Chapter 4 Statistics and Data Management

Topic Overview Intended Learning Objectives:

1. Classification and Organization of At the end of the module, you should be able to:
Data 1. Use a variety of statistical tools to
2. Measure of Central Tendency process and manage numerical data;
2. Use the methods of linear regression
3. Measures of Dispersion and correlations to predict the value of a
4. Measures of Relative Position variable given certain conditions; and
5. Normal Distribution 3. Advocate the use of statistical data in
making important decisions.

Introduction
Statistics is the branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation,
presentation, and organization of data. It involves the use of mathematical methods to draw conclusions
from data and make decisions based on those conclusions. Statistics is used in a variety of fields, including
business, finance, healthcare, social sciences, and engineering.
Data management refers to the process of collecting, storing, organizing, maintaining, and utilizing
data. Effective data management is critical for organizations to make informed decisions, improve
efficiency, and gain a competitive advantage. It involves using a variety of tools and techniques to ensure
that data is accurate, consistent, and accessible when needed. Data management can include tasks such
as data cleaning, data integration, and data security. Overall, statistics and data management go hand in
hand, as statistics is used to analyze and interpret the data that is managed by organizations.

Lesson 1 Classification and Organization of Data

Data is any bit of information that is expressed in a value or numerical number is data. Raw data is
an initial collection of information. This information has not yet been organized.

A. Data Collection - Data gathering or collection is a systematic process of collecting detail

information about desire objective from selected sample under controlled settings.

Two types of data:

1. Quantitative data – is numerical and can be measured or counted.
◼ Discrete Data – is obtained through counting.
Example: Number of countries in Southeast Asia

◼ Continuous Data – is obtained by measuring.

Example: Height, Weight

2. Qualitative data – is descriptive and cannot be measured or counted.

Example: Color of eyes, ethnicity, and brand of ice cream

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 Ways to Collect Data
1. Direct or Interview Method - is a person-to-person encounter between, the interviewee (source
of information) and the interviewer (the one who gathers the information)
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method - is a technique in which a questionnaire is used to elicit the
information or data needed.
3. Registration Method – obtains the data from the records of government agency authorized by
law to keep such data or information and made these available to researchers.
4. Observation Method – is the technique in which data particularly those pertaining to the
behaviors of individuals or group of individuals during the given situation are best obtained
though observations.
5. Experimental Method – is a system used to gather data from the results of performed series of
experiments on some controlled and experiment variables. This is commonly used in scientific
inquiries.

Levels of Measurement
A more detailed distinction, termed as the levels of measurement, is used by some
researchers in examining the information that is collected. It is classified as follows:
1. Nominal Measurement – numbers or symbols are used to code or classify each element in
the population. Note that the assigned numbers have no numerical meaning.
Examples: gender, educational background, employment status.
2. Ordinal Measurement – uses numerical category that expresses the meaningful order.
There is no indication of distance between positions. The numbers become meaningful
because they reveal whether one class or category is more or less than the other.
Categories are ranked according to the order of their value on the property like first,
second, third; oldest, next oldest, youngest.
Example: rank in beauty contest
3. Interval – Measurement–has equal intervals. There is significance to the distance between
any two values. It tells us that one unit differs by a certain amount of the property from
another unit. It has no absolute zero.
Example: Aptitude test, temperature
4. Ratio Measurement–A variable measured at this level not only includes the concepts of order
and interval, but also includes the idea of ’nothingness’, or absolute zero.
Example: Measurement of height, weight, ages

Summary

Always remember that when collecting data, it is essential to ensure that the data is reliable and
accurate. This can be achieved by using random sampling, ensuring that the sample size is
appropriate, and using standardized methods of data collection.

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 Try this!
Identify the levels of measurement of the following:

1. A researcher collects demographic data from her participants. ____________

She asks participants for their city of birth.
2. She then asks participants to report the number of hours they ____________
spent exercising in the past week.
3. The researcher collects data on anxiety using the Beck Anxiety ____________
Scale. In this scale, scores range from 0-44, but a score of zero
simply means low anxiety rather than a total lack of anxiety.
4. The researcher asks participants to select their level of activity in ____________
general from the following: sedentary, light physical activity,
moderate physical activity, or vigorous physical activity.

B. Data Organization
Once data has been collected, it needs to be organized. This is done to make the data easier to
analyze and interpret. There are three ways or forms to present and organized data. These are:
textual, tabular, and graphical.

1. Textual form – Makes use of words, sentences and paragraphs in presentation.

Example. You are asked to present the performance of your section in Statistics test. The following
are the test scores of your class:

In Statistics class of 40 students, 3 obtained the perfect

score of 50. Sixteen students got a score of 40 and
above, while only 19 got 38 and below. Generally, the
students performed well in the test with 23 or 70%
getting a passing score of 38 and above.

2. Tabular Form – A systematic presentation of data in rows and columns. It is used when related
numerical facts need to be classified in arrays.
◼ It should be simple.
◼ It should focus the reader’s attention on the
data rather than on the form.
◼ It should make the meanings and
significance of information being presented
clear.

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 3. Graphical Presentation – Shown numerical values or relationships in a pictorial form. It makes
use of graphs, symbols, or visual aids.
Good chart should possess the following properties:
• Accurate – it should not be deceptive, distorted or misleading
• Simple – the design should be simple and straightforward. Not loaded with irrelevant or
trivial symbols and ornamentation.
• Clear – it should be easily read understandable.
• Attractive – it is designed and constructed to attract and hold the attention by holding a
neat, dignified, and professional appearance. It should be stylish.

Different types of graphs can be used in data presentation based on purpose. These are:

◼ Line graph – is used when (1) data cover a

long period of time; (2) several series are
compared; (3) movements are to be
emphasized; (4) trends are to be
established; and (5) estimates are to be
forecasted.

◼ Bar graph – is used when numerical

values of an item over a period of time are
compared. It consists of regular bars where the
height of bars represents quantity or frequency for
each category.

