INTERMEDIATE SECOND YEAR

BASIC LEARNING MATERIAL

ZOOLOGY-II
ENGLISH MEDIUM

BIPC-II
 VERY SHORT QUESTIONS UNIT-1A
1. Give the dental formula of adult human beings.
Ans. The arrangement of different types of teeth in each half of both the jaws in theOrder
I,C,P,M. The dental formula in adult human beings is 2123/2123
2. What is chyme?
Ans: It is the partially digested food formed by the action of gastric juice in the stomach.
3. Name the different types of salivary glands of man, and their locations in the human
body.
i). Parotid glands – below ear pinna
ii). Submaxillary gland – angles of lower
jaw
iii). Sub lingual glands – below the tongue.
4. What is the hardest substance in the human body? What is its origin?
A. Enamel is the hardest substance. it is ectodermal in origin.
Short Answer type Questions IA

1. Describe the process of digestion of proteins in the stomach.

• Gastric juice contains inactive enzymes namely pepsinogen and prorennin.

• HCl converts inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin. It digests proteins
𝐻𝐶𝐿
• Pepsinogens →−→ pepsin
𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛
• Protein →−−−→ proteoses + peptones
s
• HCl converts inactive prorennin into active rennin
𝐻𝐶𝐿
• Prorennin →−→ rennin
• Rennin converts milk protein casein into calciumparacaseinate in the
presence of ca+2
𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛
• casein →−−−→
calciumparac
aseinateca++
2.Draw a neat labelled diagram of L.S of a tooth
 UNIT-IB
Very Short Answer type Questions
1. Define vital capacity. What is its significance ?
Ans:- Vital Capacity (V.C):- The maximum volume of air a person can breathin
after forced expiration this includes ERV, TV and IRV V.C.=TV+1RV+ERV
2. What is the effect of PCo2 on oxygen transport ?
Ans:- The effect of PCo2 on oxygen transport is called "Bohr Effect"
3. What happens to the respiratory process in a men going up a hill ?
Ans:- At a height of about 6000m the Po2 becomes almost half of what it is atthe mean
sea level hence the "mountain sickness" in people ascending hills. The ribcage
and the diaphragm help mammals breath in air moreeffectively.
4. What are Conchae ?
Ans:- In Nasal chambers respiratory part has three thin twisted bony plates called
conchae.
5. What is meant by chloride shift ?
Ans:- Chloride shift :- Exchang of chloride and bicarbonate ions between eryth- rocytes
and plasma. It is also called Hamburger's Phenomenon.
6. Name the muscles that help in normal breathing movements ?
Ans:- The muscular diaphragm and a specialized set of muscles, the external and
internal inter-costal muscles help in normal breathing movements.

Short Answer type Questions

1. Explain the process of inspiration and expiration under normal con-
ditions?
Ans:- 1. Inspiration :- In take of atmospheric air into the Lungs is called
inspiration. It is an active process as it takes place by the contraction of
the muscles of the diaphragm and the external inter costal muscles.
which extend in between the ribs.
2. Expiration :- Release of alveolar air to the exterior is called expira-
tion. It is a passive process. Relaxation of the diaphragm and the exter-
nal inter costal muscles returns diapharagm and sternum to their nor-
mal position.

2. What are the major transport mechanisum for Co2 Explain ?

Ans:- As bicarbonates :- About 70 percent of Co2 is transported as bicarbonates
with the help of carbonic an hydrase enzyme. This enzyme facilitate
the following reaction in both the directions.
Carbonic anhydrase Carbonic anhydrase
22223 Co H o H Co Hco H + + + ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ +
At the tissues where partial pressure of Co2 is high due to catabolism.
Co2 diffuses into the blood (RBC & Plasma) and forms carbonic acid
which dissociates into
3 Hco

and H+. At the alveolar site where PCo2 is

 low, the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction leading to the formation
of Co2 and water. Thus Co2 is mostly trapped as bicorbonate at
the tissues and transported to the alveoli where it is relesed out as Co2.
Chloride Shift :- Exchange of chloride and bicorbonate ions between
erythrocytes and plasma is also called Hamburger's Phenomenon.

Asthama :- is a difficulty in breathing caused due to inflammation of

bronchi and bronchioles symptoms include coughing difficulty in breathing
and wheezing.
Emphysema:- is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged
and their walls coalesce due to which respiratory surface are of exchange
of gases is decreased one of the major causes of this smoking of tobacco.
Bronchitis:- is the inflammation of the bronchi resulting in the swelling
of mucous lining of bronchi increased mucus production and decreases
in the diameter of bronchi
Pneumonia :- is infection of lungs caused by bacteria such as streptococcus
pneumoniae and also by certain viruses, fungi, protozovans and
mycoplasmas. Occupational Respiratory disorders:- "Asbestosis", "Silicosis"
"Siderosis",
"Black-lung disease" are caused by exposure of the body to the
harmful substances from certain industries, especially those involving
grinding or stone breaking.

3.How is respiratory movements regulated in man?

Ans:- (1) A special centre present in the medulla region of brain Called respi- ratory rhythm centre is primary
responsible for regulation.
(2) Another centre present in the pons of the brain stem called Pneumotoxic centre can moderate the
functions of the respiratory rhythm centre.
(3) A chemo-sensitive area is situated adjacent to the respiratory rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to
Co2 and H+ ions
(4) Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also recognize changes in Co2 and H+
concentration and send necessary signals to the respiratory rhythm centre for necessary actions.

UNIT-IIA

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. Sino-atrial node is called the pacemaker of our heart why ?
Ans:- Sino-atrial node(SAN) consists of specialized cardio myocytes. It has the
ability to generate action potentials without any external stimull hence
called pace maker.
2. Name the valves that guard the left and right atrioventricular
aperatures in man ?
Ans:- The left and right apertures are guarded by bicuspid (mitral valve) and
tricuspid valves respectively.

3. What is meant by double circulation ? What is its significance ?

Ans:- Blood has circulated two times through the heart in a complete circula-
tion one is systemic circulation another is pulmonary circulation that is
 called double circulation.
In systemic circulation, deoxygeneted blood collected from bodyparts
(except Lungs)
In pulmonary circulation heart receive the oxygenated blood from
lungs.
Long Answer type Questions

1. Describe the structure of the heart of man with the help of neat la-
belled diagram ?
Ans:- Structure of the heart:- The heart is mesodermal in origin. It is a thick
walled muscular and pulsating organ situated in the media sternum. It
is covered by a doublewalled pericardium which consists of the outer
fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium. The serous peri-
cardium is double layered formed of an outer parietal layer and an in-
ner visceral layer. The two layers are separated by a narrow pericardial
space, which is filled with the pericardial fluid. This fluid reduces fric-
tion between the two membranes and allows free movement of the heart.
The wall of the heart consists of three layers. They are the outer
epicardium, the middle myocardium ( a thin layer of cardiac muscles),
and the inner most endocardium (a thin layer of endothelium). The
endothelium covers the heart valves also and is continuous with the
endothelial lining of the large blood vessels connected to the heart.
External structure
Human heart has four chambers, with two relatively smaller upper
chambers, called atria and two larger lower chambers called ventricles.
Atria and ventricles are separated by a deep transverse groove called
coronary sulcus (atrio-ventricular groove). The muscular pouch like
projection from each atrium is called auricular appendix (auricular
appendage). The ventricles are separated by two inter ventricular
grooves (anterior and posterior), in which the coronary arteries and
their branches are lodged.
Internal structure
i) Atria: Atria are thin walled `receiving chambers' (upper chambers). The
right one is larger than the left. The two atria are separated by thin inter-
atrial septum. In the fetal heart, the atrial septum has a smallpore

called foramen ovale. Normally the foramen ovale closes at birth, when
lungs become functional. It is represented by a depression in the septum
between the right and left atria, called fossa©valis (that marks the
position of the foramen ovale in the fetus). If, the foramen ovale doesnot
close properly, it is called a patent foramen ovale.
 Internal structure of the Heart

