1.22 (i) Normal force F, acting normal to the plane EG. (ii) Tangential force F, acting tangential to the plane EG. Normal force F, = F cos @ Tangential force F, = F sin 8 (a) endl ae Nortal force Fy __Feos@ — Feos"® +, Normal stress across the plane EG, 6,= = og section EG = A/eos® = A F = 49, coro ( 6, -4) --- 2.10 (Old DDHB) 2.13 (New DDHB) 5 a . % the’ plane EG Tangential force F ‘angential stress (i.e., shear stress) across the plane EG, ‘Aca Gf lection EG = fant awacewe Alcos® A = - Laine cosa a- Stain 208 2.11 (Old DDHB) 2A 2 2.14 (New DDHB) Negative sign indicates that t, tends to produce clockwise rotation of the element. Normal stress 6, is maximum when 0 = 0 + Maximum normal stress 6, = 6, cos? 0= 6, 2.12 (Old DDHB} 2.15 (New DDHB)27 Introduction Minimum normal or principal stress ¢, = 0 when @= 90° Tangential stress t, is maximum when @= + 45° ‘The maximum positive value oft, is obtained at @= value of t, is obtained at ® = 45° 45° or 135° and the maximum negative 9g, , Maximum shear stress t,,,. = sim (+ 90°) = ip --- 2.13 (Old DDHB) 2.17 (New DDHB) Hence all planes inclined at 45° to the axis of pull are subjected to maximum shear stress 2 al to equi 2 Fig. 1.23 shows the variation of, and t,, as ® varies from — 90° to + 90° When 6 = 0, plane FG becomes a _ggo cross section EF and hence the graph Bives O,= 6, as @ increases and when @ = 90°, 6,= 6, =0 indicating that there is no normal stress on a plane parallel to the longitudinal axis. Similarly on Fig. 1.23 planes where 8 = 0, t, = 0-and also on longitudinal sections where = + 90°, t, =0. When @ =— 45°, maximum positive value of t, is obtained and when 6=+45°, maximum negative value oft, is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.23 ‘The resultant stress may be found out from the relation 0, = fo? +2. The relation holds good for compressive stress also. 1.7.5 Member subjected to direct stresses on two mutually perpendicular directions. [Bi-axial stress] Consider a rectangular block ABCD whose thickness perpendicular to the plane of the paper isunity, The bar is subjected to two direct tensile stresses or two principal tensile stresses as shown in Fig. 1.24 %126 a A I AE TIRE Design of Machine Erements -[ Solution 4 Maximum allowable normal sts. Cyy,= qq 7 = 77 Nim? Also K, = Tom = ! 58.85 ie. 1485. = 7 ine T On d dig, 4.22 (Old DDHB); For torsional load, £,,, = —yo-© where j=Radtc= 32 2 4.18/4.18A (New DDHB) 5 _2_ =397916.667 N mm * 120 M, 9550 10'S = 9550 10° 397916.667 ( @ ) Bigg \2 a2 37.1 mm say 37.5 mm = Diameter of shaft at the groove i,e., 39,63 " Example : 2.41 ‘A stepped shaft of circular cross section (6,,= 431.5 MPa). Determine the value of a" and the fil limited to a ratio corresponding to a factor of safety of 25 shown in Fig 2.48 is made of 20C15 s let radius, so that the maximum stress will (VTU, Dec '07/Jan’ Data: FOS = 2.5, F=30KkN =30 x 10°N49, 31.5 Mpa =431.5N/cm* Solution = 315 Sy 4315 177 6Nimm?28 Design of Machine Elements -| Let BE be the oblique plane inclined at an angle @ on which the stresses are to be calculated. Let, = Major tensile stress or principal stress on face AD and BC 6, = Minor tensile stress or principal stress on face AB and CD F, = Tensile force on section BE due to o, = 0, x BCx1=6, x BC F, = Tensile force on section BE due to 6, =0, x ECx 1 =o, x EC Resolve the forces perpendicular to BE and along BE as shown in Fig. 3.6 (a) and (b) }o,xEC=F, Fig. 125 +. Total force perpendicular to the plane BE, F_=F, cos @ + F, sin ® ie, 0, x BE = (6, x BC) cos 6 + (a, x EC) sin 0 EC BC cos +0, EC sino BE "BE 6, cos 8 cos 6 +6, sin@ sin g,,cos? 0+, sin? 8 ic, 6, Sy y+ cos 2B) + 2 (1 —cos 2 8) .. Normal stress on plane BE, o, 5, +0, ( 9,-9, 2 2 ‘Total force tangential to the plane BE, F, =~ F, sin @ + F, cos @ ie. T,X BE = - (0, x BC) sin 8+ (a, x EC) cos @ sin +6, -€ cosa BE ) ee 26 — ---2.26 (Old DDHB) 2.28 (New DDHB) ie, t, = -0, BC —G,cos 6 sin 6 + 6, sin Bcos & =(6,-6,) sin 8 cos @ " d,-36 . Tangential stress on plane BE, t, ( . } sin 2@ 2.27 (Old DDHB) 2.29 (New DDHB) .