◼
◼
◼

◼ Pie graph – is used to show percentage or

the comparison by parts of a whole.

◼ Pictograph - is used to immediately suggest the nature of data.

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 Try this!
Identify the levels of measurement of the following:

1. Which type of graph would you use to show the proportion of ____________
students who own a cat, dog, fish, bird, and no pet?
2. What type of graph would you use to show the populations of 5 ____________
different cities in Cavite?
3. What type of graph would you use to show the population ____________
change of Cavite over the past 25 years?

C. Data Analysis and Interpretation

Data analysis is the process of using statistical methods to interpret data. There are many
statistical methods that can be used to analyze data, including descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics.
Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the data. They can be used to
calculate measures of central tendency, such as the mean, median, and mode, as well as measures
of variability, such as the range and standard deviation.
Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about the data. They can be used to test
hypotheses and make inferences about the population based on the sample data.

Frequency Distribution Table

A frequency distribution table (FDT) is a statistical table showing the frequency or the number of
observations contained in each of the defined classes or categories.

Classes Frequency Class mark Class Boundaries Cumulative Frequency Relative Frequency
𝒄 𝒇 𝒙 𝑳𝑪𝑩 𝑼𝑪𝑩 < 𝑪𝑭 > 𝑪𝑭 𝒓𝒇%

Definition of Terms Used in an FDT:

◼ Class Frequency. The number of observations falling in a particular class.
◼ Class Interval. The numbers defining the class.
◼ Class Limits. The end numbers of the class.
◼ Class Boundaries. The true class limits: the lower-class boundary (LCB) is usually defined as
halfway between the lower-class limit of the class and the upper-class limit of the preceding class
while the upper-class boundary (UCB) is usually defined as halfway between the upper class limit of
the class and the lower class limit of the next class.
◼ Class Size. The difference between the upper-class boundaries of the class and the preceding
class; can also be computed as the difference between the lower-class boundaries of the current
class and the next class; can also be computed by using the respective class limits instead of the
class boundaries.

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 ◼ Class Mark (CM). The midpoint of a class interval where the observations tend to cluster about.
◼ Relative Frequency (rf). The proportion of observations falling in a class and is expressed in
percentage.
◼ Cumulative Frequency (cf). This is the accumulated frequency of the classes. There are two
types: the less than CF (<cf) which is the total number of observations whose values do not exceed
the upper limit of the class and the greater than CF (>cf) which is the total number of observations
whose values are not less than the lower limit of the class.
◼ Relative Cumulative Frequency (rcf). The proportion of the accumulated frequency of the classes
and is expressed in percentage.

Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table

1. Determine the range (R) using the formula R = HV – LV, where HV is the highest value and LV is the
lowest value.
2. Determine the number of classes (k). There must be an adequate number of classes to show the
essential characteristics of the data; at the same time, there should not be too many classes that it
is already difficult to grasp the picture of the distribution as a whole. There are no precise rules
concerning the optimal number of classes, but Sturges’ formula can be used as a first
approximation: 𝒌 =𝟏+ 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑵
3. Determine the approximate class size (c). Whenever possible, all classes should be of the same
size. The following steps can be used to determine the class size. Compute 𝑐 = 𝑅  𝑘 . Round off 𝑐
to a convenient number to work with.
4. Determine the first or the lowest class. The first class must include the smallest value in the data
set.
5. Determine all the classes by adding the class size, c, to the limit of the previous class.
6. Tally the frequencies for each class. Sum the frequencies and check against the total number of
observations.
7. Compute for values in other columns of the FDT as deemed necessary such as:
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡+𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
a. Class Mark = 2
1
b. Upper class boundary = 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 + 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
1
c. Lower Class Boundary lower limit = 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 + 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
d. Relative Frequency = × 100%
𝑛

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Example 1:
Construct an FDT of the final grades of 100 Students in Stat 1.

First, array the data. Array - is an arrangement of observations according to their magnitude, either
in increasing or decreasing order.

Solution:
1. Determine the range.
𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 = 𝐇𝐕− 𝐋𝐕 = 𝟗𝟔 − 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟒𝟔
2. Determine the number of classes, k.
𝐤 =𝟏+ 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐍 = 𝟏+ 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏𝟎𝟎) = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟒𝟒
3. Determine the class size, c.
𝑹 𝟒𝟔
𝒄= = = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟏 ≈ 𝟔
𝑲 𝟕. 𝟔𝟒𝟒
4. Determine the lowest class.
The lowest class starts with the smallest value, which is 50. Then, counting six (c = 6) numbers from
50, we have 50 – 55 as the lowest class.
5. Determine all the classes. 6. Tally the frequencies for each class.

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 7. Determine all the entries for the additional columns in an FDT.
Classes Frequency Class mark Class Boundaries Cumulative Frequency Relative Frequency
𝒄 𝒇 𝒙 𝑳𝑪𝑩 𝑼𝑪𝑩 < 𝑪𝑭 > 𝑪𝑭 𝒓𝒇%
50 - 55 8 52.5 49.5 55.5 8 100 8%
56 - 61 6 58.5 55.5 61.5 14 92 6%
62 - 67 4 64.5 61.5 67.5 18 86 4%
68 - 73 23 70.5 67.5 73.5 41 82 23 %
74 - 79 21 76.5 73.5 79.5 62 59 21 %
80 - 85 25 82.5 79.5 85.5 87 38 25 %
86 - 91 10 88.5 85.5 91.5 97 13 10 %
92 - 97 3 94.5 91.5 97.5 100 3 3%
𝑁 = 100

Example 2:

Construct an FDT of the 50 students score in 200 item tests.