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from different parts

of the body (except the lungs) through three caval veins viz. the two
precavals (right and left) and a post caval vein. It also receives blood from
the myocardium (wall of the heart) through the coronary sinus, whose
opening into the right atrium is guarded by the valve of Thebesiious.
Opening of the postcaval vein is guarded by the valve of the inferior vena
cava or Eustachian valve. It directs the blood to the left atrium through the
foramen ovale, in the foetal stage, but in the adult it becomes rudi- mentary
and non-functional. The openings of the precaval veins into the right atrium
have no valves. The left atrium receives blood from each lung through two
pulmonary veins, which open into the left atrium. The two leftpulmonary
veins open by a common aperture in some. Atria and ventricles are
separated by a membranous atrio-ventrlcular septum, whichpossesses left
and right atrioventricular apertures. The left and right apertures are
guarded by bicuspid (mitral valve) and tricuspid valves respectively.
ii) Ventricles: These are the thick walled blood pumping chambers (lower
chambers), separated by an interventricular septum. The wall of the left

ventricle is thicker than that of the right ventricle. The inner surface of the
ventricles is raised into muscular ridges or columns called colomnae carneae/
trabeeulae carneae projecting from the inner walls of the ven- tricles. Some of
these ridges are large and conical, and are called papil- lary muscles, whose apices
are connected to the chordae tendinae, or
 `heart strings'. They are cord-like collagenous processes that connect the
papillary muscles to the tricuspid valve and the mitral valve in the heart.
They prevent the cusps of the atrioventricular valves from bulging too far
into atria during ventricular systole.
Nodal tissue
A specialized cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue is also distrib-
uted in the heart. A patch of this tissue called the sinoatrial node (SAN) is
present in the right upper corner of the right atrium near the open- ings
of the superior vena cavae. Another mass of this tissue, called the
atrioventricular node (AVN), is seen in the lower left corner of the right
atrium close to the atrioventricular septum. A bundle of nodal fibres called
atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle/`His' bundle) continues fromthe AVN
into the inter-ventricular septum. It divides into right and left bundle
branches. These branches give rise to minute fibres called Purkinje firbres
that extend throughout the ventricular musculature / walls of the
respective sides.
iii) Aortic arches: The pulmonary arch arises from the left anterior angle of the
right ventricle. Its opening is guarded by the pulmonary valve and it carries
deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The systemic arch (left) arises from the
left ventricle and transports oxygenated blood to different parts of the body
through its branches. Its opening is guarded by the `aortic valve'. The
pulmonary and aortic valves are madeup of three semilunar flaps, each. A
fibrous stand, known as ligamentum arteriosam is presentat the point of
contact of the systemic and pulmonary arches. It is the remnant of the
ductus arteriosus, which connects the systemic arid pulmonary arches in
the embryonic stage.
2. Write notes on the working of the heart of man ?
Ans:- Cardiac cycle :- The cardiac events that occur from the begining of one
heart beat, to the beginning of the next constitute a cardiac cycfe. This
cardiac cycle consists of three phases, namely atrial systole, ventricular
systole and cardiac diastole
To begin with, all the four chambers of the heart are in a relaxed
state/joint diastole stage- Blood from the pulmonary veins and venae
cavae flows into the respective atria. As the A-V valves are in open condi-
tion, blood flows into the left and right ventricles, through, the left and right
atrioventricular apertues. The semilunar valves of the pulmonaryand aortic
arches are closed at this stage.
Atrial systole :- The SAN now generates an action potential which
stimulates both the atria to contract simultaneously causing the `atrial
systole'. It lasts about 0.1 sec. This increases the flow of blood into the
ventricles by about 30% (Ref: NCERT Text Book). It means atrial sys-
tole accounts for about 30% of the filling of the ventricles, the remain-
ing blood flows into the ventricles before the atrial systole.
Ventricular systole
The action potentials from the SAN reach the AVN from where they are
conducted through the bundle of His, its branches and the Purkinje
fibres to the entire ventricular musculature. This causes the simulta-
neous ventricular systole. It lasts for about o.3 sec. The atria undergo
relaxation coinciding with the ventricular systole. Ventricular systole
increases the pressure causing the closure of the AV valves preventing
the `backflow' of blood. It results in the production of the first heart
sound known as `Liib'- As the ventricular pressure increases further, the
semilunar valves guarding the pulmonary artery and the aorta are
forced open. This allows the blood in the ventricles to flow into the aortic
arches and enter the circulatory pathway.
Cardiac diastole
The ventricles now relax and the ventricular, pressure falls causing the
closure of the semilunar valves which prevents the back flow of blood.
This results in the production of the second heart sound known as `DuP'. As
the ventricular pressure declines further, the AV valves are pushed open
by the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood, which flowed into them
through the larger veins. The blood now once again flows freely into the
ventricles. All the heart Chambers are now again in a relaxed state (Joint
diastolic phase). Soon, another cardiac cycle sets in.Cardiac output
The volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle, for each heart beat,
is known as the stroke volume. The volume of blood pumped out by the
heart from each ventricle per minute is termed cardiac output.
Cardiac output = stroke volume x No. of beats per minute = 70ml/ beat
x 72 beats/minute = 5040 rnl/min. or approximately 5 liters

Double circulation :-
The blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery,
whereas the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta. The deoxygen- ated
blood pumped into the pulmonary arch is passed on to the lungs from where
the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
This pathway constitutes the pulmonary circulation (lesser circulation). The
oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carriedby a network of arteries,
arterioles and capillaries to the tissues fromwhere the deoxygenated blood is
collected by a system of venules, veins and vena cavae and emptied into the
right atrium. This is the systemic circulation (greater circulation). The
systemic circulation provides nutri- ents, O2 and other essential substances to
the tissues and collects CO2and other harmful substances away, for their
elimination.

UNIT - II B
 Very Short Answer type Questions
1. Name the blood vessels that enter and exit the kidney ?
Ans:- Renal artery enter in the kidney and Renal vein exit from the kidney.
2. What are the columns of Bertin ?
Ans:- In the human kidney. The renal pyramids are separated by the projec-
tions of the cortex called columns of bertin.
3. Distinguish between cortical and juxtra medullary nephrons ?
Ans:- The loop of Henle is too short and extends only very little into the me-
dulla in cortical nephrons.
The loop of Henle are very long and run deep into the medulla in
Juxtamedullary nephrons.
4. Define glomerular filtration ?
Ans:- The first step in the formation of urine is the filtration of the blood fromthe
glomerulus into the Lumen of the Bowman's capsule and this pas- sive
process is called glomerular filtration.
5. Define Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) ?
Ans:- Glomerular Filtration Rate:- It is the volume of fluid filtered from the renal
glomerular capillaries into the bowman's capsule per unit time.

6. What is Juxta glomerular apparatus ?

Ans:- macula densa together with juxtaglomerular cells form the juxtaglom-
erular apparatus.
7. Distinguish between Juxtaglomerular cells and maculadensa ?
Ans:- The wall of the afferent enal arteriole has juxtra glomerular cells. Theyare
modified smooth muscle cells of the afferent arteriole.
A Group of modified epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tableare
crowded in this region constituting the macula densa.