— 29 Intoduction 4, is negative since it tends to produce clockwise rotation of the material. ‘The resultant stress on plane BE, O, = = y(o. cos? +6, sin’ @) +{-(a, -9,)sin®cos0)? = [02 c0s'6 +03 sin’ 8+ 26,0, cos* @sin® 0+(6; +0; ~26,9,)sin’ Ocos’ 8 = [67 cos? 6(cos” 6 + sin” 8) + a? sin? @(sin® 0+ cos? 8) ee eS) ©. Resultant stress on plane BE, 6, = 0? cos” @ +0; sin” @ ‘The angle that the line of action of the resultant stress makes with the normal stress is called the angle of obliquity. +. Angle of obliquity @ = tan (=) % On principal planes, t, must be equal to zero. ie, -(%* SOs) sin 2 BO 2 + 20=0 or 180°, ie. 8 = 0 or 90° : s, When @ =0 ‘Major principal stress. 0, When 6 = 90° Minor principal stress,30 —_——— _ Dssign of Machine Elements «| Thus, there are two principal planes at right angles to each other, one of which carries the maximum direct stress and the other the minimum direct stress. These principal planes do not carry any shear stress. Shear or tangential stress on plane BE is maximum when 20 =: 90° or 20 = 90° or 270, ie. @ = 45° or 135°. When 6 = 45° maximum negative value of t, is obtained and when @ = 135° maximum positive value of t, is obtained. o,- ---2.29 (Old DDHB) When @ = 48°, €,,.. == ( 2.31 (New DDHB) when 0 = 135°, +,,,, --( Hence there are two mutually perpendicular planes along which the greatest shear stress occurs, These planes are at angles of 45° and 135° with the principal plane carrying principal stress Ore When the biaxial stresses 0, and «are not alike ive, if 6, is tensile and a, is compressive stress, Z g a a 0 1.7.6, Stresses induced by state of simple shear ‘The rectangular block ABCD shown in Fig. 1.27 isin a state of simple shear under the action of shear stress intensity t,,. Let the thickness of block normal to the plane of paper is unity. Now, consider any sectional plane BE inclined at an angle 6 with the norma! cross-section as shown in Fig. 1.27. Let the normal and tangential stresses on the plane BE be o, and 1, respectively, \ Resolving the forces perpendicular to BE, 6, BE = (t,x BC)sin@ + (t,x EC) cos 6 Fig, 1.27a be we eo ghee Eee t ico, = 4,» 25 sin 44, 2 cos = 1, cos®, sin 0+ 1, sin @ cos @ = ,,2sin 6 cos 8 -. Normal stress on plane BE, ,=,, sin 20 --- 2.20 (Old DDHB) 2.22 (New DDHB) Resolving the forces along BE, t,x BE = (t,x BC) cos 8 ~(t,, x EC) sin 8 aie, ge pO RIE eG ie.) = 1, % Be cos 0-1, x Fe sin = 1, cos 0, cos @—1,, sin 8 sin @ = 1, ( cos*@—sin’ 8) 2.21 (Old DDHB) 2.23 (New DDHB) “, Tangential stress on plane BE, t,=T,, cos 20 For the principal planes t, must be equal to zero. ie., T, cos 20 = 0 Le. 26 = 90° or 270° Le, 8 = 45° or 135° Hence the two principal planes are at 45° and 135° with respect to the plane BC. The principal planes are also at right angles to each other. The two principal stresses are 6, = 1,sin (245) =+1, ~~ 2.22 (Old DDHB) 2.24 (New DDHB) 0, = t, sin (2 x 135) =—1,, ‘Thus on one principal plane there will be tensile stress and on the other there will be compressive stress. These principal stresses are called diagonal tensile and diagonal compressive stresses, For maximum shear or tangential stress, cos 20 = + 1 Le. 28 = 0 or 180°, =0or90° when ® = 0 Tax = + Ty 2.24 (Old DDHB) 2.26 (New DDHB) when 8 = 90° Faun = — Thy -~- 3.7.6 ‘Thus the planes BC and CP carry the maximum shear stress intensity 't,,," Fig. 1.28 shows the planes carrying maximum shear stress and principal stress.Design of Machine Elements -1 Fig. 1.28 