Solution:
1. 𝑅ange = 172 − 112 = 60
2. 𝐾 = 1 + 3.322𝐿𝑜𝑔(50) = 6.64 ≈ 7
60
3. 𝐶 = = 8.57 ≈ 9
7

Classes Frequency Class Class Cumulative Relative

mark Boundaries Frequency Frequency
𝒄 𝒇 𝒙 𝑳𝑪𝑩 𝑼𝑪𝑩 < 𝑪𝑭 > 𝑪𝑭 𝒓𝒇%
112 - 120 1 116 111.5 120.5 1 50 2%
121 - 129 7 125 120.5 129.5 8 49 14 %
130 - 138 10 134 129.5 138.5 18 42 20 %
139 - 147 12 143 138.5 147.5 30 32 24 %
148 - 156 11 152 147.5 156.5 41 20 22 %
157 - 165 5 161 156.5 165.5 46 9 10 %
166 - 174 4 170 165.5 174.5 50 4 8%
N=50

Prepare for a Quiz and Activity next meeting.

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 Lesson 2 Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is a summary measure that attempts to describe a whole set of
data with a single value that represents the middle or center of data set. Most commonly used measures of
central tendency or type of averages are arithmetic mean, median and mode.

The Mean
The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It is defined as the
sum of all the values of the observations divided by the number of observations. The mean for a finite
population with N elements is denoted by the Greek letter  (read as mu). The sample mean which is
denoted by X (read as x-bar) is used to estimate the population mean.

The Mean of Ungrouped data

The mean of a series of values is equal to the sum of the set of values divided by the
number of values. Symbolically the mean is,
∑ 𝑥̅ 𝑥̅ + 𝑥̅2 + 𝑥̅3 + ⋯ + 𝑥̅𝑛
𝑥̅ = = 1
𝑛 𝑛
where:
𝑥̅ – sample mean 𝑥̅ – 𝑖𝑡ℎ observed value in the population
∑ – summation of all the values N – total number of observations

Examples
a. The numbers of employees at 5 different gift shops are 4, 8, 10, 12 and 6. Find the mean
of employees for the five stores.
b. Scores in the Algebra Long Examination for a sample of 10 students are as follows: 84,
75, 90, 98, 88, 79, 95, 86, 93 and 89. Compute for the mean score.
c. The items listed below represents the scores of the seven BSIT students during the
midterm examination. Compute the mean score. 49, 65, 70, 55, 83, 75, and 50.

Solutions
∑𝑥 4+6+8+10+12 40
a. 𝑥̅ = = = =8
𝑛 5 5
∑𝑥 84+75+90+98+88+79+95+86+93+89 877
b. 𝑥̅ = = = = 87.7
𝑛 10 10
∑𝑥 49+65+70+55+83+75+50 447
c. 𝑥̅ = = = = 63.86
𝑛 7 7

Try this!

a. Six friends in a Mathematics in the Modern World class of 25 students received

test grades of 92 , 84 , 65 , 76 , 88 , and 90. Find the mean of these test scores.
b. The daily wages of 10 employees of Home depot are : ₱500, ₱750 , ₱430, 630,
₱450, ₱440, ₱700, ₱350, ₱𝟓80, ₱630. Find the mean of the daily salaries of the
employees.

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 The Mean of Grouped data

This is possible only when we can assume the class mark to be representative of all
the values in that class. If the assumption holds, the following equation may be used to
approximate the mean from a frequency distribution.

Class Mark Method

1. Compute for the class mark of each class.
2. Multiply the frequency of each class to its respective class mark.
3. Compute for the mean using the formula:
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑋 𝑓1 𝑋1 + 𝑓2 𝑋2 + 𝑓3 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛 𝑋𝑁
𝑖
𝑥̅ = =
𝑁 𝑁
where:
𝑥̅ – mean 𝑋𝑖 – class mark of ith class
∑ – summation of 𝑓𝑖 – frequency of ith class
all values N – total number of observations

Example

a. The table below represents the scores of 64 students in a long quiz.

Class Interval Frequency (𝑓)
5–9 7
10 – 14 10
15 – 19 13
20 – 24 18
25 – 29 8
30 – 34 5
35 – 39 3
Total N = 64
Solution:
Class Interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅) 𝑓𝑖 𝑋𝑖
5–9 7 7 49
10 – 14 10 12 120
15 – 19 13 17 221
20 – 24 18 22 396
25 – 29 8 27 216
30 – 34 5 32 160
35 – 39 3 37 111
Total N = 64 ∑ 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 = 1273

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑋 1273
𝑖
𝑥̅ = =
= 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟗
𝑁 64
Therefore, the average score of 64 students is 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟗.

Note: From the frequency distribution table, add another column to represent the
𝑓𝑖 𝑋𝑖 . Then take the sum under this column.

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The Median
The median (denoted by 𝑥̅̃ , read as x-Nye), is the positional middle of an array. It divides the
distribution into two equal halves. The first step in calculating the median is to arrange the data in an array.
This is why it is advantageous if you have an array and not the raw data.

The Median of Ungrouped data

To determine the value of median for ungrouped we need to consider two rules:
1. If n is odd, the median is the middle ranked.
𝑛+1
𝑥̅̃ = 𝑡ℎ
2
2. If n is even, then the median is the average of the two middle ranked values.
1 𝑛 𝑛
𝑥̅̄ = [( ) 𝑡ℎ + ( + 1) 𝑡ℎ]
2 2 2

Examples
1. The daily rates of a sample of eight employee at GMS inc. are ₱550, ₱420, ₱560, ₱500,
₱700, ₱670, ₱860, ₱480. Find the median daily rate of employee.
Solution:
420, 480, 500, 550, 560, 670, 700, 860 Arranged the data in ascending order
1 𝑛 𝑛
𝑥̅̃ = [( ) 𝑡ℎ + ( + 1) 𝑡ℎ] Since 𝑁 = 8 is even, we will use this formula
2 2 2 to find the two middle rank values.
1 8 8
𝑥̅̃ = [( ) 𝑡ℎ + ( + 1) 𝑡ℎ]
2 2 2
1
𝑥̅̃ = [4𝑡ℎ + 5𝑡ℎ]
2

1
𝑥̅̃ = [550 + 560] 420, 480, 500, 550, 560, 670, 700, 860
2
1
𝑥̅̃ = 2 [1110]
𝑥̅̃ = 555 Therefore, the median daily rate is 555.