Short Answer type Questions

1.Differentiate vertebrates on the basis of the nitrogenous waste prod-

ucts they excrete giving example ?
Ans:- Ammonotelism :- The elimination of ammonia as the chief nitrogenous
waste material is turned ammonotelism
Ex:- Aquatic animals like fishes
Ureotelism :- The elimination of urea of the principal nitrogenous waste
material is temned ureotelism

Ex:- Earth worms Amphibiens and mammals

Uricotelism :- The elimination of uric acid as the chief nitrogenous wasxte
 material is called uroicotelism
Ex:- Arthropods reptals and birds

2. Draw a labeled diagram of the L.S. of kidney ?

UNIT-III A

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. What is triad system ?
:- "T tubule" and the two terminal cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum atits
sides form "triad system.
2. Ans Write the difference between actin and myosin ?
Ans:- Actin Myosin
1. Actin filament is made of two 1. Many meromyosins together form
Factin molecules myosin filament
2. Actin filament is thin 2. Myosin filament is thick
3. It is present in "I" band 3. It is presentin "A" band
4. They are attached to "Z" line 4. attached to "M" line

3. 3.Distringuish between red muscle fibers and white muscle fibers ?

Ans:- 1. Myoglobin contentis more 1. Myoglobin content is less
2. Contain more number of mitochordria 2. Contain less number of mitochondria
3. They use oxygen for the production of 3. They depend on anaer
ATP so they are called as aerobicmuscles bic process for
the release of energy.
4. Describe the important steps in muscle contraction.
A. The process of muscle contraction involves various steps.
Excitation of muscle : A neuro transmitter acetyl choline is released and it
generates actionpotential in sarcolemma. Sarcoplasmic reticulum release Ca ++
 ions.
Formation of cross bridges : The head of myosin binds to active sites on actin filaments
andform cross bridges.
Power stroke : Myosin filaments pull the actin filaments towards the Centre of A
band. It iscalled power stroke.
Recovery stroke : A new ATP molecule binds to the head of myosin. The cross
bridgesbreak and myosin head hydrolyses ATP. This cycle is repeated.
• Glucose reaches the muscle.
5. What is cori’s cycle – explain the process.
• Accumulation of lactic acid occurs due to anaerobic breakdown of glucose in muscle.
The lactic acid is carried to liver through blood circulation.
• In liver lactic acid is converted first into pyruvic acid and then to glucose through
• Glucose reaches the muscle.

6. Describe the structure of synovial joint with the help of a neat labeled diagram.
Synovial joint :
• It is movable joint between two bones.
• Synovial joint is covered by synovial capsule.
• Synovial capsule has outer layer of fibrous connective
tissue.
• Inner layer of areolar tissue and synovial membrane.
• synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid into the
synovial cavity.
• It acts as lubricant.
• Each bone is covered by hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage.

Very Short Answer type Questions UNIT-IIIB

1.Name the cranial meninges covering the brain of man?

1. Duramater 2. Arachnoid mater 3. Piamater
2. What is corpus callosum?
Two cerebral hemispheres are internally connected by transverse, wide and flat
bundle ofmyelinated fibres beneath the cortex called corpus callosum.
3. What do you know about arbor Vitae?
Cerebellum has a branching tree-like core of white matter called arbor vitae.
4. What is all-or-none principle?
The action potential occurs in response to a threshold stimulus or supra threshold
stimuli, but does not occur at subthreshold stimuli. It means the nerve impulse is either
conducted totallyor not conducted at all. This is called all or none principle.
Short Answer type Questions UNIT-IIIB
1. Give an account of synaptic transmission.
1) Synapse is a junction between two successive neurons.
2) There are two types of synapses. They are (i) Electrical synapse (ii) Chemical synapse
(i) In electrical synapses, the membranes of pre and postsynaptic neurons are in very close
proximity. These synapses are electrically conductive links between two neurons
 (ii) In chemical synapses, the membranes of thepre
and postsynaptic neurons are separated by a fluid-
filled space called synaptic cleft.
3) When an impulse (action potential) arrives at the
axon terminal, it gets depolarized then voltagegated
calcium channels are opened.
4) Calcium ions stimulate the movement of the
synaptic vesicles towards the membrane. Here they
fuse with the plasma membrane and release their
neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft by
exocytosis.

5)The released neurotransmitters (mostly Acetyl choline) bind to their specific receptors, present on the post-
synaptic membrane.
6)The entry of ions generates a new potential in the post-synaptic neuron.

2.Draw a labelled diagram of the T.S of the spinal cord of man

Very Short Answer type Questions Unit Iv-A

1. What is acromegaly? Name the hormone responsible for this disorder. Acromegaly is
characterised by enlargement of the bones of the jaw, hand and feet, thickened nose, lips, eyelids
and wide fingertips and “gorilla like appearance” of the affected person. It is due to hyper
secretion of growth hormone in adults.
2. Which hormone is called antidiuretic hormone? Write the name of the gland thatsecretes it.
Vasopressin is called anti diuretic hormone and it is secreted from pituitary gland.
3. Name the gland that increases in size during childhood and decreases in size duringadulthood
what important role does it play in case of infection.
Thymus gland. It secretes thymosins which play an important role in the differentiation of
“T” lymphocytes, which provide cell mediated immunity and also promote the production of
antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
3.Distinguish between diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitis
Diabetes insipidus Diabetes mellitus
 1. Deficiency of vasopressin 1. Deficiency of insulin causes
causesDiabetes insipidus diabetesmellitus
2. Increased excretion of the urine 2. Loss of glucose through urine
4.What is insulin Shock?
Hypersecretion of insulin leads to decreased level of glucose in the blood resulting in
insulinshock.
5.Which hormone is commonly known as fight and flight hormone?
Adrenaline orepinephrine
?
6.What is erythropoietin? What is its function
It is a hormone produced by kidney. It regulates the formation of red blood cells
by regulating the differentiation and proliferation of erythroid progeniter cells
in the bonemarrow.

Short Answer Questions (4 Marks)

1. Give an account of the secretions of pituitory gland.
Ans:- The pituitory gland also called hypophysis located beneath the hypo-
thalamus. It is divided into anterior pituitory or adenohypophysis and
post erior pituitary or neurohypophysis. Between these two is a small
zone called the pars intermedia.
I. Anterior pituitory/Adenohypophysis

It produces 6 hormones. They play major role in the control of metabolic

functions throughout the body.
a) Growth hormone :- (Somatotropin) This hormone stimulates cell divi- sion in
the epiphyseal plates leading to elongation of bones. They also promote
growth of the entire body by accelerating protein synthesis, cell division and
cell differentiation.
b) Prolactine:- It is also called lactogenic hormone/luteotrophic hormone (LTH).
It causes enlargement of the mammary glands of the breasts and prepare
them for the production of milk. In women it initiates and sus- tain lactation.
It also maintain corpus luteum of the ovary, which pro- duces progesterone
that helps to sustain pregnancy.
C) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone :- TSH(Thyrotropin) stimulates the syn- thesis and
secretions of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.
d) Adreno corticotropic Harmone :- (ACTH) controls the synthesis and
secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticids, by the adrenal cor-tex
e) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) :- It stimulates growth and devel-
opment of the ovarian follicles in females in males FSH along with the
androgens, regulates spermatogenesis
f) Luteinizing hormone:- (LH) Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of
androgens (testosterone) In female it stimulates ovulation and also stimu-
lates ovary to produce estrogens and progesterone.
II. Pars interonedia:- It secretes only one hormone called melanocyte stimu-
 lating hormone (MSH). The role of MSH is not significant in man.
III. Posterior pituitory :- Neurohypophysis it produces two hormones. There
are called as neuro hormones.
a) Oxytocin
b) Vassopression
a) Oxytocin:- In a female it stimulates powerful contractions of the uterus
during child birth and ejection of milk from the mammary glands.
b) Vasopression :- It stimulates reabsorption of water and electrolytel by
DCT and the collecting duct from nephric filtrate. Thus urine becomes
hypertonic and diuresis is prevented. Hence is also called anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH)

2.Explain how hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can affect the body

?
Ans:- Effects of Hypothyroidism :- During pregnancy, due to hypothyroid- ism,
defective development of the growing baby leads to a disorder called
cretinism. Physical and mental growth gets severel stunted (thyroid dwarf)
due to untreated `congenital hypothyroidism' (deficiency of thyroid hor-

mones by birth). Stunted growth, mental retardation, low intelligence

quotient, abnormal skin, deafness and mutism are some of the charac- teristic
features of this disease. In adult women, hypothyroidism may cause irregular
menstrual cycles. In adults the hypothyroidism results in a condition called
myxedema. Lethargy, mental impairment, intoler-ance to cold, puffiness of
face and dry skin are some of the symptoms of myxedema.
Effects of Hyper thyroidism :- Over activity of the thyroid, cancer of the
gland or development of nodules of thyroid lead to hyperthyroidism. In
adults abnormal growth causes a disease called exophthalmic goiter, with
characteristically protruded eyeballs Hyperthyroidism also affects the
physiology of the body (increased metabolic rate). Inadequate sup- ply of
iodine in the diet results in hypothyroidism and enlargement of the
thyroid gland. This condition is called simple goiter.