1.7.7 Member subjected to two perpendicular normal stresses accompanied with state of simple shear OR MEMBER SUBJECTEDTO GENERAL TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM Consider a rectangular member ABCD of uniform cross-sectional area and unit thickness, subjected to tensile stresses and shear stress as shown in Fig. 1.32. a, Fig. 1.32 “This body is subjected to, (i) Tensile stress 6, on face AD and BC (ii) Tensile stress 6, on face AB and CD (iii) Simple shear stress on face BC and AD According to the principle of state of simple shear, the facesAB and CD will also be subjected to shear stress as shown in Fig. 1.32. Let BE be the oblique plane inclined at an angle @ on which the stresses are to be calculated. From the geometry of the Fig. 1.3233 Infoduction Horizontal force acting on BC, F, = 6, BC Vertical force acting on BC, F, Horizontal force acting on EC, F, =t,, Vertical force acting on EC, F,=, BC Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane BE, F, = F,cos 0 +F,sin@ + F,cos 04 F, sin ® ie, 6, BE = (6,BC) cos 6 +(t,BC) sin 8 + (tC) cos 0 + (0,EC) sin 8 EC ie, G, = 9, ae cos 8+ 4, BE aan EC eosaxe, EC ine eee ey ” BES ™ BE Y BE 6, cos 8 cos 0 +t,, cos O sin8 +7,,sin8 cosO+0, sin Osin® TJ u 6, cos 8+, sin? 8+2r, sin @cos® — (+, 6, 2 (1 —cos 20) +, sin 26 G, 2 (1 + cos 20) + 2.30 (Old DDHB) o,+0, (9179, Si F8y | i eos20-1, sin 20 ~ ¢. Normal stress on plane BE, 6,,= 2,32 (New DDHB) Resolving the forces along the plane BE, F, = ~F,sin 0+ F, cos ®— FF, sin @ + F, cos 0 (BC) sin + (1,,BC)cos 8-41, EC) sin 8 + (0, EC) c0s8 = 7-9, Be cing +t, 2 cos 8-1, EC yin 8+6, EC 608 8 * BE © BE “BE "BE = —,cos 8 sin O41, cos @ cos 6-1, sin 6 sin O46, sin @cos 6 = -(0,-6,) sin@ cos 8 +1, (cos 8~sin*@) (1 t,,=F,) a, -95, sin 20 +1,, cos 20 --- 2.31 (Old DDHB) 2.33 (New DDHB) -. Tangential stress on plane BE, T, Resultant stress on plane BE, 6,= fe Angle of obliquity © = tan "Se 6 For the principal plane, tansgential stress on the plane must be equal to zero. : 5,-9,) . ie, -|—5— | sin2@ + 1, cos20=03.8 $A i. Daasign of Machine Elements - | 2 stan 2@ = —2— ~~» 2.34 (Old DDHB) o,-, 2.36 (New DDHB) There are two principal planes at right angle to each other and their inclination with the normal cross-section being 8, and 6,- 1 @, = + tart] Jang 9, =90+0 = 3 tar] 2 land 8, = 90 +0, Equation 2.34 (Okt DDHB) or 2.36 New (DDHB) can be represented diagramatically by Fig, 1.33 in which sin28, = eet y(o,-9,) +472, le. -0,) +42, Substituting the values of cos 2@, and sin 20, in Equation 2.30 (Old DDHB) or 2.32 (New DDHB) 6, +0, 1 2 = 7 A Me spt 4051 2\(5,-9,) +403, ° o,+o, 1 is *. Major principal stress 6, = sts (o,-6,) +41), ~-2.32 (Old DDHB) --- 2.34 (New DDHB)wr 35 nfoduction Similarly substituting the values of cos 20, and sin 20, in Equation 2.30 (Old DDHB) or 2.32 (New DDHB) 1 +. Minor principal stress, = = v(s.-2, JP+4t%, ~-2.33 (Old DDHB) 2.35 (New DDHB) These principal stresses may be like or unlike, For maximum yalue of t,, differentiating w.r.t @ and equating to zero o,-9, ie, — 2 2cos 20' — t,x 2 sin 26’=0 ” ie. 2t, sin 20" = -(0,-0,) cos 26° === 2.36 (Old DDHB) 2.38 (New DDHB) ie. tan 20 tan 20" = —1 Hence 20’ values and 2@ values obtained from Equation 2.34 (Old DDHB) or 2.36 (New DDHB) for principal planes differ by 90°. In other words the planes of maximum shearing stress are at 45° to principal planes, i.e, the planes of maximum shearing stress will at 8, + 45° and 6, + 135° Equations 2.36 (Old DDHB) or 2.38 (New DDHB) can be represented diagramatically by Fig. 1.34 in which =4,) o,-o,) +423, sing = =f YOe eG, bars, 5-5, cos 26° r =2t, Fig. 1.3436 Design of Machine Elements - | Substituting these rules in Equation 2.31 (Old DDHB) or 2.33 (New DDHB), o,-0,) 4th --2.35 (Old DDHB) 1 mx = ~ 9 WASe ies tq = (85%) Fig 1.35 shows the principal planes and maximum shear planes. a, 2.37 (New DDHB) Fig. 135 1.8 TWO DIMENSIONAL (BI-AXIAL) STRESS FIELD [VTU, DEC.2008/JAN.09, MAY/JUNE 2010, DEC.2010] In most of the cases, the machine members are subjected to combined loading, In such cases, the design is based on the principal stress. The Fig, 1,36 shows an element under a two dimensional stress field. 