2. Find the median of the data: 23 23 17 7 31 10 10 19 50

Solution:
7, 10, 10, 17, 19, 23, 23, 31, 50 Arranged the data in ascending order
𝑛+1 Since 𝑁 = 9 is odd, we will use this formula
𝑥̅̃ = 𝑡ℎ
2 to find the middle rank value.
9+1
𝑥̅̃ = 𝑡ℎ
2
𝑥̅̃ = 5𝑡ℎ The median is in the 5th rank.
𝑥̅̃ = 19 Therefore, the median is 19.

Try this!

Determine the median of the following set of data:

a. 11, 12, 13, 18, 25, 39
b. 67, 71, 72, 75, 75, 78, 82.

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 The Median of Grouped data
The median from grouped data can be calculated using the formula
𝑛
− 𝐹𝑏
𝑥̅̃ = 𝐿𝑚𝑑 + 𝑐 [2 ]
𝑓𝑚𝑑
Where:
𝐿𝑚𝑑 - lower CB of the median class
𝑐 – class size
𝐹𝑏 - < 𝑐𝑓 before the median class
N – total number of observations
𝑓𝑚𝑑 - frequency of the median class
𝑛
– median class
2

Note: Take note that the median is located in the middle value of the frequency
distribution. It is the value that separates the upper half of the distribution from the lower
half. It is also obvious to note that it is a measure of central tendency because it is the
exact center of the scores in a distribution.

Example
The table below represents the scores of 64 students in a long quiz

Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅) Class Boundary

5–9 7 7 4.5 – 9.5
10 – 14 10 12 9.5 – 14. 5
15 – 19 13 17 14. 5 – 19.5
20 – 24 18 22 19.5 – 24.5
25 – 29 8 27 24.5 – 29.5
30 – 34 5 32 29.5 – 34.5
35 – 39 3 37 34.5 – 39.5
Total N = 64

Solution
Step 1. Construct a less than cumulative frequency column in the table.
Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅) Class Boundary < 𝑐𝑓
5–9 7 7 4.5 – 9.5 7
10 – 14 10 12 9.5 – 14. 5 17
15 – 19 13 17 14. 5 – 19.5 30
20 – 24 18 22 19.5 – 24.5 48
25 – 29 8 27 24.5 – 29.5 56
30 – 34 5 32 29.5 – 34.5 61
35 – 39 3 37 34.5 – 39.5 64
Total N = 64

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 Step 2. Determine the median class. Median class is the class containing the middle value.
This can be easily identified under the less than cumulative frequency (< 𝑐𝑓)
𝑛 64
Median class = = = 32
2 2
Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅) Class Boundary < 𝑐𝑓
5–9 7 7 4.5 – 9.5 7
10 – 14 10 12 9.5 – 14. 5 17
15 – 19 13 17 14. 5 – 19.5 30
20 – 24 18 22 19.5 – 24.5 48
25 – 29 8 27 24.5 – 29.5 56
30 – 34 5 32 29.5 – 34.5 61
35 – 39 3 37 34.5 – 39.5 64
Total N = 64

Step 3: Determine the values of :

𝐿𝑚𝑑 - lower CB of the median class 𝐿𝑚𝑑 = 19.5
𝑐 – class size 𝑐=5
𝐹𝑏 - < 𝑐𝑓 before the median class 𝐹𝑏 = 30
N – total number of observations 𝑁 = 64
𝑓𝑚𝑑 - frequency of the median class 𝑓𝑚𝑑 = 18

Step 4: Apply the median formula to compute for the value of the median.
𝑛
− 𝐹𝑏
𝑥̅̃ = 𝐿𝑚𝑑 + 𝑐 [2 ]
𝑓𝑚𝑑
64
− 30
𝑥̅̃ = 19.5 + 5 [ 2 ]
18

𝑥̅̃ = 20.05555

The Mode
The mode (denoted by xˆ , read as x-hat) is the most frequently occurring score in a given data set.
It locates the point where the observation values occur with the greatest density. It does not always exist,
and if it does, it may not be unique. The mode is not easily affected by extreme values, that is even if we
add values to a given data set, still the value will not easily be changed unlike the mean. it can be used for
qualitative as well as quantitative data.

The Mode of Ungrouped data

Types of Mode
1. Unimodal Mode - A set of data with one mode.
2. Bimodal Mode - A set of data with two modes. This means that there are two data
values that are having the highest frequencies.
3. Trimodal Mode - A set of data with three modes. This means that there are three
data values that are having the highest frequencies.
4. Multimodal Mode - A set of data with four or more than four Modes is known as a
Multimodal Mode.

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 Example
Identify the mode/s of the following data sets.
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 c. 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 4
b. 2, 5, 2, 3, 5, 2, 1 d. 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5
e. Red, Blue, Blue, White, Yellow, Red, Green, Blue, Orange, White, Yellow

Solutions
a. No mode because there is no value that is repeatedly occurring.
b. 𝑥̅̂ = 2, unimodal d. 𝑥̅̂ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, multimodal
c. 𝑥̅̂ = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3, bimodal e. 𝑥̅̂ = 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒

The Mode of Grouped data

The mode from grouped data can be approximated using the formula.
𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓𝑏
𝑥̅̂ = 𝐿𝑚𝑜 + 𝑐 [ ]
2𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓𝑎 − 𝑓𝑏
Where:
𝐿𝑚𝑜 – lower CB of the modal class
C – class
size
𝑓𝑚𝑜 – frequency of the modal class
𝑓𝑏 – frequency after the modal class
𝑓𝑎 – frequency before the modal class