3. Write a note on addison's disease and cushing's syndrome ?

Ans:- Addison's disease is caused due to hyposecretion of glucocorticoids bythe
adrenal cortex. This disease is characterised by loss of weight, muscle
weakness, fatigue and reduced blood pressure. Sometimes darkening of the
skin in both exposed and nonexposed parts of the body occurs inthis disorder.
This disorder does not allow an individual to respond to stress.
Cushing's syndrome : It results due to over production of glucocorti- coids.
This condition is characterized by breakdown of muscle proteins and
redistribution of body fat resulting in spindly arms and legs accom-panied by
a round moon face, buffalo hump on the back an pendulous abdomen.
Wound healing is poor. The elevated level of cortisols causes
 hyperglycemia, over deposition of glycogen in liver and rapid gain of
weight.
UNIT-IV (B)
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Define the terms immunity and immune system ?
Ans:- Abiity of an individual to fight against the disease causing organisms is
called immunity. The network of organs, cells and proteins that protectthe
body from harmful, infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, ani- mal
parasites, fungi etc., is called the Immune system.
2. Define the non-specific lines of defence in the body ?
Ans:- Whenever bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites try to enter the body ofan
organism, skin mucus membranes and the enzyme lysozyme of sa- liva
tears prevent their entry. This is called the first line of defence.
If micro organisms cross the first line of defence and enter the body
the phagocytes natural killer cells, antimicrobial substances. in-
flammation fever etc., destroy them. This called the second line of dence.
These two lines of defence are very fast reacting responses but they are
not specific.

3. Write the names of any four mononuclear

phagocytes.
Ans:- 1) Kupffer cells
2) Microglia cells
3) Osteoclasts
4) Synomial cells
4. What are complement proteins ?
Ans:- These are group of inactive plasma proteins and cell surface proteins. When
activated, they form a membrane attack complex (MAC) that formsa pore in
the plasma membrane, allowing ECF toenter the cell and makeit swell &
burst.
5. "Colostrum is very much essential for the new born infants" justify.
Ans:- The colostrum secreted by the mother during the initial days of lacta- tion
has abundant Iq A antibodies, to protect the infant.
6. Differentiate between perforins and granzymes.
Ans:- Perforins - Perforins form pores in the cell membrane of the infected
cells.
Granzymes - T h e y e n t e r t h e i n f e c t e d c e l l s t h o r u g h t h e s e
perforations and activate certain proteins which
help in destruction of infected cell.

Short Answer Questions

1. Write short notes on B-cells.
 Ans:- Based on the size, lymphocytes can be divided into small lymphocytes and
large lymphocytes. Small lymphocytes include B-cells and T-cells, wheres
the large lymphocytes include large granular lymphocytes that consist of
Natural killer cells (NK-cells)
B-cells (B-Lymphocytes): The lymphocytes capable of producing
antibodies and can capture circulating antigens are called B-cells, Theyare
produced from the `stem cells' in the bone marrow of adult mam-mals, liver
of foetus and bursa of Fabricius in birds. Mature B-cells synthesize various
types of antibodies which are displayed on their mem- brane surfaces.

As these antibodies can take antigens, the mature B- cells are also called
immuno-competent B-cells. These mature immuno- competent B-cells reach
the secondary lymphoid organs and develop into functional immune cells
which later differentiate into `long lived' memory cells and `effector ' plasma
cells. The plasma cells produce anti- bodies specific to the antigen to which
they are exposed. Memory cells store information about the specific antigens
and show quick response, when the same type of antigen invades the body
later.
2. Write short notes on immunoglobulins.
Ans:- Antibodies (immunoglobulins): Whenever pathogens enter our body, the
B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins called antibodies to fight with
them. They are highly specialized for binding with specific antigens. The
part of an antibody that recognizes an antigen is called the paratope
(antigen binding site)- Based on their mobility, antibodies are of two types,
namely circulat-
ing or free antibodies and surface
antibodies. The circulating or free
antibodies are present in the body
fluids whereas the surface anti-
bodies are present on the surfaceof
the mature B-cells as well as the
memory cells.
Structure: The basic structure ofan
antibody was proposedby Rodney
Porter. It is a Y shaped molecule with
four polypeptidechains of which two
are long,
identical (H) and two are small, identical light chains (L). Hence, an antibody
is represented as H2L2. The two chains are linked by disulphidebonds. One end
of the antibody molecule is called F ab end (Fragment- antigen binding) and the
other end is called FC end (Fragment-crystalliz- able or Fragment-cell binding).
Based on the structure, the antibodies are of five types, namely IgD, IgE, IgG,
IgA and IgM.
 IgD, IgE and IgG are monomeric units, whereas IgA is dimeric and
IgM is a pentameric form of antibody.

3. Explain the mechanism by which HIV multiplies and leads to "AIDS"

Ans:- HIV after getting into the body of a person it enters the TH cells, mac- rophages
or dendritic cells. In these cells the ss RNA of HIV synthesizesa DNA strand
"complementary" to the viral RNA using the enzyme re-
verse transcriptase. It also catalyses the formation of the second DNAstrand
complementary to the first stand forming the double stranded viral DNA.
This viral dNA gets incorporated in the DNA of the host cells DNAby
a viral enzyme (integrate) and it is in the form of a "provirus". Tran-
scription of DNA results in the production of RNA which can act as the
genome for the new viruses or it can translated into viral proteins. The
various components of the viral particles areassembled and the HIV are
produced. The infected human cells continue to produce virus particules
and in this way they act like HIV generation factories.
New viruses bud off from
the host cells they attack TH cellsof
the infected person leading
to immuno deficiency in him.
Even though HIV attacks
cells with CD4 marker, only TH cells
are destroyed and not the
"macro phages". The gp 120
molecules on the surface of HIV
attach to CD4 receptors of hu-
man cells, mostly the TH cells.
Attack on certain types of cell /
tissues only by viruses such on
HIV is referred to as "tissue tro-
pism".

There is time lag between the first infection and appearance of

symptoms. This period may vary from few months to many years. As the
no. of TH cells decreases the person develops immuno deficiency. Gradu-
ally the person starts suffering from infections due to bacteria, viruses,
fungi. The person also suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea & loss of weight.
Now the AIDS patient become so immuno deficient that they are unable to
protect themselves against these minor infections, which nor- mal healthy
people can easily overcome.

UNIT-V (A)
Very Short Answer Questions
1. What are the functions of cells of the seminiferous tubules
and the Leydig cells in man?

Ans:- Seminiferous tubule is lined by undifferentiated male germ cells called

spermatogonial mother cells and also nourishing cells called sertoli cells.
Leydig cells produce androgens the most important of which is test- osterone.
2. Define spermiogenesis and spermiation.
Ans:- Spermiogenesis: The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa
(sperms) by the process called spermiogenesis.
Spermiation: After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the
serotli cells, and are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the
process called spermiation.