6, and 6, are the direct hormal stresses and 1, is the shear stress. As explained earlier, the principal stresses can be obtained by the relations :Infreduction 37 6, is the maximum value of principal stress and o,, is the minimum value of principal stress. AS —} ++. cna Fig. 1.36 6, = Direct normal stress (Tension ot Compression) due to bending or axial load or the combination of two 4g, = Direct normal stress (Tension or Compression) in a direction normal 10 6, t,,and 1, are the shear stresses, Since it is in static equilibrium 1,,=7,, - Fora two dimensional stress system, the third principal stress, is zero. The maximum shear stress is equal to half of the greatest difference of any two of the three principal stresses. lie.,considering the third principal stress which is zero in this case. ] 6, “+ T,,,, is the largest among the three values of ~—>—~ 1.9 THREE DIMENSIONAL (TRI-AXIAL) STRESS FIELD [VTU, DEC.08/JAN.09, MAY/JUNE 2010, DEC. 2010] The Fig 1.37 shows a general three dimensional stress element. The three normal stresses 6, 9, and 6, are positive (+° Tensile) and the six shear stresses 7, Ty» Tyr t, and 4, are also positive.— Introduction: 39 In the absence of shear stress, 6,, 6, and ¢, ate the principal stresses for the element. The relationship between the normal stresses and normal strains in the x, y and z directions are, = (ota +vpe +(e, +e)] E = Modulus of elasticity G = Modulus of rigidity Vv = Poisson's ratio, y = Shear strain BIS system of Designation (i) Grey cast iron is specified by the symbol FG followed by the tensile strength in N/mm? (ii) Steels which are standarised on the basis of their tensile strength without detailed chemical composition are specified by two ways. (a) A symbol Fe followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm’, (b) A symbol FeE followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm?, (iii) Plain carbon steel consists of three quantities. (a) A figure indicating 100 times average percentage of carbon (b) Letter € (c) 10 times average percentage of manganese, (iv) Unalloyed free cutting steels consists of five quantities, (a) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon. (b) Letter C (c) 10 times the average percentage of manganese. (d) A symbol S, Se, Te or P, depending upon the element present. (e) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of the above element. (v) Alloy steel (a) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon. (b) Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its average percentage content multiplied by a factor.40 Design of Machine Elements - | Elements Multiplying factor Cr, Co, Ni, Ma, 4 Siand W Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu 10 Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr and Mo PSN 100 (vi) High alloy steels consits of the following quantities (a) ALeterX (b) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon (c) Chemical symbol of the alloying element followed by its average percentage content rounded value (@) Chemical symbol to indicate a specially added element to attain desired properties Identify the following engineering materials giving specifications, [VTU, July 2012] (i) FG350 (i) FeE 300 (iii) 45C8 (iv) 35C12Pb16 (v) 20Cr8Mo4 (vi) L6NBCr2 (vil), X20Cr18Ni2 Gi) FG350 > Grey cast iron with an ultimate tersile strength