Example
The table below represents the scores of 64 students in a long quiz

Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅) Class Boundary

5–9 7 7 4.5 – 9.5
10 – 14 10 12 9.5 – 14. 5
15 – 19 13 17 14. 5 – 19.5
20 – 24 18 22 19.5 – 24.5
25 – 29 8 27 24.5 – 29.5
30 – 34 5 32 29.5 – 34.5
35 – 39 3 37 34.5 – 39.5
Total N = 64

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 Solution

Step 1. Identify the modal class. Modal class is the class with the highest frequency.
In the table, the modal class is the interval 20 – 24.
Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅) Class Boundary
5–9 7 7 4.5 – 9.5
10 – 14 10 12 9.5 – 14. 5
15 – 19 13 17 14. 5 – 19.5
20 – 24 18 22 19.5 – 24.5
25 – 29 8 27 24.5 – 29.5
30 – 34 5 32 29.5 – 34.5
35 – 39 3 37 34.5 – 39.5
Total N = 64

Step 2. Determine the values of

𝐿𝑚𝑜 – lower CB of the modal class 𝐿𝑚𝑜 = 19.5
𝐶 – class size 𝑐=5
𝑓𝑚𝑜 – frequency of the modal class 𝑓𝑚𝑜 = 18
𝑓𝑏 – frequency before the modal class 𝑓𝑏 = 13
𝑓𝑎 – frequency after the modal class 𝑓𝑎 = 8

Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅) Class Boundary

5–9 7 7 4.5 – 9.5
10 – 14 10 12 9.5 – 14. 5
15 – 19 13 17 14. 5 – 19.5
20 – 24 18 22 19.5 – 24.5
25 – 29 8 27 24.5 – 29.5
30 – 34 5 32 29.5 – 34.5
35 – 39 3 37 34.5 – 39.5
Total N = 64

Step 3. Calculate mode using the formula.

𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓𝑏
𝑥̅̂ = 𝐿𝑚𝑜 + 𝑐 [ ]
2𝑓𝑚𝑜 − 𝑓𝑎 − 𝑓𝑏

18 − 13
𝑥̅̂ = 19.5 + 5 [ ]
2(18) − 13 − 8
𝑥̅̂ = 21. 166666 ≈ 21.17

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 Lesson 3 Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion indicate the extent to which individual items in a series are scattered about
the average. It is used to determine the extent of scatter so that steps may be taken to control the existing
variation. It is also used as a measure of reliability of the average value.
Suppose the researcher wishes to conduct a study on the achievements of teacher-education
students in Zoology. The results are shown in two samples below. The two samples have the same
arithmetic mean, but Sample B is more spread than Sample A. Consider these two sets of scores in a
Zoology examination.
Sample A: 30 31 33 35 37 38 40 42 44 45
Sample B: 20 24 25 28 30 35 40 43 60 70
The foregoing scores have the same arithmetic mean, 37.5 but the scores in Sample A are
homogeneous while in Sample B are heterogeneous. The measures of absolute dispersion are expressed
in the units of the original observations. They cannot be used to compare variations of two data sets when
the averages of these data sets differ a lot in value or when the observations differ in units of measurement.

Range
The range of a set of measurement is the simplest and easiest measure of dispersion. It is easily
attained and readily understood. However, it is the most unreliable because its value depends only in the
extreme values (highest and lowest) of the data set.

Absolute Range. The absolute range is the difference between the largest and the smallest value
of an ungrouped data. For grouped data, the range is the difference between the upper limit of the
highest class and the lower limit of the lowest class.

Example
Find the absolute range of the following:
1. Determine the variance for the data shown below. 10 9 15 18 18 8 10 14 12 16.
2. The table below represents the scores of 64 students in a long quiz. Find the variance.
Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅)
5–9 7 7
10 – 14 10 12
15 – 19 13 17
20 – 24 18 22
25 – 29 8 27
30 – 34 5 32
35 – 39 3 37
Total N = 64

Solutions
a. Absolute Range = HV – LV = 18 – 8 = 10
b. Absolute Range = UHC – LLC = 39 – 5 = 34

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Mean Deviation
The mean deviation is defined as the sum of absolute deviations of the arithmetic mean divided by
the number of cases. It is a measure of dispersion which is seldom used. It can be computed using the
following formula:
∑(𝑋− 𝑥)
𝑀𝐷 = where:
𝑁
𝑴𝑫 - is the mean deviation 𝑿 is the score
̅ is the mean of all the scores
𝒙 𝑵 is the number of cases

Example
Determine the mean deviation for the data shown below.
10 9 15 18 18 8 10 14 12 16

Solutions
1. Determine the mean.
10 + 9 + 15 + 18 + 18 + 8 + 10 + 14 + 12 + 16 130
̅=
𝒙 = = 𝟏𝟑
10 10

2.
∑(𝑋 − 𝑥̅ ) |10 − 13| + |9 − 13| + |15 − 13| + … + |16 − 13| + 32
𝑀𝐷 = = = = 𝟑. 𝟐
𝑁 10 10

Variance

For ungrouped data.

∑(𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠2 =
𝑁−1

For grouped data.

∑ 𝑓(𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠2 =
𝑛−1

Example
3. Determine the variance for the data shown below. 10 9 15 18 18 8 10 14 12 16.
4. The table below represents the scores of 64 students in a long quiz. Find the variance.
Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅)
5–9 7 7
10 – 14 10 12
15 – 19 13 17
20 – 24 18 22
25 – 29 8 27
30 – 34 5 32
35 – 39 3 37
Total N = 64

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 Solutions

∑(𝑥− 𝑥)2 (𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟗−𝟏𝟑)𝟐 + … + (𝟏𝟔−𝟏𝟑)𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟒

1. 𝑠 2 = = = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟖
𝑛−1 10−𝟏 𝟗
2.
Class interval (𝒇) (𝒙) 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 (𝒙 − 𝒙̅ )𝟐 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅ )𝟐
5–9 7 7 49 166.18 1163.25
10 – 14 10 12 120 62.27 622.68
15 – 19 13 17 221 8.36 108.65
20 – 24 18 22 396 4.45 80.06
25 – 29 8 27 216 50.54 404.30
30 – 34 5 32 160 146.63 733.14
35 – 39 3 37 111 292.72 878.15
Total N = 64 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑋𝑖 = 1 273 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅ )2 = 3990.23

∑ 𝑓(𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅ )2 3990.23
𝑠2 = = = 63.34.
𝑛−1 64 − 1

Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is another measure of dispersion which is most commonly used as a guide for
the degree of dispersion or spread. It is also the most dependable measure to calculate the variability of the
total population from which the sample came. It is equivalent to the square root of the variance.