3. Define gestation period. What is the duration of gestation period

in thehuman beings?
Ans:- Intra uterine development of the embryo or foetus is called gestation period.
Human pregnancy averages 266 days (38 weeks).
4. What is implantation, with reference to embryo?
Ans:- The zona pellucida present around the blastocyst gradually disappears
and the cells of the trophoblast stick to the uterine endometrium. The
trophoblast invades the endometrium of the uterus. This is called im-
plantation.
5. What is parturition? Which hormones are involved in inducing
par- turition?
Ans:- The process of delivery of the child is called parturition. Maternal pitu-
itary hormone oxytocin acts on the uterine muscles and causes stron- ger
uterine contractions. This leads to expulsion of the baby out of the

Long Answer Questions

1. Describe female reproductive system of a woman with the help of
a labeled diagram.
Ans:- The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries along with a pair
of oviducts, uterus, vagina and the external genitalia along with apair of
mammary glands.
Ovaries:

A pair of ovaries is located on one each side of the lower abdomen connecting
with mesovarium. The ovaries are covered on the outside with germinal
epithelium. Underneath these layers, there is a dense connective tissue the
tunica albuginea. The ovarian stroma is distinctly divided into an outer cortex
and an inner medulla. The cortex appears more dense and

granular due to the presence of numerous ovarian fol- licles in various stages
of development. The medulla is a loose connec-tive tissue with abundant
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers.
Fallopian tubes (oviducts): Each fallopian tube extends from the pe-
riphery of each ovary to the uterus, and it bears a funnel shaped in-
fundibulum. The edges of the infundibulum possess finger like projec-tions
called fimbriae, which help in collection of the ovum after ovula-tion. The
infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called am- pulla. The last
part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen and itjoins the uterus.
Fallopian tube is the site of fertilization; it conducts

the ovum or zygote towards the uterus by peristalsis. The fallopian tubeis
attached to the abdominal wall by a peritoneal fold called mesosalphinx.
Uterus: Uterus is a large, muscular, highly vascular structure presentin the
pelvis between bladder and the rectum. It is connected to the abdominal
wall with peritoneal fold called mesometrium.the uterus opens into the
vagina through cervix. The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal.
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular tube that extends from the cervixto the
vestibule. It is lined by non-keratinised stratified squamous epi- thelium.
Its highly vascular and opens into the vestibule by the vaginal orifice.
Vulva: The term refers to external genitals of the female. The vestibule has
two apertures- the upper external urethral orifice, lower vaginal orifice.
Vestibule is bound by two pairs of fleshy folds of tissue called inner labia
minora and larger outer labia majora. Clitoris isa sensitive erectile structure
homologous to penis of a male as both are supported by corpora cavernosa
internally.
Accessory reproductive glands of female:
Bartholins’s glands: two glands located slightly posterior and to the left and
right of the opening of the vagina. They secrete mucus to lubricatethe vagina.
Skene’s glands: located on the anterior wall of the vagina, secrete a lubricating
fluid when stimulated. Homologous to prostate gland in male. Mammary
glands: the glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary
lobes containing clusters of cells called alveoli. The cells of alveoli secrete milk
which is stored in the cavities of the alveoli. The tubules of each lobe join to
form a mammary duct. Several mam-mary ducts join to form mammary
ampulla which is connected to lactif- erous duct through which milk is sucked
out by the baby.
2. Describe male reproductive system of a man. Draw a labelled
diagram of it.
Ans:- Testes:- The testes (testicles) are a pair of oval pinkish male primary sex
organs suspended outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called
scrotum. The cavity of the scrotal sac is connected to the abdominal cavity
through the inguinal canal. Testes is held in position in the scro- tum by
the gubernaculum, a fibrous cord that connects the testis with the bottom
of the scrotum and spermatic cord, formed by vas deferens,nerves, blood
vessels and other tissues that run from the abdomen downto each testicle,
through the inguinal canal. Each testis is enclosed in a fibrous envelope,
the tunica albuginea, which extends inward to form septa that partition
the testis into lobule.
There are about 250 testicular lobules in each testis. Each lobule
contains 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules. A pouch of serous mem-
brane (peritoneal layer) called tunica vaginalis covers the testis. Each
seminiferous tubule is lined by the germinal epithelium which consists of
undifferentiated male germ cells called spermatogonial mother cells and
it also bears nourishing scells called sertoli cells. The spermatogo- nia
produce the primary spermatocytes whicdh undergo meiotic divi- sion,
finally leading to the formation of spermatozoa or sperms (sper-
matogenesis). Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the spermatozoa and also
produce a hormone called inhibin, which inhibits the secretion of FSH. The
regions outside the seminiferous tubules contain interstitial cells ofleydig
or leydig cells. Leydig cells produce androgens the most impor- tant of
which is testosterone. Testosterone controls the development of
secondary sexual characters and spermatogenesis.
The seminifeorous tubules open into the vasa efferentia through the rete
testis.
Epididymis: the vasa efferentia leave the testis and open tinto a narrow,
 tightly coiled tube called epididymis located along the posterior surfaceof
each testis. The epididymis provides a storage space for the spermsand gives
the sperms time to mature. It is differentiated into three re- gions: caput
epididymis (receives the spermatozoa via the vasa efferen- tia of the
mediastinum testis), corpus epididymis and cauda epididymis. Vasa
deferentia: is a long narrow, muscular tube. It starts from the tailof the
epididymis, passes through the inguinal canal into the abdomenand loops
over the urinary bladder. It receives a duct from seminal vesicle. Both the
ducts unite to form an ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts
converge in the centre and open into urethra.
Urethra: in males urethra is the shared terminal duct of the reproduc- tive
and urinary systems. The urethra originates from the urinary blad- der and
provides an exit for urine as well as semen during ejaculation. Penis: the penis
serves as a urinal duct and also intromittent organ that transfers spermatozoa
to the vagina of a female. The human penis is made up of three columns of
tissue; two upper corpora cavernosa on the dorsal and one corpusspongiosum
n the ventral side. The enlarged bulbous end of penis called glans penis is
covered by a loose fold of skin called prepuce.
The male accessory glands: include paired seminal vesicles, a prostate and
bulbo urethral glands.
Seminal vesicles:
⇨ The secretion of seminal vesicles constitutes 60% of the volume of semi-
nal fluid.
⇨ It is an alkaline, viscous fluid that contains fructose, proteins, citric
acid, inorganic phosphorus, potassium, and prostaglandins.
⇨ Fructose is the main energy source for the sperm outside of the body.
⇨ Prostaglandins are believed to aid fertilization by causing the mucus
lining of the cervix to the sperm towards the ovum with peristaltic con-
tractions of the uterus and fallopian tubes.
Prostate glands:
⇨ This gland is located beneath the urinary bladder and surrounds the
prostatic urethra.
⇨ The prostate contributes 15-30 percent of the semen.
⇨ The fluid from the prostate is clear and slightly acidic. The prostatic
secretion activates the spermatozoa and provides nutrition
Bulbo urethral glands:
⇨ Also called as cowper's glands, are located beneath the prostate gland at
the beginning of the internal portion of the penis.
⇨ The alkaline fluid secreted by these glands lubricates the urethra, and
thought to be flush out the acidic urinary residues that remain in the
 urethra, before the semen is ejaculated.