of 350 N/mm? (i) FeE 300 — A steel with a minimum yield strength of 300 N/mm? (ii) 45C8 + Plain carbon steel with 0.45% carbon and 0.8% manganese (iv) 35C12Pb16 — A free cutting steel with 0.35% carbon, 1.2% manganese and lead 0.16% (v) 20Cr8Mo4 -9 An alloy steel with 0.20% carbon, 2% chromium and 0.4% molybdenum, (vi) 16Ni3Cr2. > Analloy steel with 0.16% carbon, 1.0% of nickel and 0.5% chromium. (vii), X20Cr18Ni2 > High alloy steel with 0.20% carbon, 18% chromium and 2% nickel Element subjected to uniaxial stress Example ; 1. A tension member is formed, by connecting two wooden scantlings with glue, each 50 mm x 100mm at their ends, which are cut at an angle of 60° as shown in the Fig, 1.38. The member is subjected toa pull F. Calculate the safe value of F, if the permissible normal and shear stress in the glue use are 3 N/mm? and 2 N/mm? respectively. Data: a, = 3NimnF +, = 2Nimmt Area, A = 50x 100 = 5000 mm? Solution : Angle of joint with normal,@ = 90—60=30° 0, c0#°8 —2.10(Old DDHB} 6, co830 —2.13 (New DDHB) Fig. 1.38 Normal stress on the inclined plane o ie]4) Introduction. sin20 ~~ 2.11 (Old DDHB), 2.14 (New DDHB) sin (2x30) [Positive since ¢, tends to produce cew rotation] c= 4619 Nimm? ‘The lesser among these two values will be the safe stress 2. Safe stress O,= 4Nimn? F Direct stress along axis ©, =. —(21) wee hen “5000 cs F = 20,000 =20kN Safe pull.F = 20kN Element subjected to biaxial stress Example : 1.2 A point in.a strained material is subjected to a tensile stress of S00 N/um? and 300 N/mm? in two mutually perpendicular planes. Calculate the normal, tangential, resultant stress and its obliquity on aplane making an angle of 30° with the axis of minor tensile stress. Also find the maximum shear stress, Data: co, = 500N/mn¥ (Tensile) o, = 300N/mnw’ (Tensile) 8 ° Solution : Axis of minor tensile stresé S Minor principal plane Major principal Axis of major tensile strDesign of Machine Elements - | 42 6, +0 9. Normal stress on plane BE 0, = 2 +> cos20 —~2.26(Old DDHB) ‘epee (se) ~--- 2.28 (New DDHB) = +|—>— | cos (2 x 30) 2 2 = 450Nimne a G,-G, ‘Tangential or Shear stress on plane BE *, = -——* sin20 —227 (OM DDKB) (Negative sign indicates t, tends to produce cw rotation) —~2.29 (New DDHB) 500— a 300 sin (230) =~ 86.6 Nimes? Resultant stress on plane BE o, = a3 +1) = 450" +(-86.6)° = 458.26 N/mm? ty 86.6 Resultant stresss direction or obliquity @ = tw G~ = tan” 459 . @ == 10.893° (As shown in Fig. 1.39) B.-9, — 500- Maximum shear stress +, = ——S5—* = SE 2-100? (Negative sign indicates t_, tends to produce cw rotation) Example : 1.3 ‘The principal stresses at a point ina bar are 200 N/mm? (tensile) and 100 N/mm* (compressive). Determine the normal, tangential, resultant stress and its direction on a plane inclined at 60° tothe axis of © major principal stress, Also determine the maximum intensity of shear stress in the material at the point. — Data: 6, = 6,= 200 Némm? (Tensile) 6, = 0,= 100 Ninm (Compressive) Fig.c.40 Inclination of plane BE with normal@ = 90-60=30°Inftoduction 43 Normal stress on plane BE 0828 —- 2.26 (Old DDHB) ---- 2.28 (New DDHB) 200-100 200+100 ee con x30) 2 2 = 125. Nin? O,-Oy Shear stress.on plane BE t, 5 sin2e 227 (Old DDHB) (Negative sign indicates t, tends to produce cw rotation) ADINGK DEB) 200+100 sin (2 « 30) = — 129.9 N/mm? Resultant stress on plane BE o, = a2 4th = 12574 (129.9)? = 180.28 N/mm? ‘The inclination of resultant stress with the normal of the inclined plane tp 129.9 o=tant Oo. = tan! "735 =46.1° (As shown in Fig. 1.40) a 200+100 Maximum shear stress = 1,,, and 2 150 Némm? (Negative sign indicates 1,,, tends to produce ew rotation) Element subjected to uniaxial stress with simple shear Example : 1.4 A point in a plate grideris subjected to a horizontal