𝑠 = √𝑠 2

Example
1. Determine the variance for the data shown below. 10 9 15 18 18 8 10 14 12 16.
2. The table below represents the scores of 64 students in a long quiz. Find the variance.
Class interval Frequency (𝑓) Class Mark (𝑥̅)
5–9 7 7
10 – 14 10 12
15 – 19 13 17
20 – 24 18 22
25 – 29 8 27
30 – 34 5 32
35 – 39 3 37

Solutions
1. Since the computed variance for the above data is 13.78, its standard deviation is the
square root of 13.78 or 𝒔 = √𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟖 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏.

2. Since the computed variance for the above grouped data is 63.34, its standard deviation
is the square root of 63.34 or 𝒔 = √𝟔𝟑. 𝟑𝟒 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟔.

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 Lesson 4 Measures of Relative Position

Measures of locations are values below which a specified fraction or percentage of the observations
in a given set must fall.

The Quartiles

Quartiles are values that divide the array into four equal parts. Thus, Q1, read as first quartile, is
the value below which 25% of the values fall; Q2, read as second quartile, is the value below which 50% of
the values fall; Q3, read as third quartile, is the value below which 75% of the values fall. The second
quartile is computationally equivalent to the median.

The Quartile of Ungrouped Data

There are three quartiles in each data set: the first, second and third quartiles. The ith quartile
is computed using the following formula:

𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
1. If n is odd, 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑖 ( ) observation
4
𝑛 𝑡ℎ
2. If n is even, 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑖 (4 ) observation

where 𝑛 is the number of observations and 𝑖 is the number of Quartile.

Example
1. From the given set of scores in a quiz: 3, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18, 19, find 𝑄1 and 𝑄3
2. Given the data, 6, 8, 9, 9, 10, 12, 15, 15, 17, 18, find 𝑄1 and 𝑄2

Solutions
𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ 𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
1. 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑖 ( ) observation 1. 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑖 ( ) observation
4 4
7+1 𝑡ℎ 7+1 𝑡ℎ
= 1( ) observation = 3( ) observation
4 4
= 2𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 6𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑄1 = 8 𝑄3 = 18
Therefore, 25% of the scores in the quiz Therefore, 75% of the scores in the quiz
are below 8. are below 18.

𝑛 𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑡ℎ
2. 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑖 ( 4) observation 2. 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑖 ( 4) observation
10 𝑡ℎ 10 𝑡ℎ
= 1 ( 4 ) observation = 2 ( 4 ) observation
= 2.5 𝑜𝑟 3𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 5𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑄1 = 9 𝑄2 = 10
Therefore, 25% of the scores in the quiz Therefore, 50% of the scores in the quiz
are below 9. are below 10.

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The Deciles

Deciles are values that divide the array into ten equal parts. Thus, D1, read as first decile, is the
value below which 10% of the values fall; D2, read as second decile, is the value below which 20% of the
values fall; and so on. The fifth decile is computationally equivalent to the median

The Decile of Ungrouped Data

There are nine deciles in each data set: the first, second until the ninth decile. The ith decile
is computed using the following formula:
𝑛 𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑖 = 𝑖 (10) observation
where 𝑛 is the number of observations and 𝑖 is the number of Decile.

Example
1. From the given set of scores in a quiz: 3, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18, 19, find 𝐷4 and 𝐷7

Solutions
𝑛 𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑖 = 𝑖 (10) observation 𝐷𝑖 = 𝑖 (10) observation
7 𝑡ℎ 7 𝑡ℎ
= 4 (10) observation = 7 (10) observation
= 2.8 𝑜𝑟 3𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 4.9 𝑜𝑟 5𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐷4 = 9 𝐷7 = 12
Therefore, 40% of the scores in the quiz Therefore, 70% of the scores in the quiz
are below 9. are below 12.

The Percentiles

Percentiles are values that divide the array into one hundred equal parts. Thus, 𝑃1 , read as first-
percentile, is the value below which 1% of the values fall; 𝑃2 ,, read as second percentile, is the value below
which 2% of the values fall; and so on. The fiftieth percentile is computationally equivalent to the median.

The Percentile of Ungrouped Data

There are ninety-nine percentiles in each data set: the first, second until the ninety ninth
percentile. The ith percentile is computed using the following formula.
𝑛 𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑖 (100) observation
where 𝑛 is the number of observations and 𝑖 is the number of percentile.

Example
1. From the given set of scores in a quiz: 3, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, find the 45th
percentile (𝑃45 ) and the 77th percentile (𝑃77 )

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 Solutions
𝑛 𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑖 (100) observation 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑖 (100) observation
10 𝑡ℎ 10 𝑡ℎ
= 45 (100) observation = 77 (100) observation
= 4.5 𝑜𝑟 5𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 7.7 𝑜𝑟 8𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃45 = 12 𝑃77 = 20
Therefore, 45% of the scores in the quiz Therefore, 77% of the scores in the quiz
are below 12. are below 20.