Diagrammatic view of male reproductive system

UNIT- V (B)
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Very Short Answer Questions
1. What in your view are the reasons for population explosion, espe-
ciallyin India?
Ans:- Increased healthcare facilities along with better living conditions had an
explosive impact on the population growth. Probable reasons for this
growth rate are decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate and infant
mortality rate.
2. What is ‘amniocenteses’? Name any two disorders that can be
de- tected by amniocentesis.
Ans:- Amniocenteses is a diagnostic procedure to detect genetic defects in the
unborn baby. In this procedure, usually a needle is inserted throughthe
mother's abdominal wall into amniotic sac by the expert physician. The
chromosomes of the stained foetal cells are examined under a mi- croscope
for abnormalities like Down syndrome, Edward's syndrome and Turner's
syndrome.
 3. Mention the advantages of ‘lactational amenorrhea method’.
Ans:- Ovulation generally will not occur during the period of intense lactationby the
mother following parturition, this is known as lactational amen- orrhea. Some
couples utilize the contraceptive benefit of these meth- ods.

4. What are the measures one has to take to prevent contracting STDs.
Ans:
(a) Sex should be avoided with unknown parterns / multiple partners.
(b) Condoms should be used during sexual intercourse.
(c) Detection of STDs at early stages and they should be treated by consulting qualifie doctors in case of
. infections

Short Answer Questions

1. Briefly describe the common sexually transmitted diseases in
hu- man beings.
Ans:- S.No. Name of the Causative organism
disease
1 Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoeae (bacteria)

2 Syphilis Treponema pallidum (spirochete

bacterium)

3 Genital herpes

4 Genital warts, Herpes simplex virus(HSV)

cervicalcancer Human papilloma virus (HPV)

5 Trichomoniasis

6 Chlamydiasis Trichomonas vaginalis (a protozoan parasite)

7 Hepatitis-B Chlamydia trachomatis (bacteria)

8 HIV infection/AIDS HBV

HIV (human immune deficiency virus)

 UNIT-VI
Genetics
Very Short Answer Questions
1. What is pleiotrophy?
Ans:- A single gene often influences more than one phenotypic trait. This
phenomenon of multiple effects of a single gene is called pleiotropy.
2. What are multiple alleles?
Ans:- Sometimes a gene may have more than two alleles. When more than two allelic
forms occur at the same locus on the homologous chromo- somes of an
organism, they are called multiple alleles.
3. What is erythroblastosis foetalis?

Ans:- A severe hemolytic disease of a foetus or newborn infant caused by the production

of maternal antibodies against the foetal red blood cells, usually involving Rh incompatibility

between the mother and foetus.

Short Answer Questions

1. Describe erythroblastosis foetalis.

Ans- Rh antigens and anti-Rh antibodies are involved in the disorder Eryth-
roblastosis foetalis or Haemolytic disorder of the new born (HDNB). It
occurs in an Rh-foetus whose father is Rh-positive and mother is Rh-
negative.
An Rh positive person has Rh antigen and no antibodies. An Rh
negative person has no antigen or antibody. But antibodies may de- velop
in Rh-negative person when the blood from Rh-positive person enters into
him. When the mother is Rh +ve and father is Rh +ve (ho- mozygous), the
developing embryo is also Rh +ve. The Rh +ve contain the antigens. These
antigens enter the mother blood passing through the placenta and
sensitize the mother. So the mother starts to develop antibodies against
Rh antigen. By the time these antibodies are fully developed the first baby
is born safely. For the second pregnancy, the mother now has fully
developed antibodies against Rh antigen. Now thesecond child is also Rh
+ve. With Rh antigens, the Rh antibodies (Ig G) developed in the mother
then enter the developing foetus and causes Haemolysis and leads to the
death of the foetus immediately after birth.
This is due to incompatible blood group. This condition of death of foe- tus
is known as Erythroblastosis foetalis. It can be prevented by inject-ing the Rh-
antibodies to the mother immediately after the first delivery. They destroy
the foetal RBC. Thus thsensitization or activation of memory cells will be
prevented in the mother.
 2. Explain the inheritance of sex influenced characters in human
be- ings.
Ans:- Sex influenced genes are the autosomal genes present in both males and
females. In sex-influencded inheritance, the genes behave differ- ently in
two sexes. The heterozygous genotype may exhibit one pheno- type in
males and the contrasting one in females.
Pattern baldness:- The allele for baldness behaves dominant (B) in males but
recessive (b) in females. The amount of thinning of the hair or bald-ing thatis
observed depends both on genotype and the amount of test- osterone
exposure.
A male who is `BB' will show severe balding. A female who is `BB' will also
be affected, and usually less severely, with thinning of the hair, rather than
total loss. A male who is heterozygous (Bb) will not be af- fected. Individuals
of either sex who are fully recessive (bb) will not af- fected. If a heterozygous
non-bald woman (Bb), in the offspring the ratioof bald to non- bald in the
male progeny is 3:1, while in females it is 1:3.
50% of sons are colorblind.50%
of sons are normal.
Long Answer Questions
1. What are multiple alleles? Describe multiple alleles with the help of ABO
blood groups in man.
Ans:- Generally a gene has two alternative alleles. But sometimes a gene may
have more than two forms. These are referred to as Multiple alleles.
Multiple alleles cannot be observed in a person, but can be observed in a
family or population. The inheritance of multiple alleles is called multiple
allelism. Number of genotypes from multiple alleles is given by the
expression (n +1)/2, where `n' is the number of alleles. ABO blood groups
are the best example for multiple alleles.
ABO Blood Groups: Karl Land Steiner observed the ABO blood group- ing in
human beings. The phenotypes A, B and AB are characterized bythe presence
of antigens on the surface of red blood cells. The pheno-typesO are without
antigens on the surface of RBCs. These are underthe control of a gene located
on chromosome nine (9). The four pheno- types of blood groups are due to
the antigens A and B. Blood group Ahas antigen A on the R.B.C and anti B
antibody in plasma. Blood group

B has antigens B on R.B.C. and anti A antibody in the plasma. Blood group
AB has both anti A and anti B on RBCs but no antibodies in the plasma.
Blood group O is without any antigens on RBCs but with both anti A
antibody and anti B antibody in plasma.
 Character Group- A Group- B Group- AB Group- O
Antigen on RBC Antigen Antigen Antigen absent
`A' `B' `A' & `B'
Antibodies in Plasma Antibody Antibody Absent Antibodies
`b' `a' `a' & `b'

The ABO phenotype of any individual is ascertained by mixing a

blood sample with Anti serum containing anti-A or anti-B; If a clump is
formed with anti-A the blood is of `A' type. If the clump is formed with anti- B,
the blood is of `B' type. If the clump is formed with both anti A and anti-B
antibodies, the blood is `AB' type. If no clump is produced with either of
the antibodies, the blood is of `O'type.
GENETIC BASIS:
Bernstein proposed the genetic basis of ABO blood grouping. The ge- netic
basis of ABO blood grouping is mainly dependent on the three Alleles I A, IB,
IO of the gene I. The antigens which are present on RBC are known as
isoagglutinogens and antibodies in plasma are known as iso- agglutinins.
Isoagglutininis are the antibodies of an individual of a spe- cies causing
agglutination reactions with antigen of another individual of the same
species.The alleles IA, I B are mainly responsible for the pro- duction of
isoagglutinogens.
Out of the three alleles I A, IB, IO, the alleles IA and IB are dominant and IO is
recessive, when IA,IB are present co-dominance occurs.
IA = IB > IO
IA & I B alleles dominant to allele I O but both are codominant to each other.
6 genotypes are possible with 3 alleles I A, I B and I O, they are I AIA, I AIO, IBIB,
IBIO, IAIB, IOIO.
phenotype Genotype
A IAIA, IAIO
B IBIB, IBIO
AB IAIB
O IOIO
2. Describe chromosomal theory of sex determination.
Ans:- The process of sex determination by allosomes is called chromosomal
sex determination. If two sex chromosomes are similar (XX), the individual
is described as homogametic. Gametes produced from it are similar. If the
two sex chromosomes are different (XY) or contains only one sex chro-
mosome (XO), the individual is described as heterogametic.
Male heterogamety:- in this method malesproduce dissimilar gametes while
 females pro-duce similar gametes.
XX-XO type:- In some insects such as bugs, grasshoppers and cockroaches, females are
with two X-chromosomes and males are with one X- chromosome in each somatic
cell. McClung discovered this type in grass hoppers.

