HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR: BEHIND THE CENTURY OF BLOODSHED

600 th
ANNIVERSARY

AGINCOURT
IN THE MEDIEVAL MÊLÉE
OF HENRY V’S VICTORY

LEE ★★VERSUS ★
★★ ★★
★

GRANT
America’s greatest generals clash in
the fierce fight for their nation’s soul

PLUS:
✪ Battle of Baugé
✪ Anatomy of a knight
✪ WWI Medal of Honor hero

FLIGHT HITLER’S OF

CONDOR LEGION
Why the Third Reich dominated Spain’s savage civil war
KAMIKAZE
Uncover the military madness
SUPERCANNON
DID A SECRET WEAPON
B-26 MARAUDER
INSIDE THE USA’S
of Japan’s divine wind of death CRUSH CONSTANTINOPLE? D-DAY BOMBER ISSUE 021
 Agincourt The battle of

600th Anniversary
Exhibition
Discover the medieval armour, art,
music, sculpture and manuscripts
which together reveal the story,
legacy and myths of this
extraordinary battle.

Tower of London
23 Oct 2015 - 31 Jan 2016
The national collection of arms and
armour at the Tower of London

www.royalarmouries.org
#Agincourt600
 WELCOME TO ISSUE 21

Welcome
“Find out where your enemy is. Get at him as soon
as you can. Strike him as hard as you can,
CONTRIBUTORS
MARC G DESANTIS
Marc is a published author
on topics ranging from
Ancient Macedonia to the
Cold War. In this issue, he
pits America’s two greatest
generals against each other
as he recounts the men’s
and keep moving on” military careers in the Civil
War and beyond (page 28).
– Ulysses S Grant

R
obert E Lee and Ulysses was as daring as it was genius. MIGUEL MIRANDA
S Grant are perhaps It carried great risk, but meant In his continuing quest to
two of the most often- the even greater rewards of map the entirety of Japanese
compared generals in all history, gold, glory and maybe even the military history, this issue
as well as the USA’s most French throne. Miguel has entered the
celebrated civil war leaders. dark yet poetic world of the
These West Point graduates kamikaze pilot. To learn
bore the heavy responsibility of more about the planes
and the pilots of this tragic
command and often took great
tactic, turn to page 82.
risks with men’s lives to achieve
what they saw as the greater
quest to heal their nation.
JACK GRIFFITHS
To commemorate the 600th
A greater victory was also on anniversary of the Battle of
Henry V’s mind at Agincourt Agincourt, this issue Jack
600 years ago. Here, the king’s has put together an extended
superb judgement was vital for Tim Williamson Great Battles on the English
the survival of the beleaguered Editor victory (page 40). He has
English army. also tackled the Hundred
His decision to advance EMAIL Years’ War in this issue’s
against a superior French force frontline@imagine-publishing.co.uk Frontline section (page 14).

www.historyanswers.co.uk FACEBOOK
/HistoryofWarMag
TWITTER
@HistoryofWarMag
Ulysses S Grant (centre left) meets with
President Lincoln and other generals aboard
the River Queen at the civil war’s end

3
CONTENTS ISSUE 21

LEE ★★★★ VERSUS ★★★★

GRANT 28 The greatest generals

of the American Civil War
clash in the fight for their
nation’s soul

14
Frontline
Hundred Years’ War
The fight for one throne rages for over a century,
as France and England struggle for power

16 War heroes
Meet the individuals who turned the tide of the
conflict on and off the battlefield

18 The fight for France

Major events and battles mapped onto the
changing face of the war

600
20 Inside a Medieval army
Professor Anne Curry explains what a campaign
army would have looked like 600 years ago th
ANNIVERSARY

AGINCOURT
22 Anatomy of a knight
A look at just what the heavy mounted men-at-
arms would have worn to battle
40 Follow Henry V’s triumphant victory, blow by blow
24 Battle of Baugé
A campaigning Scottish army joins forces with its

WAR IN
French allies to face their mutual enemy

26 Chaotic French politics

Dr Jan Willem Honig discusses how the Hundred

Subscribe DONBASS
Years’ War affected the nation of France

76 Tom Farrell explores the

68 Never miss an issue, get your History of War
murky path that led to the
before it’s in the shops and save a bundle
while you’re at it! conflict devastating Ukraine

4
 CONTENTS

B-26 MARAUDER
06 WAR IN FOCUS
Stunning imagery from throughout history

28 Lee vs Grant
America’s most celebrated generals face
off over the battlefields of the civil war

40 GREAT BATTLES
Agincourt
Henry V’s campaign in France comes to an
end in this bloody encounter

50 Flight of Hitler’s
Condor Legion
The Nazi war machine rumbles to life in
Spain’s savage civil war

58 Supercannons of the
Ottoman Empire
Did Mehmet II conquer Constantinople with
a Medieval superweapon?
70 Look inside the D-Day bomber that stormed Fortress Europe
64 MEDAL OF HONOR HERO
Alvin C York
A former alcoholic turns into an overnight
war hero on the Western Front

70 OPERATOR’S HANDBOOK
B-26 Marauder
Take a tour around Utah Beach Museum’s
glorious American medium bomber

76 THE BRIEFING
War in Donbass
Could the Cold War be heating up again as
Ukraine’s internal conflict continues?

82 The divine wind of death

Miguel Miranda explores the men behind
the myth of Japan’s kamikaze pilots

92 Book reviews
A selection of the latest military titles
waiting for you on the shelves

98 ARTEFACT OF WAR
A WWI ventriloquist dummy
Meet Douglas, the spooky-looking doll that
entertained troops in the trenches

the
Divine Wind
DEATH
of

82 Explore the

FLIGHT OF HITLER’S
men and machines
behind WWII’s
most tragic tactic
CONDOR LEGION
50 Rediscover how Nazi Germany won the Spanish Civil War

5
WAR
WAR IN
IN FOCUS
FOCUS

6
 in

LIGHT ARTILLERY
Taken 12 July 2014
26 Regiment Royal Artillery, at Camp Bastion, fires
an illumination round to support nearby British
troops on operation. The regiment was formed in
1947 from the 4th Field Artillery Brigade and
reunited batteries that had previously served
together under other formations for
several years. It is the only regiment
to have kept its three original
gun batteries.

Photo: Cpl Daniel Wiepen/MOD

7
 in

CROSSING OF THE RUSSIAN

ARMY OVER THE DANUBE
Painted 1883
Here, Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky depicts the
dramatic scene of some 185,000 Russian
troops making a river crossing to attack the
Ottoman Empire in June 1877. In just
under a year, Russian forces would
be within striking distance of
Constantinople.

8
WAR IN FOCUS

9
 in

THE FINAL PUSH

Taken 13 September 1918
American troops from the 107th Infantry, 27th
Division, conduct training exercises near the
commune of Beauquesne, in the Somme
department. This was taken prior to their
assault on the Hindenburg Line in the
Hundred Days Offensive, where British,
American, French and Belgian forces
combined to crush the
Central Powers.

10
WAR IN FOCUS

11
 in

THE FIRE GOD’S LAST FLIGHT

Taken 19 July 2015
Vulcan bomber XH558 flies in formation at the
Royal International Air Tattoo, over RAF Fairford,
for the very last time. Seen here alongside the
Red Arrows, the final airworthy Vulcan ended
its flying career in 2015, as it reached the
end of its operational life span. It was
restored to working order more than
a decade ago with popular
support.

12
WAR IN FOCUS

© Rex Features

13
 Frontline

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR As a succession of English kings fought to rule across
the Channel, Medieval Europe was thrown into turmoil

DEATH OF CHARLES IV
A QUESTION OF INHERITANCE
THE CAPTURE OF KING JOHN II
AN ENGLISH VICTORY
1328 Vincennes, France
When Charles IV of France died without a male heir, AT POITIERS RESULTS
a claim for the throne was made by Edward III of IN THE CAPTURE OF
England, as his mother was the sister of the late king. A FRENCH KING
With the French wary about being ruled by an English 1356 Poitiers
king, Philip VI, Charles’ first cousin, was selected instead. The Battle of Poitiers
Although this agreement was tolerated for some nine was one of the most
years, when Philip VI began to interfere in Edward’s war significant English
against Scotland, Edward reasserted his claim to the victories of the entire
French throne. war and included the
capture of King John
the Good by the Black

“WHEN PHILIP VI BEGAN TO Prince. Taken back to

London, the French king

INTERFERE IN EDWARD’S would be an important

bartering tool for the

WAR AGAINST SCOTLAND, English even after his

death in 1364.

EDWARD REASSERTED Right: While in captivity,

HIS CLAIM TO THE

John signed the Treaties of
The death of Brétigny and Calais, which
brought an end to the first

FRENCH THRONE”
Charles IV of
France ended the phase of the war
Capetian dynasty

PEASANTS’ REVOLT
PANIC ON THE STREETS OF LONDON
1381 England
In England, the effects of fighting a long and bitter war were
beginning to show. The country’s peasants were forced to pay
high taxes to subsidise it and the 1380 poll tax pushed them to
breaking point. When a tax collector attempted to gather unpaid
taxes in Essex, it led to a full-scale revolt. The rebels marched to
London to confront the king directly and Richard II gave in to their
demands in the hope of re-establishing peace. However, violence
continued and many rebel leaders were tracked down and killed.
Below: The 14-year-old King Richard met with the rebels when they
marched on London

THE BATTLE OF CRÉCY

Above: At Crécy, the English
lost only about 300 men to
France’s 2,000
THE VICTORY THAT SHOCKED THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
1346 Crécy-en-Ponthieu, Picardy
As Edward III tore his way across outnumbered the English and allied
Normandy, plundering and razing soldiers, Edward won a surprising victory.
towns, Philip finally assembled his This was largely helped by the skilful use
army and prepared to trap the English of artillery and longbowmen, which then
king. Although Philip’s army heavily became a staple of the English forces.