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 Lesson 5 The Normal Curve

The normal distribution is sometimes called the "bell curve" and "Gaussian curve" after the
mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss. Although Gauss played an important role in its history, Abraham de
Moivre first discovered the normal distribution.
The normal curve is a very important distribution in the behavioral sciences. There are three
principal reasons. First, many of the variables measured in behavioral research have distributions that quite
closely approximate the normal curve. Second, many of the inference tests used in analyzing experiments
have sampling distributions that become normally distributed with increasing sample size. Finally, many
inference tests require sampling distributions that are normally distributed. Thus, much of the importance of
the normal curve occurs in conjunction with inferential statistics.
The normal curve is a theoretical distribution of population scores. It is a bell-shaped curve that is
described by the following equation:

𝑵 −(𝑿−𝝁)𝟐
𝒀= 𝒆 𝟐𝝈𝟐
√𝟐𝝅𝝈
Most of us will never need to know the exact equation of the normal curve. It has been given here
primarily to make the point that the normal curve is a theoretical curve that is mathematically generated.

Understanding the Normal Curve

To give us a deeper understanding of the concept of the normal distribution, let us learn more about
its properties. The following are the properties that can be observed from the graph of a normal
distribution.

1. The graph is a continuous curve and has a domain −∞ < 𝑋 < ∞. This means that X may increase
or decrease without bound.
2. The graph is asymptotic to the 𝑥̅ −axis. The value of the variable gets closer and closer but will never
be equal to 0. As the 𝑥̅ gets larger and larger in the positive direction, the tail of the curve

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 approaches but will never touch the horizontal axis. The same thing when the 𝑥̅ gets larger and
larger in the negative direction.
3. The highest point on the curve occurs at 𝑥̅ = µ (mean).
• The mean (µ) indicates the highest peak of the curve and is found at the center.
• Take note that the mean is denoted by this symbol µ and the standard deviation is denoted by
this symbol .
• The median and mode of the distribution are also found at the center of the graph. This
indicates that in a normal distribution, the mean, median and mode are equal.
4. The curve is symmetrical about the mean.
This means that the curve will have
balanced proportions when cut in halves
and the area under the curve to the right of
mean (50%) is equal to the area under the
curve to the left of the mean (50%).

5. The total area in the normal distribution under the curve is equal to 1. Since the mean divides the
curve into halves, 50% of the area is to the right and 50% to its left having a total of 100% or 1.
6. In general, the graph of a normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve with two inflection points, one on
the left and another on the right. Inflection points are the points that mark the change in the curve’s
concavity.
• Inflection point is the point at which a
change in the direction of curve at mean
minus standard deviation and mean plus
standard deviation.
• Note that each inflection point of the normal
curve is one standard deviation away from the
mean.
7. Every normal curve corresponds to the “Empirical Rule” (also called the 68 - 95 - 99.7% rule):
• about 68.3% of the area under the curve falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean.

• about 95.4% of the area under the curve falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean.

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 • about 99.7% of the area under the curve falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

Area Under Normal Curve

In the previous lesson, we discussed the properties of the normal probability distribution and one of
them that we learned is the total area under the curve is equal to one. Since the standard normal
distribution is defined as normally distributed random variable having a mean of zero ( µ= 0 ) and standard
deviation of one (ơ = 1), the fifty (50) percent of the region under the curve is below the mean and the other
50% is above the mean. The illustration is provided below.

We can easily identify the area of the regions under normal curve by using the Table of Areas under
the Normal Curve which is also known as z-Table (see attachment at the last page of this chapter). This
table gives an area to any value of z from -3.99 to 3.99. The value from this table will describe the area of
the specific region of the curve to the left of the given z-value.

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How to use the Table of Areas under the Normal Curve?

Example: Find the area to the left of −1.69

Solution: First, split the given z-value into hundredths, we can find the whole number and the tenths digit (-
1.6) at left side of the table while the hundredths (0.09) located at the upper most of the table. Then the
intersection of these numbers will be the area of the normal curve to the left of the z-value.

Illustration:

Answer: The area to the left of 𝑧 = −1.69 is 0.0455.

Finding Area Under Normal Curve

Example 1:

Find the area that corresponds below z = -1.35

Solution:
Step 1. Draw/sketch a normal curve and locate Step 2: Shade the region of the curve according
the given z-value. to the condition of z-value whether it is below,
above or between.

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Step 3. Use the table of the area under the Step 4. Choose the appropriate operation based
normal curve to find the corresponding area. on step 2 and 3.
4.1 When the z-value is to the left or any
related terms (e.g., below, less than)
just write the value we obtained in
step 3.
Since the shaded region of the
curve is to the left of the z= -1.35
and the intersection between -1.3
and 0.05 is 0.0885. Therefore, the
area of the shaded region is
The intersection between -1.3 and 0.05 is 0.0885.
0.0885.

Step 5. Label the shaded region.

Example 2: Find the area to the right of z = -1.35

Step 1: Step 3.
The intersection between -1.3 and 0.05 is 0.0885

Step 4. Since the shaded region is to the right of

z-value, we will subtract 0.0885 to 1. The
difference is 0.9115.

Step 2: Step 5

0.9115

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Example 3: Find the area between z = -1.30 and z = 2

Step 1:
Step 4. Since the shaded region is within
the two z-value, subtract 0.4772 by
0.0968. The difference is 0.8804.

Step 5. The area between z = -1.3 and z=

2 is 0.8804

Step 2:

Step 3. The value that corresponds to z= 1.3 is

0.0968 and z= 2 is 0.4772

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The Z-Table

Table entry for 𝒛 is the area under the standard normal curve to the left of 𝒛.