Sex determination in grass hoppers the unpaired X-chromosome determines the male sex
The karyo- type of the female is AAXX and that of the male is AAXO. All the ova
contains AX type of chromosomes and the sperms are of two types. One half of the
sperms have AX complement and the other half have `A' complement of chromosomes.
The sex of the offspring depends on the type of sperm that fertilizes the ovum.

XX-XY type: Human beings and some insects such as drosophila, both
females and males have the same number of
chromosomes. The karyotype of the female is
AAXX and that of the
male is AAXY. Fe-
males are
hmogametic with
`XX' chromosomes.
They produce similar
ova having one X-
Sex determinationin grass hop- per

chromosome each.Males are `heteroga-metic' with X and Y- chromosomes. They

produce two kinds of sperms: one half of them with X-chromosome and the other half with
Y-chromosome. The sex of the offspring depends on the fertilizing sperm.
Female heterogamety: In this method of sex determination, the males
produce `similar gametes' while females produce `dissimilar gametes'.
ZO-ZZ type: In moths and some butterflies, female is heterogametic
with one Z-chromosome (ZO) and male is ho-
mogametic with two Z-chromosomes (ZZ). The
karyotype of female is AAZO and male is AAZZ.
Females produce two kinds of ova, half of them
with a Z-chromosome and the other half with
no sex chromosome. Males produce similar type
of sperms. The sex of the offspring depends on
the type of ovum that is fertilized.

ZW-ZZ type: In birds, reptiles, some fishes, etc,

the females are heterogametic with ZW -
allosomes and males are homogametic with ZZ- Sex determination
in Fowl
allosomes. The karyotype of female is AAZW
and that of the male is AAZZ. All sperms are similar with the allosome -
Z. ova are of two different kinds; one half of the ova are with the allo- some-
Z and the other half with the allosome -W. The sex of the offspring depends
on the type of ovum that is fertilized.

Sex determination in humans (XX-XY method of Sex Determination):

In human beings, both females and males have the same number of
chromosomes. Females are homogametic with XX chromosomes. They
produce ova having X-chromosomes. All ova are similar. Males are het-
erogametic with X and Y-chromosomes. They produce two kinds of
sperms, half of them with X-chromosome. On fertilization the zygotes
may have either the XX or XY. The zygote with XX becomes the female
and the zygote with XY becomes the male. In human beings females are
homogametic with 44 autosomes and XX-allosomes. Males are hetero-
gametic with 44 autosomes and XY-allosomes. All the ova are similar in
their karyotype having 23 chromosomes, (22 + X). Sperms also have 23
chromosomes but are of two types. Half of them are with allosome Y (22
+ Y). The sex of the off spring depends on the fertilizing sperm. Thus, in each
pregnancy there is always 50 percent probability of giving birth to either a
male or female child.
3. What is crisscross inheritance? Explain the inheritance of one
sex linked recessive character in human beings.
Ans:- Crisscross inheritance: The transmission of a character from father to
grandson through his daughter is called crisscross inheritance. In criss-
cross inheritance, the character appears in alternate generation only.
The sex linked characters exhibit crisscross inheritance. Crisscross in-
heritance is also known as skip generation inheritance.
Sex linked inheritance: The sex chromosomes carry sex linked genes for
some traits that are unrelated to sex characteristics and the inherit-ance is
called sex linked inheritance. While most Y-linked genes help determine
sex, the X chromosomes have genes for many characters un-related to
sex.
X-linked inheritance: X-linked diseases are mostly recessive and re-
stricted to the males who carry the mutant allele. This is because males
have only one x-chromosome, where as females have two.
Characters of X-linked Traits:
⇨ X-linked genes are never passed from father to son. The Y-chromosome
is the only sex chromosome that passes from father to son.
⇨ Males are never carriers-if they have a single mutated gene on the X-
chromosome, it will be definitely expressed.
⇨ Males are termed hemizygous for genes on X-chromosome, females are
either homozygous or heterozygous.
X-linked recessive inheritance: X-linked recessive inheritance is a mode
of inheritance in which a mutation in a gene on the X-chromosome
because the phenotype to be expressed in males and in the females who
are homozygous for the allele. All affected females have an affectedfather
and a carrier or affected mother.
Characters of X-linked recessive Traits:
⇨ Males are much more likely to be affected because they need only one
copy of the mutant allele to express the phenotype.
⇨ Affected males get the disease from their mothers.
⇨ If a female is homozygous affected, all her sons are affected.
⇨ Daughters of affected male are either carriers or affected,
⇨ Affected male pass his X- chromosome to his daughters.
⇨ X-linked recessive disorders are typically passed on from an affected
father to 50% of his grand sons through carrier daughters.
⇨ The X-linked recessive traits follow crisscross pattern of inheritance.
⇨ The most common X-linked recessive disorders are Hemophilia, Color
blindness (protanopia and deuteranopia), Duchenne muscular dystro-
phy etc.
Colour blindness: it is a sex linked recessive disorder. Retina of the eye
in man contains the cell sensitive to red and green colours. This called
dystrophin.

Sex linkage in Drosophila melanogaster

 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
UNIT-VII. ORGANIC EVOLUTION
1.Distinguish between homologous and analogous organs.

A: Homologous and Analogous organs are evidences of evolution from comparative

anatomy
Homologous organs Analogous organs
1) The organs which have similar 1) The organs which have different
structureand origin but not originbuthave same function are
necessarilythe same function are called analogous organs.
called
homologous organs.
2) They suggest divergent 2) They suggest convergent evolution.
evolution.
3) Ex: The forelimbs of 3) Ex: Wings of butterfly and wings of
vertebrates, Flipper of Whale, birds.
wings of birds, handofman and
wings of bat
4) All these organs have 4) When the animals live in same
2 same arrangementof bones habitat andlead a similar mode of life.
but their functions vary to They tend to havesame body form
suit their modeof life.
2.Write a short note on the theory of mutations.
A: 1 . Mutations: These are sudden, random inheritable changes that occur inorganisms.
2. Mutation theory was proposed by Hugo de Vries.
3. He worked on Oenothera lamarckiana, commonly called evening primrose.
4. He found four different forms of Oenothera lamarckiana (evening primrose)
O. brevistylis -Small style form, O.gigas - Giant form, O.nanella - Dwarf formO.levifolia- Smooth leaves form
5. All the four forms are mutant forms.
6. Darwin called mutations as sports of nature,Bateson called them as discontinuous variations

Salient features of Mutation theory:

1. Mutations occur from time to time in a naturally breeding population.
2.They are discontinuous and not accumulated over generation.
3.They are full-fledged and there are no intermediate forms
4.They are subjected to natural selection.
3. Explain Darwin's theory of Natural Selection with industrial melanism as
experimental proof.
A: 1) Darwin's theory of natural selection explains how evolution might haveoccurred innature.
2)Natural selection of black coloured peppered moths in response to industrial
pollution isknown as industrial melanism.
3)Peppered moth is taken as a scientific example to explain this.
4)These moths were available in two colours grey and black.
5)Grey moths were abundant before industrial revolution in all over England.
6)Pollution from industries in the form of soot turned barks of trees into black.
so grey moths were easily identified and were more predated by birds. Thus grey moths decreased in
number, black moths increased in the population.

4.Write a short note on Neo - Darwinism .