14
 THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

BATTLE OF AGINCOURT
WE FEW, WE HAPPY FEW, WE BAND
OF BROTHERS
1415 Pas-de-Calais, France
This historic battle pitted Henry V of England
5 Facts
about
THE HUNDRED
against the constable of France, Charles d’Albret.
Henry V had invaded France after negotiations YEARS’ WAR
to recognise English rule had turned sour, and
despite his numbers being heavily depleted THE HUNDRED YEARS MYTH
through disease, decided to take on a numerically To call the Hundred Years’ War a single
superior French force. Henry’s subsequent victory war is incorrect. There were periods of
led him to marry the French king’s daughter, peace between the conflicts, and many
Catherine, and ushered in a new era of the war. historians disagree about when it truly
began and ended. What is certain is that
Right: The conditions at Agincourt, along with the it lasted longer than 100 years.
terrain, helped secure an English victory
THE GREATEST WEAPON

BATTLE OF CASTILLON
Rather than facing the French in open

SIEGE OF ORLÉANS
FRANCE’S HEROINE TAKES THE FINAL CLASH
conflict, Edward the Black Prince
preferred to lead raids known as
chevauchées. These horse charges
A STAND 1453 Castillon-la-Bataille, Gascony
would plunder cities, burn crops and
1428-29 Orléans, France Although the French had captured Bordeaux from the English, the inhabitants, cause as much destruction as possible.
After the crushing defeat at having been ruled by the English for 300 years, were not happy, and
Agincourt, France had struggled demanded Henry VI’s help. The region was reclaimed and Henry slowly JOAN THE FEMINIST?
to achieve much success against captured more and more of Gascony. The two forces eventually met, but the Although Joan of Arc is commonly
the English, but this changed at English miscalculated the strength and size of the French army and were portrayed as a fiery tomboy, she only
Orléans. England had held the destroyed by their artillery. The defeat led England to lose almost all its land in wore male clothes when necessary,
siege on the strategic city for France, and marked the end of the long and bloody conflict. much preferring to don a dress. She was
almost half a year, and victory also known to loathe the female camp
The Earl of Shrewsbury, an followers, and there are even accounts
seemed assured. However, when English general, was killed of her chasing some away with a sword.
Joan of Arc arrived, accompanied at the Battle of Castillon
by a small army, fierce resistance
LONG LIVE THE KING
spread among the French ranks Edward III was just 14 when he inherited
and forced the English to retreat in the English crown in 1327, and reigned
just nine days. until his death in 1377. At 50 years and
147 days, his reign is the sixth longest
“WHEN JOAN OF in English history. Considering he was a
Medieval king in a time of conflict, this
ARC ARRIVED, is an impressive accolade.

ACCOMPANIED BY A THE KING OF FEAR

Although, thanks to Shakespeare,

SMALL ARMY, FIERCE Henry V is seen today as a paragon

of English chivalry, he was actually a

RESISTANCE SPREAD rather ruthless warrior and leader. At

Agincourt, Henry violated the rule of war

AMONG THE FRENCH by ordering the immediate execution of

French prisoners.

RANKS AND FORCED

THE ENGLISH TO
RETREAT IN JUST
NINE DAYS” Images: Alamy; Corbis

The Siege of Orléans

was Joan of Arc’s first Henry V‘s reputation was further
major military victory damaged when he let the women
and children of the besieged town
of Rouen starve to death in 1418

15
 Frontline
HUNDRED
YEARS’ WAR HEROES
The intelligent strategists and tenacious warriors of over a century of conflict

JOHN CHANDOS By the time she was

burned at the stake, Joan
1320-70 was just 19 years old

ALLEGIANCE: ENGLAND
Gentleman, knight and close friend of kings,
John Chandos was highly trained in the
art of war, and his military genius aided
England greatly. Edward III was impressed by
Chandos’ military successes and made him
responsible for the education of his young
son Edward, the Black Prince, appointing him
chief of staff. The Black Prince went on to
fight by Chandos’ side at a number of battles
as he played a central role at the battles
of Crécy and Poitiers. He is credited with
designing a key strategy that ensured victory
fell into Edward’s lap.
After these two monumental victories,
he went on to lead his forces to glory at
the Battle of Auray, which allowed John de
Montfort to reign as John V, Duke of Brittany.
Chandos was highly rewarded for his service
and was appointed vice-chamberlain of
England and lieutenant of France. Although
he repeatedly snatched victory from the jaws

“IT WASN’T JUST THE ENGLISH THAT

of defeat in grand battles, he met his end in
a minor skirmish. His death was mourned

BEGAN TO FEAR JOAN’S INFLUENCE,

not only by the English, but by the French
too. This was because Chandos was not only

BUT CHARLES HIMSELF”

a warrior, but a skilled politician, with many
believing he was the key to peace.
Below: John Chandos was present at all of Edward’s
major conflicts, including the three strategic victories
at Crécy, Poitiers and Auray
JOAN OF ARC Joan impressed the dauphin, who was
desperate for any help he could get, heavenly
1412-31 or otherwise. Despite some reservations from
his court, Charles granted Joan everything
ALLEGIANCE: FRANCE she asked for – armour, a horse and an army.
Though she would go on to become a heroine By the time she arrived in the besieged city
and martyr of France, Joan of Arc came from of Orléans, all eyes were on Joan. Although
humble origins. She was born in the tiny village she never personally took part in the battle,
of Domremy, where she lived the quiet life of Joan accompanied the troops, holding her
a farmer’s daughter. This all changed when, banner, and was even wounded by an arrow to
at the age of 12, she began to experience the neck. When the siege was over, and the
religious visions of saints and angels that English expelled, she was declared a heroine.
spoke to her. Most significantly, she claimed Her reputation spread far and wide, and she
to speak to the archangel Michael, one of the accompanied Charles on his assaults, helping
patron saints of the French Royal Army. him to take any towns that resisted.
The situation in France at the time was It wasn’t just the English that began to fear
at breaking point – the uncrowned dauphin Joan’s influence, but Charles himself. When she
Charles was losing territory and the English was captured by the Burgundians after defending
were preparing for a fresh campaign. However, Compiégne, the French king made no efforts to
Joan’s visions began to speak a direct rescue her. Joan was given to the English, put
message: they told her to go to Charles and on trial and found guilty of heresy and cross-
help him drive out the English. After struggling dressing. She was burned at the stake. Charles
to persuade the garrison commander of her eventually had her name cleared, but only once
mission, she finally convinced Robert de a cult had begun to arise around the girl who
Baudricourt to take her to Charles. fought and died for France and God.

16
 THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

JEAN III DE GRAILLY

UNKNOWN-1376
ALLEGIANCE: ENGLAND

Regarded by his contemporaries as

the epitome of chivalry, de Grailly was
Another of du Guesclin’s a military leader who served alongside
nicknames was ‘The Black Edward III and Edward the Black Prince.
Dog of Brocéliande’ Made Knight of the Garter in 1348, de
Grailly was an expert cavalry leader, and

BERTRAND DU GUESCLIN and du Guesclin entered the service of the French king
to be. He led Charles’s forces to victory at the battle
thanks to a flanking move he commanded
at Poitiers, King John II was captured.
1320-80 of Cocherel by defeating Charles II of Navarre, who At this point, de Grailly was regarded
very highly in England. However, in 1364
ALLEGIANCE: FRANCE had his sights set on the Duchy of Burgundy. However,
at the Battle of Auray, the French were bitterly while commanding forces in Normandy,
Known as ‘The Eagle of Brittany’, Bertrand du defeated and du Guesclin captured. he was captured by Bertrand du Guesclin.
Guesclin served as a French military commander The price that Charles was willing to pay for his He was released within a year, but by
during the early part of the Hundred Years’ War. From safe return – 100,000 francs – indicates just how then had defected to the French side.
a tough upbringing, du Guesclin was regarded as ugly highly the Eagle was regarded. He was later made Whether this defection was a ploy or
not is up for debate, but he very quickly
and small, so he was forced to develop tenacity and Constable of France, unusual for someone as
changed his allegiance back to England.
fighting spirit that aided him well in later life. lowborn as du Guesclin. He immediately set about
He followed the Black Prince to Spain
Du Guesclin first made his name while fighting forcing the English back across the sea with victory
and fought at the Battle of Nájera,
in the Breton War of Succession when the French after victory. Du Guesclin’s military genius helped re- where he faced his old rival, the Eagle of
supported Charles of Blois. He also helped to defend conquer most of France from the invaders, and today Brittany. This time, de Grailly came out
the city of Rennes against a siege by the English. His he is one of the most popular figures in the history of on top, and du Guesclin was captured.
bravery and military prowess impressed Charles V, the country. However, de Grailly’s winning streak came
to an end when his men were surprised
by a French force at the siege of Soubise