tensile stress of 100 N/mm and vertical shear stress of 60 N/mm’. Find the magnitude of principal stresses and its location. Data: = 100 N/mm Solution : old SeewilfeV gaa Major principal stress 0, = —~ + (-] +7 = 128.1 N/mny (tensile) Minor principal stress 6,4. —AR_-2}.A NM Derssign off Machine Elements - | +60? =~ 28,1 N/mm? (compressive) Location : tan20 4 2 28 = 50.194 or 180+ 50,194 +. @, = 25,097° and 8, = 115,097° Element subjected to pure shear Example: 15 A point ina machine member is subjected to pure shear stress of magnitude 50 N/mm, Determine (i) Stresses acting on a plane inclined at an angle of 30° with respect to vertical plane (ii) Prineipal stresses and their locations and (iii) Maximum shear stresses and its locations Data: 1, = S0Nimm? Solution : , Fig. Ld (i) Normal stress on plane BE ¢, = 1,,sin20 -~- 2.20 (Old DDHB) = S0sin (2 30) = 43.3 Nimm? 2.22 (New DDHB) Shear stress on plane BE , = 1,,c0820 -=- 2.21 (Old DDHB) = 50:cos (2x 30) = 25 Nimm* =~ 2.23 (New DDHB} (Positive sign indicates £, tends to produce cew rotation as shown in Fig, 1.41)) (ii) Principal stresses S0.N/mm? (Tensile) -—- 2.22 (Old DDHB) = —50.N/mm? (Compressive) 2.24 (New DDHB} Location : i.e., Angles at which principal stresses act, 6, = 45° and 6,= 135° ——2.23 (OMDDHB),2.25 (New DDHB)introduction 45 (ii) Maximum shear stress t,,, = 11, = +50 N/m? —-~-2.24 (Old DDHB), 2,26 (New DDHB) Angles al which maximum shear stress act = 0 and 0) = 90° —-2.25 (Old DDHB),2.27 (New DDHB) Element subjected to biaxial stress with shear Example : 1.6 A point in a structural member subject to plane stress is shown in Fig. 1.42. Determine the | following (i) Normal and tangential stress intensities on plane MN inclined at an angle of 45° (ii) Principal stresses and their direction (iii) Maximum shear stress and the direction of the planes on which it occurs. [V.T.U, July/Aug : 2002, Dec.08/Jan.09, June/July 2011, July 2012] | Data: o, = 40 MPa; 0, = -30MPa; t,, = 25MPa @ = 45° Solution ; y= 30 MPa a f 25 MPa % a= 40 MPa o= 40 MPa 5 ne 25 MPa 7, a= 30MPa Fig. 1.42 {@ Normal stress on plane MN, o, = c0s20+t,, sin26 30(Old DDHB) --2.32(New DDHB} cos (2x 45) + 25 ake (245) =30N/mm? 40—30 | 40+30 2 Shear stress on plane MN, 7, = sin28 +1, 60820 --—2,31 (Old DDHB)rr Design of Machine Elements - | ae — 08 sin 245) 425 c08 (245) =~ 35 Nim? | (Negative sign indicates ¢, tends to produce cw rotation) --» 2.33(New DDHB) r | +0, |fo,-9, ) 2 nina = y +) +4! -—232¢0DDHB) | Maximum *: ® Pecrleee Sig ( 2 * 2M (NewDDHB) | 2 ] a as + (=) +25" =48.0116 Ninwm? (Tensile) Minimum principal SiTet (Se) + 2.33 (OMDDHB) inimum principal stress ale oe oiked 2 —235(NewDDHB) a a i (**) +25? =_ 38.0116 N/mm? (Compressive) Location : Angles at which the principal stresses act 0, * z == 2.34(OldDDHB) 2,36 (NewDDDHB) ~~ 2.35 (Old DDHB) 2.37 (New DDHB) (°= es z 5 } +25" = 43.0116 Nimm? Angles at which maximum shear stress act @} = 6,445 and 95 = 0,+135 | = 17,769+45 = 62,769° and > = 17,.769+135 =152.769° QR Angle at which maximum shear stress nets 8) = ~ fon (See fan ($8820) 28) = -27.231* and@; =62.769°(' 8; =8 | 490)rt a7 Intoduction. Example : 1.7 ‘A rectangular bar of section 50 mm x 25 mm is subjected to a tensile load of 25 kN. Determine the values of normal and shear stresses on a plane 30° with the vertical. Also calculate the magnitude and direction of the maximum shear stress. [VTU, Dee. 08/Jan, 2009] Data: F= 25 KN = 25x 10° N ;6 = 30° BD G é c Cross-sectional area of the bar A = 50 x 25 = 1250 mam? \al Solution = 25kN \ 25kN F _25x103 Stress on plane ER, o,=— = 5x10" _ 90Nimam? A E B me’. 