Standard Normal Probabilities

Z 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
-3.9 0.0001 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
-3.8 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
-3.7 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
-3.6 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
-3.5 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
-3.4 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0002
-3.3 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004
-3.2 0.0007 0.0007 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
-3.1 0.0010 0.0009 0.0009 0.0009 0.0008 0.0008 0.0008 0.0008 0.0007 0.0007
-3 0.0014 0.0013 0.0013 0.0012 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 0.0010
-2.9 0.0019 0.0018 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0016 0.0015 0.0015 0.0014 0.0014
-2.8 0.0026 0.0025 0.0024 0.0023 0.0023 0.0022 0.0021 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019
-2.7 0.0035 0.0034 0.0033 0.0032 0.0031 0.0030 0.0029 0.0028 0.0027 0.0026
-2.6 0.0047 0.0045 0.0044 0.0043 0.0042 0.0040 0.0039 0.0038 0.0037 0.0036
-2.5 0.0062 0.0060 0.0059 0.0057 0.0055 0.0054 0.0052 0.0051 0.0049 0.0048
-2.4 0.0082 0.0080 0.0078 0.0076 0.0073 0.0071 0.0070 0.0068 0.0066 0.0064
-2.3 0.0107 0.0104 0.0102 0.0099 0.0096 0.0094 0.0091 0.0089 0.0087 0.0084
-2.2 0.0139 0.0136 0.0132 0.0129 0.0126 0.0122 0.0119 0.0116 0.0113 0.0110
-2.1 0.0179 0.0174 0.0170 0.0166 0.0162 0.0158 0.0154 0.0150 0.0146 0.0143
-2 0.0228 0.0222 0.0217 0.0212 0.0207 0.0202 0.0197 0.0192 0.0188 0.0183
-1.9 0.0287 0.0281 0.0274 0.0268 0.0262 0.0256 0.0250 0.0244 0.0239 0.0233
-1.8 0.0359 0.0352 0.0344 0.0336 0.0329 0.0322 0.0314 0.0307 0.0301 0.0294
-1.7 0.0446 0.0436 0.0427 0.0418 0.0409 0.0401 0.0392 0.0384 0.0375 0.0367
-1.6 0.0548 0.0537 0.0526 0.0516 0.0505 0.0495 0.0485 0.0475 0.0465 0.0455
-1.5 0.0668 0.0655 0.0643 0.0630 0.0618 0.0606 0.0594 0.0582 0.0571 0.0559
-1.4 0.0808 0.0793 0.0778 0.0764 0.0749 0.0735 0.0722 0.0708 0.0694 0.0681
-1.3 0.0968 0.0951 0.0934 0.0918 0.0901 0.0885 0.0869 0.0853 0.0838 0.0823
-1.2 0.1151 0.1131 0.1112 0.1094 0.1075 0.1057 0.1038 0.1020 0.1003 0.0985
-1.1 0.1357 0.1335 0.1314 0.1292 0.1271 0.1251 0.1230 0.1210 0.1190 0.1170
-1 0.1587 0.1563 0.1539 0.1515 0.1492 0.1469 0.1446 0.1423 0.1401 0.1379
-0.9 0.1841 0.1814 0.1788 0.1762 0.1736 0.1711 0.1685 0.1660 0.1635 0.1611
-0.8 0.2119 0.2090 0.2061 0.2033 0.2005 0.1977 0.1949 0.1922 0.1894 0.1867
-0.7 0.2420 0.2389 0.2358 0.2327 0.2297 0.2266 0.2236 0.2207 0.2177 0.2148
-0.6 0.2743 0.2709 0.2676 0.2644 0.2611 0.2579 0.2546 0.2514 0.2483 0.2451
-0.5 0.3085 0.3050 0.3015 0.2981 0.2946 0.2912 0.2877 0.2843 0.2810 0.2776
-0.4 0.3446 0.3409 0.3372 0.3336 0.3300 0.3264 0.3228 0.3192 0.3156 0.3121
-0.3 0.3821 0.3783 0.3745 0.3707 0.3669 0.3632 0.3594 0.3557 0.3520 0.3483
-0.2 0.4207 0.4168 0.4129 0.4091 0.4052 0.4013 0.3974 0.3936 0.3897 0.3859
-0.1 0.4602 0.4562 0.4522 0.4483 0.4443 0.4404 0.4364 0.4325 0.4286 0.4247
-0.0 0.5000 0.4960 0.4920 0.4880 0.4841 0.4801 0.4761 0.4721 0.4681 0.4641

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The Z-Table

Table entry for 𝒛 is the area under the standard normal curve to the left of 𝒛.

Standard Normal Probabilities

Z 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

0 0.5000 0.5040 0.5080 0.5120 0.5160 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5754
0.2 0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.5910 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0.6331 0.6368 0.6406 0.6443 0.6480 0.6517
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.6700 0.6736 0.6772 0.6808 0.6844 0.6879
0.5 0.6915 0.6950 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.7190 0.7224
0.6 0.7258 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7518 0.7549
0.7 0.7580 0.7612 0.7642 0.7673 0.7704 0.7734 0.7764 0.7794 0.7823 0.7852
0.8 0.7881 0.7910 0.7939 0.7967 0.7996 0.8023 0.8051 0.8079 0.8106 0.8133
0.9 0.8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.8340 0.8365 0.8389
1 0.8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0.8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.8770 0.8790 0.8810 0.8830
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.8980 0.8997 0.9015
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0.9131 0.9147 0.9162 0.9177
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0.9292 0.9306 0.9319
1.5 0.9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.9370 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0.9430 0.9441
1.6 0.9452 0.9463 0.9474 0.9485 0.9495 0.9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545
1.7 0.9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633
1.8 0.9641 0.9649 0.9656 0.9664 0.9671 0.9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9700 0.9706
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0.9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.9750 0.9756 0.9762 0.9767
2 0.9773 0.9778 0.9783 0.9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0.9812 0.9817
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.9830 0.9834 0.9838 0.9842 0.9846 0.9850 0.9854 0.9857
2.2 0.9861 0.9865 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0.9884 0.9887 0.9890
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916
2.4 0.9918 0.9920 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936
2.5 0.9938 0.9940 0.9941 0.9943 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952
2.6 0.9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0.9961 0.9962 0.9963 0.9964
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.9970 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974
2.8 0.9974 0.9975 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9980 0.9980 0.9981
2.9 0.9981 0.9982 0.9983 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986
3 0.9987 0.9987 0.9987 0.9988 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989 0.9989 0.9990 0.9990
3.1 0.9990 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993
3.2 0.9993 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995
3.3 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997
3.4 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998
3.5 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
3.6 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
3.7 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
3.8 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3.9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

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