OWAIN LAWGOCH PHILIP THE BOLD in France. De Grailly was captured, and
Charles V, perhaps wary of unleashing the
1330-78 1342-1404 man who once double crossed him back
to the English, kept him locked up as a
ALLEGIANCE: FRANCE ALLEGIANCE: BURGUNDY prisoner for the remainder of his life.
A figure surrounded by myth Philip inherited the dukedom of Burgundy at
and legend, Owain Lawgoch was a time when the Burgundian dukes lived in
a Welsh soldier who claimed splendour. Philip himself had a good reputation,
descent through an ancient line known as ‘the bold’ thanks to his brave actions
of Welsh princes. Although he is Owain Lawgoch translates at the battle of Poitiers when he was just 14. Philip clashed with his
to ‘Owain of the Red Hand’ younger nephew, Louis,
now regarded as a Welsh hero, He was wounded, captured, and spent most of Duke of Orléans, who
Lawgoch grew up in England and his late youth in captivity in England, where he believed he should have
received military training in France. Charles V called them back played chess with the Black Prince. been regent
In 1369, he was stripped and ordered them to attack La When Charles V, Philip’s brother, ascended the
of his lands in England and in Rochelle instead, which Lawgoch throne, Philip was confirmed as duke of Burgundy
retaliation proclaimed himself did successfully. and soon became a favourite of the French
Prince of Gwynedd. Ambitious and By 1377, Lawgoch was planning people. He was an excellent negotiator and
flamboyant, he assembled a team another invasion of Wales. could easily win the favour of many difficult men.
of mercenaries and the French Although some historians believe When Charles V died in 1380, Philip assisted the
began to take notice of him. Not that these were simply intended young Charles VI in running the country.
only had Lawgoch won battles in to distract the English, the Crown As his nephew grew older, however, it
France and Spain, he also offered took them seriously enough to became obvious that something wasn’t right.
the losing country a chance to dispatch an assassin to end the He suffered fits of murderous rage and insanity
strike the English on their own soil. Welsh nuisance once and for all. so intense that he even killed his own knights.
Charles V supported Lawgoch’s The Scottish assassin, Jon Lamb, Philip immediately took control and declared
claims and financed a fleet of successfully infiltrated Lawgoch’s himself regent. Far more capable than his fragile
ships the Welsh rebel planned to band of men and stabbed the nephew, Philip used his charm and negotiation
use to invade Wales. However, the would-be king to death, ending the skills to make an agreement with Richard II of
ships didn’t get very far before direct line of Welsh princes. England, and established a truce that lasted for
28 years.

17
 Frontline 5

THE FIGHT FOR FRANCE

For more than a century of war, the territories of this divided
kingdom were the battlefields, as well as the ultimate prize
1

1 FRENCH COASTAL RAIDS

1338-40
French raids torment the English coast from
Southampton to Suffolk until the Battle of
Sluys in the summer of 1340, when the CAEN
English gain full control of the Channel.
NORMANDY
Left: The French navy was almost completely
destroyed by the English at Sluys

2 THE COMBAT OF THE THIRTY

27 MARCH 1351
Breton War of
Succession BRITTANY
Date: 1341-65
The Duchy of Brittany has split allegiances in the
Hundred Years’ War. The Breton War of Succession Location: Brittany 2 MAINE
would last until 1365 but in this tight skirmish, the
French emerge victorious. BAUGÉ
Battle of
Battle of La Formigny
Rochelle Date: 15 April 1450 ANGERS
“SETTING SAIL FROM SOUTHAMPTON, HENRY V Date: 1372
Location: Coast and
Location: Formigny,
Normandy
4
AND HIS ARMY PILLAGE AND PLUNDER THEIR port of La Rochelle
CASTILIAN
FRENCH
VICTORY
WAY THROUGH NORTHERN FRANCE” VICTORY

THE BATTLE OF POITIERS

The French king, John II, was
3 captured at the Battle of Poitiers Battle of Baugé
19 SEPTEMBER 1356 Date: 21 March 1421
The Battle of Poitiers ends in an emphatic English victory. Location: Baugé
Although outnumbered, the English archers outclass the FRENCH
French cavalry in a result that becomes commonplace in VICTORY
this era of the war.

BORDEAUX

Fall of Bordeaux AQUITAINE

Date: 19 October
1453
Location: Bordeaux

Battle of
Castillon
Date: 17 July 1453
Location: Castillon-la-
Bataille, Gascony
FRENCH
VICTORY

18
 THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

Battle of Sluys
Date: 24 June 1340
5 DEATH OF THE BLACK PRINCE
8 JUNE 1376
Location: Sluis, An almost legendary Medieval military hero and tactician, Edward
CALAIS Zeelandic Flanders, the Black Prince dies of dysentery contracted while in Spain. His
Netherlands series of victories helped make Aquitaine an English powerhouse.
ENGLISH
VICTORY Despite its common
usage today, there is
ABBEVILLE
6 no record of Edward
Battle of being called the
Black Prince during
Agincourt his lifetime
Date: 25 October
Battle of Crécy 1415
Date: 26 August 1346
ROUEN Location: Azincourt,
Location: Crécy-en-
Pas-de-Calais
Ponthieu, Picardy,
France ENGLISH
VICTORY
ENGLISH
VICTORY
PARIS CHAMPAGNE

3 Burning of Joan
of Arc
Date: 30 May 1431
Location: Rouen
ORLEANS
7

BERRY BURGUNDY
The Jacquerie
Date: 21 May 1358
Location: Compiègne,
Oise, France
English/
Burgundian rule
of Paris
6 HENRY V'S INVASION ROUTE
11 AUGUST – 29 OCTOBER 1415
Date: 1419-36 Setting sail from Southampton, Henry V and his army pillage and
Location: Paris plunder their way through northern France. Taking a series of French
strongholds, the invasion culminates in the Battle of Agincourt.

7
1435
BURGUNDY SWITCHES SIDES
After a long rivalry with the French, the Burgundian kingdom
Battle of Patay DAUPHINE decides to desert the English. The 1435 Treaty of Arras allies
Date: 18 June 1429 France with Burgundy, turning the war further against the English.
Location: Patay,
Orléans
FRENCH
VICTORY

Siege of Orléans
Date: 12 October
1428 – 8 May 1429
Location: Orléans TOULOUSE

GASCONY
Images: FreeVectorMaps.com; Alamy

4
1360
TREATY OF BRÉTIGNY
The war is punctured by a series of treaties. The first Before the battle of Agincourt,
major pact is the 1360 Treaty of Brétigny, which Henry V addresses his army
surrenders huge amounts of French lands to the English. from horseback

19
 Frontline

MEDIEVAL ARMY
INSIDE A

Professor of Medieval History Anne Curry

explains just what a European army would
have looked like 600 years ago

A
Medieval army on the also a personal squire to assist him
march would have reflected
both extremes of the
in the fray. Regardless, in the chaos
of a fight, both these men would CROSSBOWMEN
The English Crown employed
social spectrum of the time, with be looking to win gold and glory by
relatively few crossbowmen,
peasants, landowners, knights, defeating a rich enemy, who they
but they could sometimes be found
noblemen and even royalty could then seize and later ransom
in naval expeditions and also in
fighting together on campaign. The for profit. The Medieval battlefield, garrisons. The greatest concentration
English longbowman, for instance, therefore, was a great social leveller of crossbowmen was in Calais, which
would have been a commoner, in the period. was often an outpost of English control
but his importance to the army A highly respected authority in northern France after its capture by
and effectiveness in battle far on the period, in particular Henry Edward III in 1347.
outweighed his lowly status back V’s campaigns, Professor Anne About 70 per cent of crossbowmen
home. He would not have the Curry lectures on military and in English service between 1369 and
wealth to buy the best armour, or Medieval history, and is the author 1453 were from overseas, and they were
anything other than crude melee of numerous titles including Great most often Portuguese, Castilian, Flemish,
weapons, so his skill with the bow Battles: Agincourt and Agincourt: German or Genoese.
was often his sole asset. A New History. Here she takes us
A rich man-at-arms
man-at-
at arms or knight, on
at- through each of the troop types that Right: Unlike the longbow, a crossbow could be
the other hand, would bring would have made up both English operated by almost any soldier with very limited
not only several horses with and French forces during the training needed
him to take into battle, but Hundred Years’ War and beyond.

Below: Cannons saw their

first real use on European
GUNNERS
By the late 14th century, gunpowder artillery was playing
battlefields in the Hundred
Years’ War an increasing role in warfare. In 1415, about 30 gunners
accompanied Henry V’s army but all were from the continent
(largely Germany). English gunners began to appear in later campaigns,
some doubling as archers. Gunners were often craftsmen as well as soldiers,
seeing to the construction and repair of their weapons too.

“GUNNERS WERE OFTEN CRAFTSMEN AS WELL AS SOLDIERS”

20
 THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

Although the exact figures cannot be

known, it is thought that up to 12,000
French men-at-arms fought at Crécy

KNIGHTS
In the early campaigns, 25 per cent of the men-at-arms were
MEN-AT-ARMS
In the late 14th century, half of English armies were
dubbed knights, but as the war continued, the proportion made up of men-at-arms, but by 1415, the proportion
declined. In the army led to France by Richard, Duke of had fallen to 25 per cent and was even lower by 1453.
York, in 1441, for instance, only 2.2 per cent of the men-at- Nevertheless, well-armoured, well-equipped, professional
arms were knights. Not only had the Crown become more and experienced men-at-arms remained important in all
selective in its creation of knights, but also men of potential forms of fighting and were increasingly relied upon for
knightly standing were less keen to follow military careers. permanent garrison captaincies. The term ‘esquire’ was
In France, too, the proportion of knights in royal armies fell commonly used for all men-at-arms in the 14th century, a
from 15 per cent in 1340 to 9.4 per cent in 1392. sign of their social status derived from service.