1250 Fig. 1.43 Normal stress on the inclined plane o,= 0, cos" -~2.13 (DDEB) = 20x cos?30= 15 N/mm’ Shear stress on the inclined plane t, =~ a sin 26 -~-2.14(DDHB) 20 = = sin (230) =-8.65 Nim (-ve sign indicates 1, tends to produce ew rotation) oy Maximum shear stress t,,, = —— sin( 90) = Pe —217(DDHB) 20 =F a =F10N/‘mm’ Allplanes inclined at 45° to the axis of pull are subjected to maximum shear stress. Example : 1.8 The state of stress at a point in a strained member is shown in Fig. 1.44, The tensile principal stress is known to be 4 Nimm?. Determine; (i) Maximum shearing stress at the point and orientation ofits plane (li) shearing stress t,, (VTU, May/June 2010] eh t 6 ©, =55Nim’ Te Fig.1.4448 Solution : (i) Shearing stress +, Tensile principal stress, = +, 1 3540 (=) sy 2 i + ie, 84 3 1 ay “Shearing stress t= 49.356Nimm? i) Maximum Shearing stress and its planes =4] #49316" = + 56.5 N/mm? Angle at which maximum shear stress acts @, = —14,563° and @, =75.437° (.. @, = 90+ 6) Example : 1.9 A point in a structural member subjected to plane stress is shown in Fig. 1.45. Determine, (i) Normal and tangential stress intensities on plane EF inclined at an angle of 30° (ii) Principal stresses and their direction (iii) Maximum shear stress and the direction of the planes on which it occurs. S0MPa SOMPa Fig. 145 Design of Machine Elements -|Intoduction 49 Data: ¢,= 140 MPa;¢, = 90 MPa, 7,, = 50 MPa ;@ = 30° Solution : @ Normal stress on plane EE,c, = 60520 +7, sin2@ --—2,30(OldDDHB) ea 4 Melee 22 eo X30) +50sin(2x 30) = 1708 fmm? —2,32(New DDHB) o,-F,)\ Shear stress on plane EF, t, = —| sin20 + 1,,c0s26 —231 (Old DDHB) E o-8 sina %30) +50cos(230) = 43.35 Nim? —-2,33 (NewDDHB) (4ve) sign indicates 1, tends to produce cow rotation 3,46, |{o,-0. Gi) Maximum principal stress 6, = "5 + a a oH —-2.34 (New DDHB) prota. Sas, L 140-90" ss 080, Mes = +50? =1709 N/mm? —-2.32(0ld DDH) o, +0, Minimum principal stress 6, = 5 2,35 (O1J DDHB) +50? =591 N/mm? ---2.33 (New DDHB) _140+90_ (2 2 2 ‘Location: Angles at which the principal stresses act a ead - 6, = 5% ™ | where ®, and®, are 90° apart —24(Old DDHB) pan 2858 ) DEB i laren —2.36(New DDHB) 31.72% and 6, =6, +90°=31.72 +90=121,72° (ii) Maximum shear stress t,,, = + thy — 2.35 (Old DDHB} : = ) +50? = 4559 N/mm? ~-2.37(New DDHB)80 $A bessign of Machine Elements - | Location: Angle at which maximum shear stress act @\=0, +45 and 6 = @, +135 - Oy = 3172-445 = 76,72° and @, = 31,72+135 = 166,72° OR Angle at which maximum shear stress acts -— 2.38 (New DDHB) *. @, = =13.28° and 6, = 6, +90°= -13,28+90°= 76,72" Example : 1.10 Direct stresses of 120 N/mm? (Tensile) and 90 N/mm* (Compressive) exist on two perpendicular Planes at a certain point in a body. They are alsoaccompanied by shear stress on the planes. The greatest Principal stress at the point due to these is 150N/mm?. Determine, @ Magnitude of shear stress on the two planes Gi Miximum shear stress at the point Data: 6, = 120 N/mm (Tensile); 6, =90 Nim? (Compressive), 6, = 150 N/mme Solution : a Magnitude of shear stress 234 (New DDHB) ‘Maximum principal stress, ie, 150 = ~--2.32(Old DDHB) Shear stress t,, = 84.853 Nimm? (ii) Maximum shear stress 6, ~6y ° 2 Maximum shear stress, = * y[—3—>] *% ~—2.35 (Old DDHB) 1204907 =+ ( e ) + 84853" =~2.37 (New DDHB)te Inttoduetion -AA@@a@aa@a@a@ a AA 5] Example : Lil ‘The state of stress in.a two dimensionally stressed body is shown in Fig. 1.46, Determine, (i) Principal stresses and their directi i) Maximurn shear stress and their planes. 