A: According to Neo Darwinism theory five basic factors are involved in theprocess of organic
evolution. They are as follows:
1)Gene mutations: Change in the structure of DNA is called gene mutation
pointmutation. Any change in DNA alter the phenotype, to produce variations in
off spring.
2) Charomosomal mutations: Addition, deletion, inversion and
translocation of chromosome come under chromosomal mutation.
They alter the phenotype.
3) Genetic recombination: During meiosis exchange of chromosomal bits
and genes takeplace and produce heritable variations.
4) Natural selection: It favours some variations and rejects other. The
selected variations continue in the next generations.
5) Reproductive isolation: Any reason which stops interbreeding in groups
of a populationis called reproductive isolations.
4.What is meant by genetic drift? Explain genetic drift citing the example of
Founder Effect?
A: 1) Genetic Drift: The change in the frequency of a gene that occurs merely
by chance andnot by selection in small populations, is called genetic drift.
Genetic drift tends to reduce the amount of genetic variation within the
population, mainly byremoving the alleles with low frequencies. Genetic
drift can be exemplified by the founder effect.
2) Founder effect: If a small group of individuals from a population start a
new colony in anisolated region, those individuals are called the founders of
the new population.
The allelic frequency of their descendants are similar to those of the
founders rather than toeither ancestral parent population. Ex: Presence of
O+ve blood group is nearly 100% in RedIndians.

UNIT-VIII

Very Short Answer type Questions

2) Mention any two advantages of inbreeding ?
Ans:- 1. Inbreeding increases homozygosity. Thus inbreeding is necessary if
we want to evolve a pure line animal.
It helps in the accumulation of superior genes and elimination of less
dessirable genes.
3) Define the terms layer and broiler ?
Ans:- Layer:- The birds which are raised exclusively for the production of eggs
are called layers.
Broilers:- The birds which are raised only for their meat are called
broil-ers.
4) What is epiculture ?
Ans:- The maintenance of lives of honey bees for the production of honey
andwax is called epiculture.
5) Differentiate aqua culture and pisciculture.
Ans:- Aquaculture :- It means rearing and management of selected aquatic
organisms under regulated conditions and their subsequent
harvestingafter the stipulated time.
Pisciculture : rearing of fish.
6) Explain the term hypophysation.
Ans:- Hypophysation is followed in artificial breeding. Pituitary extracts con-
taining gonadotropins are injected into brood fish to induce release of
spawn for seed production.
7) List out any two Indian carps and two
exotic carps.
Ans:- Indian Carps:-
 • Catla-
catla
2)Labeoroh
ita
Exotic carps:-
1) Grass carp 2) Silver carp
8) Mention any four fish by products?
Ans:- 1) Shark liver oil 2) Fish guano 3) Shagreen 4) Isinglass
9) How many amino acids and polypeptide chains are
present ininsulin?
Ans:- Human insulin is made up of 51 amino acids and two polypeptide
chains.
10) Define the term `Vaccine'
Ans:- A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a par-
ticular disease. A vaccine typically contains the disease causing micro
organism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the mi-
crobe.
11) Mention any two features of PCR ?
Ans:- 1) PCR helps to detect very low amounts of DNA by amplification of the
small DNA fragment.
2) PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected cases.
12) What does ADA stand for ? Deficiency of ADA causes which
disease?
Ans:- ADA is stand for the immune system to function. Deficiency of ADA
causes severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
13) Define the term transgenic animal ?
Ans:- Animals that have their own genome and had their DNA manipulated
topossess and express n extra gene are known as transgenic animals.
14) What is popularly called `Guardian Angel of Cells Genome?
Ans:- Gene is popularly called as Guardian Angel of cells genome.
15) List out any four features of cancer cells ?
Ans:- 1) Cancer cells actively divide and grow they starve the normal cells
bycompeting for vital nutrients.
2) Cancer cells have abnormal changes on their cell surface
3) There is increased growth of blood vessels towards the tumors.

Short Answer type Questions

1. List out the various steps involved in MOET Ans:-
The following are the steps involvedin MoET
1) A cow is administered hormones, with FSH-like ctivity.
2) This includes follicular maturation and super ovulation.
3) The animal (cow) is either mated with an elite bull or artificially
in-seminated
 4) The embryos are at 8-32 called stages are recovered non-
surgicallyand transferred to surrogate mother.
2. Discuss in brief about `Avian Flu'
Ans:- is an important disease affecting poultry birds and man has to be very
watchful about this disease as it is very dangerous to man.
Causative organism:- Bird flu is caused by an `avian flu virus'. The
H5N1. The virus that causes the bird infection infects humans too.
Itcan start a worldwide epidemic.
Mode of infection:- Infection may be spread simply by touching con-
taminated surfaces. Birds infected by this type of influenza con- tinue
to release the virus as in their faces and saliva for as long as 10 days.
Symptoms:- Infection by the avian influenza virus H5N1 in humans
causes typical flu-like symptoms, which might include: cough,
diarrhoea difficulty in breathing, fever, headache, malaise, muscle aches
and sore throat.
Prevention:-
1) Avoiding consumption of underooked chicken meat reduces the
risko fexposure to avian flu.
2) People who work with birds should use protective clothing and
spe-cial breathing masks.
3) Complete culling of infected flock by burying them.
3. Honey bees are economically important Justify.
Ans:- Economic importance of Honey bees :-
The bee productis like Honey, wax, propolis and bee venom are used in

Various ways:Honey is a rich source of fructose, water, glucose, minerals and vita-
mins.
1) Bee's was is used in the preparation of cosmotics, polishes of various
kinds and candles.
2) propolis is used in the treatment of inflammation and superfical burns
3) Bee's venom, which is extracted from the ting of worker bees is used
inthe treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
4) Pollination:- Bees are the pollinators of our crop plants such assun-
flower, brassica, apple and pear.
4. Explain in brief structue of Insulin.
Ans:- Structure of insulin:- Human insulin is made up of 51 amino
acidsarranged in two polypeptide chains. Chain-A-contains 21
aminoacieds
and chain-B contains 30 amino acids, which are linked together by
disulphide linkages. In mammals, including humans insulin is
synthesised as a pro-hormoue which contains an extra stretch called
the `c'-peptide. This `c'-peptide is not present in the nature insulin
and is removed during maturation into insulin.
 5. Define vaccine and discuss about types of vaccines.
Ans:- Vaccine:- A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunityto
a particular disease a vaccine typically contains the disease causing
micro organism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the
microbe.
Types of vaccines:-
Attenuated whole agent vaccines:- They contain disabled live
microorganisms. mostly they are antiviral.
Examples:- Vaccines against yellow fever, measles, ubella and
mumpsand the bacterial disease such as typhoid.
Inactivated whole agen tvaccines:- They contain killed microbes
Ex:- vaccines against influenza, cholera, bubonic plague, polia,
hepati-tis-A, rabies and sabin's oral polio vaccine
Toxoids:- They contain `toxoids' which are inactivated `exotoxins' of
cer-tain microbes. Ex:- the vaccines against Dipththeria and Tetanus.
6. Explain the different types of Cancers ?
Ans:- Types of Cancers:
I. Familial Cancers :- genetic based Cancers
Carcinomas:- Cancers of epithelial cells which are most common.

Sarcomas:- Cancers of connective tissues

Leukemias :- Cancers of bone marrow cells resulting in
unrestrainedproduction of WBC
Lymphomas:- Cancers of the lymphatic system

7. Write about the procedure involved in MRI?

Ans. MRI scanner is a giant circular magnetic tube. The patient is placed on a movable
bed that is inserted into the magnet. Human body is mainly composed of water
molecules which contain two hydrogen nuclei – protons each. The magnet creates a
strong magnetic field that makes these protons align with the direction of magnetic field.
A second radio frequency electro magnetic field is then turned on for a brief period. The protons
absorb some energy from these radio waves. When the second radio frequency field is turned off
the protons release at a radio frequency which can be detected by MRI scanner.
Different types of tissues emit different quanta of energy.