“EDWARD III IMPOSED A FINE ON ALL PEERS

ADULT MALES WHO FAILED TO PRACTISE Virtually all peers had military careers
and provided large numbers of troops

ARCHERY ON SUNDAYS” for the king on all campaigns. The

needs of war also played a role in
noble creations and promotions.
There were six men elevated to

Images: Alamy; Getty

earldoms in 1337 just as the war
with France was starting, and the
earldom of Shrewsbury was
given in 1442 to the famous
warrior John, Lord Talbot, who
died at the last battle of the
war at Castillon in July 1453.
Left: The English and
Welsh longbowmen
helped turn the tide of
many battles during the Right: John Talbot was the only
Hundred Years’ War Lancastrian Constable of France

ARCHERS
Longbowmen were always
important in English armies,
all the more so after Edward III
imposed a fine on all adult males
who failed to practise archery on
Sundays. In the early 15th century,
the number and proportion of archers
increased, possibly because they were
cheap (their wage was half that of the
man-at-arms’) but also because they
were valuable in both offensive and
defensive contexts. Some had careers of
20 years or more, especially
in the garrisons held by the
English in Normandy.

21
 Frontline
ANATOMY OF...

A FRENCH KNIGHT
Armed with a chivalric code, as well as the best weapons and armour, the
mounted knight was a near-unstoppable force on the Medieval battlefield
FRENCH KNIGHT BARDING
As knights were so well
protected by their extensive
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN: FRANCE armour, their horses became
TYPE: HEAVY CAVALRY targets on the field instead.
ARMOUR: PLATE MAIL A dismounted French knight
was at risk, so armour was
WEAPONS: LANCE, DAGGER, SWORD developed for their mounts.
GALLOP SPEED: APPROX 48KM/H (30 MPH) The barding was extensive,
with many different parts
including the champron,
criniere, croupiere, flanchard
and peytral.
LANCE
The lance was the staple weapon
of any knight on horseback. They
were usually about three metres
(ten feet) long and made of wood RONDEL DAGGER
with a steel tip. The lance wouldn’t This long and thin dagger would be used
be thrown, but rather the knights to exploit gaps in an enemy’s armour
would place the weapon under when the opportunity arose. It could also
their arms, then gallop forward be used to pry open a visor, then jabbed
against lines of infantry. The into the foe’s face to finish them off. Up to
French method was to place the 38 centimetres (15 inches) in length, this
lancers in a double line, which was triangular blade was specially designed
incredibly effective, shattering to allow for maximum penetration and
through lines of infantry with ease. damage when stabbing an opponent.

HORSE
For most French noblemen, fighting on foot
was simply unthinkable, so acquiring the
fastest, strongest mount was essential.
The English exploited this belief by stealing
horses and burning their stables, severely
impacting French cavalry training.

THE LAST CHARGE

Up until the Hundred Years’ War, heavy cavalry was
the most powerful weapon in an army’s arsenal;
by the end of the war, this was no longer the case.
Several advances in weaponry had caused a decline
in the use of heavy cavalry and their effectiveness
on the field, and with it, the armoured knight. The
longbow gave the English a huge advantage, as their
arrows could penetrate a knight’s plate armour,
destroying a heavy cavalry charge before it even
reached enemy lines. Other new developments
– gunpowder, firearms and cannons – were also
increasingly used towards the end of the war. All Left: To combat the
these new innovations marked the decline of trained French cavalry at
heavy cavalry and eventually the demise of the the Battle of Crécy,
armoured knight in the military. the English also laid
traps for the horses

22
 THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
BASCINET
There were a variety of different helmets for knights to wear, but the
bascinet was the most common, so much so that ‘bascinet’ became
a byword for ‘man-at-arms’. This helmet featured a full visor and a GORGET
distinctive conical shape. Later versions, known as ‘great bascinets’, A gorget was a circular piece of steel designed to be worn
were very cumbersome and impacted badly on the knight’s mobility. around the neck, under the breastplate. Although it provided
important protection for the knight’s neck, the gorget also
supported the weight of the heavy armour. There were
cheaper single-plate gorgets, but knights would have worn a
gorget with three or four overlapping plates for flexibility.

TABARD
Open at the sides, tabards were worn
over armour. They were occasionally
CUIRASS plain, but would often have the
knight’s arms emblazoned upon them.
Tabards became more important as PLATE ARMOUR
the use of plate armour increased and Made from tempered steel, a suit of
shields declined, as they provided armour would have weighed about 15-25
clear identification on the battlefield. kilograms (33-55 pounds). Despite the
fact that the armour covered the wearer
GAUNTLETS from head to toe, they would still remain
surprisingly agile. The armour provided near
invulnerability to sword slashes, and also
ORNATE GIRDLE gave protection against spears and pikes.

COAT OF ARMS
Knights would have worn their coat of arms on their
surcoat or tabard, and their shield if they had one.
This wasn’t simply for show, as with a helmet covering
their face, knights were unrecognisable on the

Illustration: The Art Agency – Hemesh Alles

battlefield; the symbols would provide a means of
recognition. It is believed that use of these symbols
in battle is what encouraged the spread of heraldry
across Medieval Europe.

CUISSES
SWORD
POLEYN Although the advances in armour made
swords for knights on horseback somewhat
obsolete in lieu of other weapons, they
would still carry a sword for close-quarters
combat. Swords could vary hugely in length
and breadth, from broad single-handed
swords about 0.7 metres (2.5 feet) in length
to long and thin two-handed weapons up to
1.06 metres (3.5 feet) long.

SABATON

23
 Frontline

BATTLE OF BAUGÉ 1421

The English aura of
invincibility was finally
lost as a reckless
1. FAILED RECONNAISSANCE
The English army marches inland from the coast,
conquering Maine and settling in the castle of Beaufort.
French scouts track the English advance but are captured
6. CLARENCE PRESSES ON
21 MARCH

A lull in the fighting gives Clarence the opportunity to

wait for reinforcements. Foolishly, he declines and
advances towards the village of Baugé. Hidden over the

advance saw their forces and interrogated. Now Clarence knows for sure that a rival
army is close by.
ridge lies the main force of Franco-Scots, who vastly
outnumber the English.

obliterated by a French 2. FRENCH AND SCOTTISH 7. THE FINAL CHARGE

and Scottish coalition MOVEMENTS
The Franco-Scot forces march west from Tours and cut off
The Scottish and French forces are now back in line,
but once again ignoring the advice of his commanders,

N
early six years had passed since the English escape route north that leads to the safety of Clarence presses on. A charge up the hill to the waiting
Agincourt and Henry V was still the Normandy. The two armies are now only 12.9 kilometres Franco-Scots is ordered despite Salisbury and the
master of northern France. The dauphin, (eight miles) apart. archers still not arriving.
the future Charles VII, desperately appealed to
the Scots for help, and soldiers arrived shortly 3. CLARENCE’S HURRIED MARCH 8. MELEE AND ENGLISH DEFEAT
after, ready for battle against the English. By Eager to engage the French, Clarence and 1,500 men- After a desperate assault, the English are routed by the
March 1421, Henry was back in England, so the at-arms dash towards the French camp after sightings larger French and Scottish army as Clarence and all of
heir to the throne, Thomas of Clarence, led the are confirmed by the English forward foraging parties. his commanders are killed. Without the support of the
army in his stead. Utilising chevauchée raiding As second in command, the Earl of Salisbury Thomas longbowmen, the English lose more than a thousand
tactics, Clarence swept inland, plundering his Montgau is told to assemble archers and then follow his men, while the French and Scottish casualties only
way through the countryside. Meeting little to superior into battle. number in the hundreds.
no resistance, it wasn’t until the end of the
month that the French would finally muster a 4. CROSSING THE RIVER 9. SALISBURY’S LATE ARRIVAL
force to fight back. The French and Scottish forces congregate on the other The French and Scottish leave the battlefield, along with
side of the river Couesnon. The only bridge is heavily the mountain of English bodies behind to rot. Salisbury

“UTILISING CHEVAUCHÉE
garrisoned, so the English knights dismount and wade arrives the next day with reinforcements but he is too late
across the river in full armour. Outflanked, the French and to even glimpse the opposing army, and to his horror,

RAIDING TACTICS, CLARENCE

Scots retreat into a church. finds only the dead.

5. ATTACK ON THE CHURCH 10. MOMENTUM WITH THE FRENCH

SWEPT INLAND, PLUNDERING Bursting out from the river bank, the English men-at-arms Clarence’s body is recovered and shipped back to

HIS WAY THROUGH THE

assault the church. The river crossing leaves the English England, where an angered Henry V prepares to return
troops scattered and disorganised and very few troops are to France with a new army. After the battle, and with the

COUNTRYSIDE”
now under effective command, as many are still on the confidence of their victory, the French begin planning a
road behind. conquest of Normandy.