6OMPa 120MPa SOMPa Fig. 1.46 Data: 6, =-120 MPa 36, =-80MPa; 7, =-60 MPa Solution : (i) Principal stresses and their direction Maximum prineépal stress 0, —-1:4 (New DDHB) -120-80, |/-120+80)7 ; + (= ) +(-60)' — —2.32(0ld DDHB) 2 y a = -36.754Némm? (Compressive) o,-9,) 4 Minimum principal stesso, = —3—"~ || ~~] +%e —-2:34 (New DDHB) =120-80 {(-120+80)" 7 ee 7 } +007 --~2.32(Old DDHB) — 163.246 N/mm? (Compressive)2. ——— Dassign of Machine Elements - | Location : Angles at which principal stresses act t 2 | where @, and®, are 90° apart a, —-2.34(Old DDHB) 2.36 (New DDHB) 1, [ 2x(-60) =a 2 6, = 35.7825° and 0, =, +90° = 35.7825 +90 = 125.7825" (i) Maximum shear stress i —-2.35 (Old DDHB) 237 (New DDHB) at (AE) +09" = 63.246 Nimm? Lécation: 7 Angles'at which maximum shear stress act 9, =, 445° and @)= 0, + 135° 5.7825 + 135 = 170.7825" ‘© =35,7825 +45 = 80.7825° and 0, Angle at which maximum shear stress acts @, > where @ and @, are 90° apart -— 2.38 (New DDHB)introduction REVIEW QUESTIONS 12. 1. Sketch the stress-strain diagram for the following materials : i) Medium Carbon structural steel ii) Alloy steels iii) Castiron iv) Rubber v) Aluminium VTU, Jan/Feb 2004 2. Sketch the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material subjected to tension. Explain the significance of salient points VTU, Jan/Feb 2006, VTU, July/Aug. 2003, Aug. 2001 . Draw the stress-strain curve for mild steel and cast iron. Name the salient points. VTU, Feb. 2002 4, Briefly discuss factors influencing the selection of suitable material for machine element YTU, July/Aug 2005, VTU, Jan/Feb 2005, VTU, March 2001 BU Feb, 96, Feb. 97 5, Briefly discuss three dimensional (tri-axial) stress field and stress tensor, 6, Explain with examples, the importance and adoption of “standardisation in design calculations” BU Aug. 1995 7. What are the important mechanical properties of metals? Explain each of them briefly, BU March/April 1999 . Explain briefly the six steps involve in the design procedure ). Define the terms : Principal planes and principal stresses VTU, Jan/Feb 2006 Define the terms : stress, strain, elastic limit, Young's, modulus, lateral strain and Poisson's ratio . On the rectangular stress element show the triaxial stress components and the corresponding stress tensor. VTU, Jan/Feb 2004 2. Define standardisation. State the standards used in machine design. WTU, Jan/Feb 2005 5S © Draw the stress strain diagram and name the salient points for the following materials i) C- 60 steel ii) Cast iron FG 200 On the rectangular stress element show the triaxial stress components and the corresponding stress tensor, VTU, July/Aug 2004 3, a) g 4. a) List the factors which govern the selection of a material for a machine component. Define standardisation. State the standards used in machine design. c) A bar of 50 mm diameter fixed at one end is subjected to a torsional load of 1 KN — min addition to an axial pull of 1S KN. Determine the principal stresses. VTU, Jan/Feb 2005 <54 15. 20. . al Design of Machine Elements - | a) Discuss factors to be considered for selection of an appropriate material for a machine element in the design process, VTU, July/Aug 2005 A machine element in the form of a cantilever beam is made of a rod of circular cross section with a span of 800mm. The material of the rod is carbon steel C30, Determine a safe value for a transverse load that falls on to the free end of the beam from a height of 25mm, if the diameter of the rod is 40mm. Use a value of 2.5 for the factor of safety. a b b a) a) VTU, July/Aug 2005 Draw stress-strain diagram for a ductile material subjected to tension. Explain the significance of salient points Explain principal planes and principal stresses, VTU, Jan/Feb 2006 Describe the material composition and properties of the following i) SAE 1045 and ii) 20 Cr 18Ni 2 steels Define factor of safety. Explain its use VTU, Jan./Feb., 2006 Draw the stress strain diagrams for a ductile material and a brittle material and show the salient points on them. VTU, July 2006 Explain the factors, which given the selection of a material for a machine component. VTU, Dec., 07 / Jan., 08