THE SCOTTISH ROLE IN THE

HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
ENGLAND WASN’T THE ONLY POWER FROM ACROSS THE
CHANNEL FIGHTING IN FRANCE. SCOTLAND WANTED A
PIECE OF THE ACTION AS WELL
The Battle of Baugé was the zenith of Scottish support in France in the Hundred Years’
War. The Scots had been at war on and off with the English for decades and had
actively assisted the French since 1382, when they were asked to join with Charles
VI in return for equipment and supplies. The French had supported Scotland during
Edward I’s invasion of the country, so both had a history of common interest. The
agreement was known as the ‘Auld Alliance’ and was a constant thorn in the side of the
English, as the French and Scots tried to force a war on two fronts.
The Truce of Leulinghem was signed with the English in 1389, but it wasn’t long until
the Scots were back in the fold. After Baugé, the Scots were involved in the losses at
the battles of Cravant and Herrings and their role in the war was effectively at an end At the Battle of Homildon Hill, in
after a major defeat at the battle of Verneuil. Taking place 80 kilometres (50 miles) 1402, a 10,000-strong Scottish
west of Paris, the Franco-Scots’ charge was decimated by the English longbowmen, army harassed the English, but
suffered a heavy defeat
Alamy

who killed half of the opposing forces.

24
 THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

10

9 7

2 6

1
Illustration: Ed Crooks

25
THE CHAOTIC WORLD OF FRENCH POLITICS BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

The Hundred Years’ War marked the first widespread

use of cannon in European sieges and the richer the
noble, the more firepower he could command

26
 Frontline
THE CHAOTIC WORLD OF FRENCH POLITICS
Senior lecturer in War Studies at King’s College London, Dr Jan Willem Honig
explains how France evolved from divided kingdoms into one united nation
WHAT WAS THE STATE OF the greater wealth and size of his Right: The coat
FRANCE PRIOR TO THE realm, the king of France had a of arms for the
French House of
START OF THE WAR? further geographical advantage over Valois, a dynasty
The French kingdom was the most the king of England as he was much whose history was
pre-eminent realm in Europe at more at the centre of things in Paris. interwoven with
the time. It controlled the largest English monarchs
territory, it was the wealthiest and WHY WAS BRITTANY SPLIT
it was also the home of chivalry. If IN ITS ALLEGIANCES? when kings are
you compare it to the other political Brittany was a constitutional at war. It is a
entities in Europe, it was in a much peculiarity in the French kingdom. territory that has
better position than the weak Holy It was far more independent than a long history of
Roman Empire, a divided Italy or the other areas of France and the almost mythical
the backwater that was Spain. In claims to the duchy were more proportions. But it
England, the king was powerful, but disputed than any other part of really came into its
in terms of size and resources, the France. The kings of England tried own as a powerful
country was far weaker. to exploit this conflict between the entity because of the
duke of Brittany and of France, but divisions in the French
HOW DID THE FRENCH they didn’t have any claims of their royal dynasty in the
KINGS PERSUADE own to the duchy. latter part of the
DIFFERENT REGIONS TO 14th century.
FIGHT FOR THEM? HOW DID THE LIKES OF The French king’s
What you have to remember is that ARAGON AND GENOA weakness gave one of his
there was a very different political AND OTHER DISTANT uncles an opportunity to turn
culture to the ones we are familiar PRINCIPALITIES GET his Duchy of Burgundy into a
with today. Nationalism was not INVOLVED IN THE WAR? powerhouse. Typically for Medieval
a powerful idea at this time – The Hundred Years’ War was a politics, the dukes of Burgundy WHAT WAS THE STATE OF
political culture was dominated by a major conflict between two major shifted alliances, so they were THE FRENCH KINGDOM
patchwork of personal relationships kingdoms of Europe. It created an aligned with France at some points AFTER THE WAR?
between king and nobility. What unremitting demand for manpower and England at others. During the The argument by many historians is
the kings of France did, and had and other military resources such reign of Henry V, Burgundy sided that the Hundred Years’ War helped
been doing over the centuries as ships from Genoa. with the English, and this was the foundation of a strong French
before the Hundred Years’ War, To feed this demand, mercenary critical to England maintaining and state and an absolute monarchy
was to reinforce and tighten these forces grew in popularity and expanding its presence in France. that peaked under Louis XIV.
relationships with the nobles that specialist forces were drawn from One of the key developments was
lived in the areas around Paris, further afield. Many principalities DID THE WAR END in the army. The French kings, who
before extending their web of were also drawn into alliances ENGLAND’S IMPERIAL relied traditionally on undependable
allegiance further and further afield. with the antagonists, like Aragon AMBITIONS ON THE military service given out by the
The kings of England tried to do with England and Castile with CONTINENT? nobles, now created an army that
the same to maintain their claims France. When the war in France It didn’t. If you look at Henry VIII, was much more under their control.
to territories in France, so they went through a quiet spell, soldiers for example, he fought to reclaim It had a permanent core and was
began to compete. In addition to moved from the French theatre to the lost possessions in France but paid regularly.
other wars, like in Spain. had little success. Invading France Despite the storm of the religious
Below: Dr Honig’s
research interests
slowly lost its lure, and expeditions and civil wars of the 16th century,
include the WHAT WAS BURGUNDY’S became more difficult once Calais which almost brought the country
strategic ROLE IN THE WAR? was finally lost in 1558, but the to its knees, this structure of
relationship Burgundy is a fascinating example claims persisted until the Treaty of a standing army survives and
between
politics
of the opportunities that arise Amiens with Napoleon in 1802. strengthens the monarchy.
and war

“NATIONALISM WAS NOT A POWERFUL

IDEA AT THIS TIME – POLITICAL CULTURE
WAS DOMINATED BY A PATCHWORK OF
PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
KING AND NOBILITY”
Left: England managed to hold on to Calais for decades after the
Images: Alamy

war. This map from 1477 illustrates the tiny foothold the country
still held on the continent

27
 LEE
America’s greatest generals
clash in the fierce fight for
their country’s soul
WORDS MARC G DESANTIS
V
O
n 12 April 1861, troops from
the seceding state of South
Carolina opened fire on Federal
government-held Fort Sumter, sparking
the American Civil War. Soon, several
other Southern states joined South
Carolina in secession, seeking
to preserve the institution of
slavery by withdrawing from the
Union and forming the Confederate
States of America. Abraham Lincoln,
16th president of the United States
of America, was resolved to bring the
wayward states back, even by force. In the
enormous struggle that ensued, the largest
and deadliest ever to be waged on American
soil, Union and Confederate armies would be
led by two extraordinary soldiers, Ulysses S
Grant and Robert E Lee, who in their origins
and personalities could not have been more
different from each other, except for their
ferocious dedication to victory.
Born in January 1807 in Virginia, Robert E
Lee was the son of Henry ‘Light Horse Harry’, a
cavalry commander from the colony of Virginia
who had achieved renown in the American War
of Independence. Military service was part of
the heritage of the Lee family, and the young
man was admitted to United States Military
Academy at West Point as part of the class of
1829. Lee seemed destined for great things,
and played a role in one of the more notable
episodes of the immediate pre-civil war era.
In October 1859, John Brown, a fanatical
abolitionist, and 21 of his followers had seized
the Federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia.
His plan was to give the firearms within to

“It is well that

war is so terrible,
otherwise we
should grow too
fond of it”
Lee to General Longstreet at
the Battle of Fredericksburg,
11 December 1862

28
VS GRANT
slaves and foment an insurrection. This plot
failed when a group of US Marines, under
the command of US Army Lieutenant Colonel
Lee, appeared on the scene and quashed the
raiders, killing ten and capturing most of the
rest, including Brown.
By contrast, Lee’s fellow West Point graduate
Ulysses S Grant possessed an unexceptional
everyman quality. Born in April 1822 to
a tanner in Ohio, his lowly origins and
reportedly shabby dress belied a
careful, analytical mind. Very
few would have predicted that
the unassuming Grant, who
had gone so far as to resign
from the army in 1854, and
then fail in his civilian business
ventures, would one day become
the paramount commander of the
United States Army.

War comes to America

Grant was eager to rejoin the regular
army after the war erupted. Already helping
to raise a company of state volunteers in
Illinois, he much preferred to be a part of a
regular unit, and turned down command of the
volunteers when it was offered to him – the low
quality of the politicians who tended to grab
posts in the volunteer regiments put him off.
On 24 May 1861, he penned a letter to the
army requesting reinstatement. Grant would
be given a commission in the regular army as
a brigadier general, and made commander of
the district of south-east Missouri. In February
1861, he scored the first real victory of the

“I do not think
there was ever
a more wicked
war… I thought
so at the time…
only I had not
moral courage
enough to
resign”
Grant on the
Mexican-
American War

29
LEE vs GRANT

war for the Union by capturing rebel-held Fort The first major battle of the civil war, the First
Donelson on the Mississippi in Tennessee. Battle of Bull Run, was a Confederate victory
For his part, Lee was displeased with the
Southern move toward secession, which he
thought disastrous. He was forced to choose
between his cherished Virginia home state and
his country. Lee had even been marked out for
the command of a Federal army being formed
to return the secessionist states back under
US control, but he still chose Virginia.
When his state voted to secede, Lee
resigned from the US Army, saying that he
“could take no part in an invasion of the
Southern States.” By then he had served in the
army, including his time at West Point, for some
35 years.

General Lee and the Army of

Northern Virginia
The South would have to fight an uphill battle,
but it was not without advantages. At the start
of the war, its soldiers were more motivated
and its officer corps displayed far more talent
on the battlefield, especially at the First Battle
of Bull Run in July 1861, which was an entirely
one-sided Southern victory.

MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR
The precursor to civil war allowed Lee and Grant to cut their teeth on the battlefield
The USA’s war with Mexico, from 1846-48, had its origins in Taylor moved south rapidly, and won a succession of Lee, who discovered a route around the Mexican rear. Scott
the question of the annexation of Texas. The state had won victories over tough Mexican opposition at Palo Alto, Resaca was effusive in his praise of Lee, calling him “the very best
its independence from Mexico in April 1836 at the Battle de la Palma and Monterrey that year. In February 1847, a officer that I ever saw in the field.” Ulysses S Grant, in the
of San Jacinto, in which Sam Houston and 800 Texans strong Mexican army under Santa Anna was defeated by meantime, had been a supply officer with Taylor at the
defeated a Mexican army under President Antonio Lopez de Taylor at the Battle of Buena Vista. Also in 1847, US forces war’s start, and then had accompanied Scott in his assault
Santa Anna. Texas wanted to be admitted into the United under General Winfield Scott captured the port of Veracruz, on Mexico City, where he fought bravely in taking enemy
States, and US President James K Polk was a firm believer and marched inland to Mexico City, which they reached in breastworks guarding the city. By September 1847, Mexico
in the USA’s ‘manifest destiny’ to increase its territory August 1847. Along the way, Scott met and defeated Santa City had fallen to Scott, and the war was ended by the Treaty
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. He strongly favoured the Anna at Cerro Gordo that April, with victory owed in no small of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in February 1848, which saw the US
annexation of Texas, and this was accomplished in 1845 part to the reconnaissance performed by Captain Robert E take half of Mexico’s territory.
by a resolution of Congress. But Mexico had other ideas,
and had never truly reconciled itself to the loss of what it
considered rightfully to be one of its own provinces. In April “Many anti-slavery elements in the
1846, Mexico declared war on the USA after an American
army commanded by General Zachary Taylor crossed the North saw it as a naked attempt to win
Texas border. The US Congress declared war on Mexico
that May, but many anti-slavery elements in
the North saw it as a naked attempt
more slave territory”
to win more slave territory.

After the storming of Chapultepec,

Mexico City was occupied by
American forces

30
 LEE vs GRANT

AT WEST POINT
The USA’s top military academy schooled men in the art of war
The United States Military Academy was Far right: Robert E Lee was one of only five out of 45 in his class at
established at West Point, New York, by President West Point to graduate without receiving a demerit
Right: Ulysses S Grant graduated 21st in his class of 39 from West
Thomas Jefferson to provide the young nation Point with the rank of brevet second lieutenant
with professional officers educated in the military
sciences. From then until the outbreak of civil at all. Obtaining one of the coveted spots with the
war, West Point produced many of the USA’s most Corps of Engineers was too ambitious for Grant,
illustrious soldiers. with his mediocre grades, and so upon graduation
While at West Point, an institution with notably he was commissioned as a brevet second
strict discipline, Lee managed to graduate without lieutenant of the infantry.
even one demerit for an infraction of its disciplinary Though Lee and Grant were never at West
code during his four years there, a rarity among Point at the same time, their paths
cadets. He graduated in second place in his class, would cross in Mexico, albeit
and this enabled him to obtain a commission in not on the battlefield. On one
the army’s much sought-after Corps of Engineers. occasion, an unkempt and
After exemplary service in Mexico, which garnered dust-covered Brevet Captain
him no fewer than three brevet promotions Grant went to General Winfield
in 1847, Lee would busy himself constructing Scott’s headquarters to make
fortifications. But Lee’s military reputation was so his report. His appearance was
high that he was brought back by the academy in so poor that he was scolded by
1852 to become its superintendent. Lee would one of Scott’s staff officers, none
bring his wife, Mary Anna Randolph Custis Lee, other than Lee. “I feel it is my
along with their seven children, to the Point when duty, captain,” Lee said, “to call
he took up his duties there. your attention to General Scott’s
Grant’s time at the Point was a different matter order that an officer reporting to
entirely. He was never confident of his chances headquarters should be in full
of making it through the academy’s gruelling uniform.” Though this was perhaps
curriculum, but went anyway because he thought not the warmest of encounters
it would give him a chance to travel and see the between two men who would go on
USA’s biggest cities, which then were New York to hold such important commands,
and Philadelphia. “A military life had no charms it highlights one of the central
for me, and I had not the faintest idea of staying in tragedies spawned by Southern
the army if I should be graduated, which I did not secession. Graduates of West
expect,” he said. Point, many of whom had served
As a member of the class of 1843, Grant was side by side during the Mexican-
an undistinguished student, and he wasted a good American War, would find
deal of his time reading novels instead of studying. themselves fighting against one
His best subject, horsemanship, was not academic another in the civil war.

“Though Lee and Grant were

never at West Point at the same
time, their paths would cross
in Mexico”
31
LEE vs GRANT

“His subordinate officers had

urged him not to attack, but Lee
would hear none of their caution”

32
 LEE vs GRANT

At the Battle of Chancellorsville, Confederate

infantry of Dole’s Georgia Brigade advance on
Union General Hooker’s flank

33
LEE vs GRANT

Not least among these officers was Lee hurled the Union Army of Virginia under General be a long time in coming, the president had
himself, who had been serving as Confederate John Pope back towards Washington. reframed the conflict into one in which the
President Jefferson Davis’s military adviser Lee next took the Army of Northern Virginia Union now had moral superiority over the slave-
since early 1862. His future opponent into Union territory. On 17 September, he holding states of the rebellious Confederacy.
commanding the Army of the Potomac, Major fought McClellan to a standstill at Antietam, It helped Lee that his opponents were
General George B McClellan, was an able Maryland, where both sides took horrendous not of his calibre. He humiliated Burnside
trainer of soldiers but was also extremely casualties in the civil war’s bloodiest single day. at Fredericksburg on 13 December, and
cautious and lacked vigour in the field. Davis President Lincoln became so disgusted with then devastated Hooker’s gigantic army at
placed Lee in command of the Army of Northern McClellan’s dithering failure to pursue Lee after Chancellorsville in May 1863. However, his
Virginia on 1 June 1862, after its previous the battle that he removed him from command valiant soldiers of the Army of Northern Virginia
commander, General Joseph Johnston, had in November 1862 and replaced him with Major were also suffering heavy casualties. This
been wounded in battle. General Ambrose Burnside. was a consequence of Lee’s offensive spirit,
Few appointments to command have been of Lee retreated back to Virginia, but though always seeking to attack, but it cost his army
more importance. Though greatly outnumbered he had badly bloodied the Federals, Lincoln dearly. While it would be far wrong to call Lee
by McClellan, Lee attacked him again and also got something he had long been waiting a butcher, the Army of Northern Virginia took
again, and in what became known as the for: Antietam had been a victory, at least of more than 10,000 casualties at Antietam,
Seven Days Battles in June-July 1862, drove a sort, and Lincoln issued the Emancipation 5,300 casualties at Fredericksburg, and more
the larger Army of the Potomac away from the Proclamation, which declared that all slaves than 13,000 casualties at Chancellorsville –
Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia. At in rebel territory were now free. Though real losses it could ill afford.
the Second Battle of Bull Run on 30 August, he freedom for the slaves of the South would
Lee at Gettysburg
“In Grant, Lincoln had finally found a While Lee’s tactical acumen and battlefield
sangfroid have been rightly praised, his

general he could rely upon” strategic vision has occasioned a more

nuanced view, and even brought him criticism.

LEE AND GRANT’S KEY BATTLES

As the conflict raged on, the generals traded victories in spectacular style
The generalship of Lee and Grant featured attacking. In battle, Grant was always able to years of the war, Lee had the advantage of generally
detailed planning as well as an ability to react to remain calm, and this reassured his officers. more capable subordinates, especially Stonewall
unforeseen opportunities on the battlefield. Both “The chief characteristic in your nature,” William Jackson. This would have meant nothing, however,
were forceful commanders who were unafraid to T Sherman wrote to him, “is the simple faith in had Lee been unwilling to listen to them and accept
take heavy casualties to win battles. Grant was success you have always manifested… you go into their advice. It was Jackson who came up with a
often called a ‘butcher’ because of the costly battle without hesitation… no doubts, no reserve… dangerous yet daring plan to strike a hammer blow
battles that he fought, but unlike many other this made us act with confidence.” against Federal troops at Chancellorsville. Lee let
Union generals, he was never afraid to give battle. If anything, Lee was even more aggressive than him execute it and the result was devastating to the
Whereas most Federal commanders would fight Grant, perhaps because with his small army he enemy. But Lee’s offensive instinct could hurt his
and then retire some distance to let their soldiers could not afford to rely upon superior numbers or own army too, since even in victory his battles were
recover, Grant would not retreat, but keep on attrition to win a battle. Also, at least in the early always bloody affairs for his troops.

CHANCELLORSVILLE: LEE’S MASTERPIECE

The Chancellorsville
campaign had
begun with much
confidence, at least on
03 Jackson’s 30,000 men meet with little
opposition as they make their way
04 In quick succession, Union regiments
break and flee as the rebels charge
from west to east. First, one Federal division and
around the Union flank, and burst upon the then the one next to it vanish as the men run for
the part of Union General
Federal ranks like a thunderbolt. Jackson finds their lives. By 7pm, darkness is falling, and in
Joseph Hooker. With a vast
Hooker’s right flank open to attack, and at just two hours, Jackson has vaporised the Union
preponderance in men and 5pm, he strikes them at an angle perpendicular
material, in late April 1863 Hooker’s right and inflicted some 2,400 casualties. Within
to the end of the Union trenches. a few days, Hooker will retreat back north across
Army of the Potomac moved south
across the Rappahannock River. the Rappahannock.
Hooker did this to force Lee, who was
in an entrenched position along the
river just south of Fredericksburg,
into the open where the much larger
Union army of 120,000 would crush
Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia,
which was just half the size.

01 Instead of attacking Lee, Hooker sets

his men to digging in around the town
of Chancellorsville. General Jeb Stuart’s
cavalry brings word to Lee that Hooker’s
right-wing entrenchments are utterly
exposed. Jackson wants to swing around left
and crush them by a flank attack that will
02 This plan would take Jackson’s 30,000 men on a 12-mile day-long end run around
the Union flank, and leave Lee dangerously weak with only two divisions – just
14,000 men – to repel the 90,000 Federals now to their fore, if they decided to leave their
shatter the vulnerable Yankee line. trenches and attack. On 2 May, Lee gives Jackson the order to go ahead with his plan.

34
 LEE vs GRANT

Lee tended to fight battles in a very aggressive

manner, meaning he often incurred severe
casualties even when winning. These were
losses that could not be made good with the
same speed as the more populous North could
with its own.
It was Lee’s decision to invade Pennsylvania,
a Northern state, that led to the Battle of
Gettysburg, in which the Army of Northern
Virginia took on a much larger and improved
Army of the Potomac. His boldness saw him
fight a three-day battle from 1-3 July 1863, in
which his troops were ground down by Federal
soldiers. The action culminated on 3 July with
Pickett’s Charge, which failed and resulted only
in the destruction of Lee’s last fresh division,
which took some 7,000 casualties.
“It is all my fault,” Lee said to his exhausted
troops after the failure of Pickett’s Charge.
Lee had lost one third of his army of 75,000,
some 28,000 men, in just three days. Union

Right: In this painting titled ‘First at Vicksburg’, the Union

1st Battalion, 13th Infantry, can be seen planting its
colours on Confederate positions

THE FALL OF VICKSBURG: GRANT ON THE MISSISSIPPI

In the west in early 1863, Grant, commander of the Army high bluff overlooking the river. Grant would have to get
of the Tennessee, had been stymied for months in his to terrain more suited to offensive operations against the
attempts to take the city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. It was city, but these could only be found to the south and east,
strongly fortified and commanded the river from atop a on the other side of the Mississippi.

01 Grant’s plan was to forego attacking from the

north, and instead move his army 400 miles
south, cross the mile-wide river from west to east,
04 The Federal noose grows ever tighter around the 20,000 rebel
troops in Vicksburg, as Confederate relief efforts over the next
few weeks come to naught. Starving, Vicksburg surrenders itself to
and strike at Vicksburg from the rear. To distract Grant on 4 July. With the fall of Vicksburg, the Union now controls the
the Confederates from his all-important crossing length of the Mississippi, and the rebellion in the western Confederate
at Grand Gulf, Grant would execute three separate states has been dealt a death blow.
feints to keep the enemy guessing.

02 At Grand Bluff, the US Navy’s

supporting river gunboats lose
their shootout with rebel shore batteries,
but the flexible Grant instead finds another
crossing place at Bruinsburg. By the
morning of 30 April, he has 23,000 Federal
troops on the east bank of the river.
03 Grant’s widely separated corps
under Generals William T
Sherman, John McClernand and James
McPherson each cross over the river and
converge upon Vicksburg. On 22 May,
Grant’s 40,000 men try to carry the city
by a speedy assault, but this is repulsed
with heavy Union losses, so Grant settles
in for a siege.

35
LEE vs GRANT

General George G Meade’s 90,000-man Army Grant in command

of the Potomac had held better and more In Grant, Lincoln had finally
defensible terrain from the beginning, and the found a general he could
A President Grant election
overly aggressive Lee obliged him by attacking rely upon to take the fight to campaign hat from 1872
into the teeth of Federal guns. His subordinate the enemy. “I can’t spare this
officers had urged him not to attack, but Lee man,” Lincoln had once said
would hear none of their caution. “The enemy of Grant, “he fights.” In March
is there,” he said, right before ordering Pickett 1864, Grant was promoted to the
into the attack on the third day, “and I am going resuscitated rank of lieutenant
to strike him.” general and made commander
Despite hurling his men at the Federal of all Union armies, comprising
position, bluecoat losses in the battle were, some 550,000 men. It was
uncharacteristically, lighter than Lee’s, just now his mission to take all of
25,000. The needless invasion of Pennsylvania the manpower and material
had accomplished nothing except the death advantages that the North had
of thousands of Lee’s and Meade’s soldiers, and use them to destroy the
and victory for the South was further away than Confederacy. He was unafraid
ever. Lee may have missed the assistance of to give battle, knowing that the
Stonewall Jackson, but had Jackson survived key to victory was defeating
long enough to have taken part at Gettysburg, Confederate armies, whose
he was just one man, and he and Lee could not losses could
overcome the insuperable advantages held by not be easily
the North in men and resources. replaced.

“Grant had effectively

pinned Lee down, and
through constant attrition,
the small Confederate Army
of Northern Virginia was
whittled away”

TRUSTED LIEUTENANTS
The men who made their leaders great
Both Grant and Lee would have the benefit in acumen was unsurpassed on either side of the
wartime of extremely able subordinates. For war. Like Lee, Jackson was a Virginian, born in
Grant, this was William Tecumseh Sherman, Clarksburg in 1824. His parents died while he was
a fellow classmate at West Point military still young, and he was raised by an uncle. The
academy. Like Grant, Sherman had resigned military life appealed to him, and he was admitted
from army service to pursue a civilian career, in to West Point's class of 1846.
banking, with mixed results. He saw service during the Mexican-American
The ill-tempered Sherman's early civil war War as an artillery officer and his performance
career was less than splendid. He was aghast was so exemplary that he was rapidly promoted
at the problems he encountered with inept, from brevet lieutenant to brevet major. In 1851,
ill-trained volunteers and overly inquisitive he resigned from the army and took a teaching
reporters. The press made him appear to be position at the Virginia Military Institute, where he
mentally deranged, and he was relieved of taught philosophy, optics and artillery tactics. He
command. He later found himself back in was still teaching there when war came.
the war leading a division under the overall Jackson was personally opposed to secession,
command of Grant at Shiloh in April 1862. and though he owned six slaves, was not pro-slavery
Grant and Sherman would thereafter form a in any meaningful sense. Nevertheless, he followed
partnership of war and take Vicksburg on the his home state of Virginia out of the Union and into
Mississippi the next year. war, when it came. Jackson and the First Virginia
The bond between Sherman and Grant was Brigade he commanded at First Bull Run in July
unshakable. Forged in the trying times in the 1861 both earned the moniker ‘Stonewall’ for their
beginning of the war that both men experienced, stalwart defence against a furious Federal assault.
they were the closest of comrades. “He stood by
me when I was crazy,” Sherman would say in jest, Top right: Union General William Sherman succeeded
“and I stood by him when he was drunk; and now, Grant as the Union commander in the western theatre
of the war in 1864
sir, we stand by each other always.”
Right: Confederate General Stonewall Jackson was
Lee was blessed with the aid of Thomas responsible for the envelopment of Union forces at the
‘Stonewall’ Jackson, a general whose military Battle of Chancellorsville

36
 LEE vs GRANT

So he would make the rebels bleed, even

THE BALANCE OF POWER,

though it cost his own troops terribly too. The
Federal armies under Grant’s command took
stunningly heavy casualties in the Wilderness,

NORTH AND SOUTH

at Spotsylvania Court House, North Anna and
Cold Harbor in May-June 1864, but so did the
Army of Northern Virginia. The defeat of the
Confederacy required the death of its armies,
which were still skilled and potent.
The genius of generals alone wasn’t enough for victory
Grant’s willingness to fight helped him past The North had tremendous latent advantages over the South.
what might have sunk his hopes of retaining his It had far more people, and thus could both put more soldiers
command early in the war. He had a drinking into the field and replace losses more easily. The Union also
problem of uncertain severity, with much possessed three times as much railway track as the South. Its
depending upon the observer. Sherman was industrial development far surpassed that of the South, which
well aware of Grant’s penchant for alcohol, had retained a largely agrarian economy. The North could make
as were many others, but believed that it most of its own muskets and cannons, for example, and could
did not hinder Grant. Though Grant “would buy arms from Europe to make up any shortfall. The US Navy’s
occasionally drink too much,” Sherman wrote, naval blockade of Southern ports would choke off almost all
“when anything was pending, he was invariably Confederate imports except for a handful of blockade runners
abstinent of drink.” President Lincoln is said of negligible significance.
to have wished to send a barrel of the same Diplomatically, the support and recognition that the
whiskey imbibed by Grant to his other generals Southern states expected from Europe, especially Britain,
to get them to fight as hard. never materialised. This was mainly because of the Southern
over-estimation of the importance of cotton. Many Southerners
The beginning of the end had thought that when the supply of cotton from the South was
of the rebellion disrupted by war, the shortage would cause the British to bring
In June 1864, Petersburg, Virginia – a vital about a negotiated settlement that resulted in the recognition
rail junction through which the bulk of the of the Confederacy’s independence. Instead, British importers
Confederacy’s capital of Richmond’s supplies found other sources for cotton, and the South was left without
moved – was besieged by Grant. If the city was allies or significant diplomatic support.
to be captured, Lee would have to either fight
Grant in open country or allow Richmond to Right: The tactically inconclusive Battle of Spotsylvania
fall to Union forces. The Army of the Potomac Court House saw 32,000 Union and Confederate casualties

Below: Men collect the dead after the Battle of Gettysburg

37
LEE vs GRANT

tried and failed to take Petersburg by storm,

and then settled down into a formal siege “As Lee departed after the proceedings
with trenches dug all around it. Though the
bloody siege would last for months, Grant were concluded, Grant and the other
had effectively pinned Lee down, and through
constant attrition, the small Confederate Army Union officers present raised their
of Northern Virginia was whittled away.
Meanwhile, in the west, Sherman was hard at
work driving the rebel army of General Joseph
hats in salute”
Johnston out of Tennessee and into Georgia, Back at Petersburg, the siege ground on, in Manassas had been fought over at the
where he took Atlanta. The 62,000-strong consuming more and more men like coals in war’s beginning back in April 1861 during the
Army of the Tennessee then began its great a furnace. By early April 1865, Lee’s position First Battle of Bull Run. The major had taken
march through Georgia and the Carolinas in the in the city was untenable, and on 1 April, his family to Appomattox, where he thought
middle of November 1864. Rebel armies could he withdrew his troops, and warned the they could avoid rest of the war. Now, in April
always retreat away from him, and destroying Confederate government in Richmond that he 1865, it was ending in his home. Arriving first,
them was next to impossible, so Sherman could no longer protect the capital. On 2 April, Lee, perfectly attired, as was his custom,
had to destroy the South’s ability, and even Grant mounted an attack on the weakened rode up on his horse, Traveller, to the McLean
willingness, to make war. Having already taken rebel defence works, and his 60,000 men house where he would meet Grant. Arriving
Atlanta, he forgot about his supply lines and rolled over the mere 20,000 left behind by Lee. afterwards, Grant, by contrast, was dressed
started out into untouched Georgia countryside, Petersburg fell that same day, and Richmond very simply, and was not even wearing a sword.
where his men would live off the land. Along was in Grant’s hands by the next. The matter of Sat in the parlour, they talked a bit about their
a broad swathe of territory 60 miles wide, most importance to Grant now was defeating experiences in Mexico, decades before, and
bluecoats burned farms and crops, ripped up Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia, which was in then at Lee’s prompting, got down to business.
railway tracks, and caused all sorts of havoc the open and vulnerable. Lee understood better Grant’s terms were that Lee’s surrendered
among an outraged but impotent Southern than anyone else just how badly his ill-fed and officers and men should be released on parole,
public. Lee, still beset by Grant at Petersburg, poorly clad men had suffered, and that his never to fight again until exchanged (which
could do nothing to help. army was surrounded by Union troops. The end would never happen as the war was over) and
After a movement of some 250 miles, of the Army of Northern Virginia was at hand. that the rebels’ weapons would be turned over
Sherman’s men arrived at Savannah, on the to Federal forces. Lee agreed, and their terms
Atlantic coast, on 21 December. Georgia was Appomattox Court House were put in writing. As Lee departed after the
a ruin, and out of the war. From Savannah, On 9 April 1865, after an exchange of proceedings were concluded, Grant and the
Sherman’s men continued on through the messages, Grant and Lee met at the McLean other Union officers present raised their hats in
Carolinas, burning as they marched. This was house in Appomattox Court House to formalise salute. Lee did likewise, and rode back to his
‘total war’. The South could not withstand much the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia. army. Lee’s war was over, and soon the civil war
more of the same. In a grand irony, Major Wilmer McLean’s farm would be at an end too.

A Union regimental fife and drum corps

38
 Great Battles
WORDS JACK GRIFFITHS

AFTER A LONG TRUCE, HENRY V’S MEN TOOK UP THEIR LONGBOWS AND SET
SAIL FOR FRANCE. THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR WAS ABOUT TO REIGNITE

PAS-DE-CALAIS, FRANCE, 25 OCTOBER 1415

600 th
ANNIVERSARY

B
y the summer of 1415, France
had regained the majority of its
land from Edward III’s conquests.
Aquitaine and Calais were still held
by the English, but the cross-channel
invaders had been almost completely
driven out of Normandy and Flanders.
Back in England, Henry V had been sat
on the throne for two years. In that time
he had become intent on reclaiming
vast swathes of France for himself.
Taking his claim from his great-
grandfather Edward, Henry initially
offered the French 1.6 million Crowns
to recognise English rule and ordered
payment for the body of French King John
II, who was captured at the Battle of
Poitiers in 1356. Negotiations of these
harsh terms predictably fell through, so
Henry turned to military action.
As well as his burning desire for
conquest, the warrior king had the ideal
conditions for a successful invasion.
Despite a recent plot to overthrow his
rule, he had noble support, broadly there
was domestic peace and, perhaps most
importantly, unrest on the continent.
King of France Charles VI was prone
to bouts of insanity, hand in 1407, his
troubled reign had led to the formation
of rival factions in the Valois royal family.
Louis, the duke of Orléans and brother
of the king, had been murdered in Paris
by the Burgundians, and civil war wasn’t
far away. France, after vanquishing the
English in 1389, had descended into
chaos. Henry was ready to strike.

40
 AGINCOURT

“AS WELL AS HIS BURNING DESIRE FOR

CONQUEST, THE WARRIOR KING HAD THE IDEAL
CONDITIONS FOR A SUCCESSFUL INVASION”
THE BATTLE OF AGINCOURT BY GRAHAM TURNER
FOR MORE OF GRAHAM’S FANTASTIC ARTWORK, VISIT WWW.STUDIO88.CO.UK

41
GREAT BATTLES

Even though the rules of chivalry stated

that no battlefield should favour either
side, the location of Agincourt clearly
held an advantage for the English

42
 AGINCOURT

The invasion begins and put into the field of battle. Although he was

OPPOSING
Setting off from Southampton, Henry was instrumental in assembling the soldiers, the
convinced that he could unite the thrones of king would not take to the battlefield, and in his

FORCES
England and France – he fervently believed that absence, Marshal Boucicault and Constable
English ownership of the French crown was a d’Albret would lead the French forces. The main
birthright and God’s will. He landed in Normandy French army was situated in nearby Rouen, but
on 14 August with 8,000 archers and 2,000 men- only watched as Henry marched uncontested
at-arms, who were contracted for 12 months’ towards Calais. His army was so large that no
service. On arrival, Henry stepped onto shore first town or village dared oppose him, and he had no
and fell to his knees, praying to God to give him need to pillage as almost every town offered food
strength against his enemies. to the king for his soldiers and horses.
The English army’s plan began with a siege D’Albret and his men were intent on engaging
of the nearby town of Harfleur, which had been the English near to their own strongholds at
an important centre of operations for raids on Abbeville and Amiens. The scene of Edward III’s
ENGLISH FRENCH
LEADER LEADER
the English coast. The invasion started with emphatic victory at Crécy was near here, so the Henry V Charles I of Albret
a stumble. The siege took much longer than French were keen to get revenge on the same FORCES FORCES
expected, and the French commune put up piece of land 69 years after their defeat. However, Approximately 500 – Estimates range from 12-
fierce resistance for more than a month. When this idea didn’t go to plan, and instead the French 1,000 men-at-arms and 30,000 men-at-arms and
Harfleur finally surrendered on 22 September, cut off the English at the Somme. 7,000 archers knights, accompanied by
campaigning season was almost over. The plans When Henry made it to the river estuary, there GAME CHANGERS crossbowmen and artillery
to take Paris and Bordeaux were put on hold as was no sign of Bardolph, and to his surprise, the The power and fire rate GAME CHANGERS
the English sought to take refuge in Calais for French had barricaded the main crossing. Henry of the English longbow Overwhelming numbers of
the winter. Leaving their artillery, 1,200 men and had to divert to another bridge, stretching both had been upgraded men-at-arms and knights
most of their baggage train behind as a garrison, his resources and the resolve of his men. After since the days of Crécy could smash the English
they marched 160 kilometres (100 miles) finally crossing the river, they were met by the and was wielded by lines while being protected
north towards Calais. Before setting off, Henry French 48 kilometres (30 miles) from Calais. Two skilled English and from arrows by tough
contacted the governor of Calais, Sir William days’ march from safety and not far from the Welsh archers plate armour
Bardolph, asking him to safeguard his chosen heavily fortified French town of Hesdin, appeals
crossing point of the River Somme, the same
point that Edward III had traversed in 1346.
The French had been tracking the English since “ON ARRIVAL, HENRY STEPPED ONTO
the fall of Harfleur, and Charles had summoned
knights from every part of his kingdom to engage SHORE FIRST AND FELL TO HIS KNEES,
Henry’s military. Letters were sent to every
noble in the realm as the king amassed a huge PRAYING TO GOD TO GIVE HIM
army to fight off the invaders. All weapons and
cannons were removed from town defence duties STRENGTH AGAINST HIS ENEMIES”

HENRY’S ROUTE
TO CALAIS DOVER
(29 OCT)
CALAIS
SOUTHAMPTON

AGINCOURT (25 OCT)

EU
(8 OCT) AMIENS
FECAMP
CHERBOURG (14 OCT)

NESLE
(18 OCT)

HARFLEUR
(17 AUG – 10 OCT)
PARIS

43
GREAT BATTLES

for a safe passage to Calais were refused. As the

huge French army spilled over the horizon, there
was now no way to avoid a pitched battle, and the
Great Battles

BATTLE25OFOCTOBER
AGINCOURT
chosen location was a forest between the villages
of Tramecourt and Agincourt.

Amassing on the ridge

The exhausted and disease-ridden English army
had marched for 17 days and was in no condition
to fight. After having lived off nuts, raw vegetables
and contaminated drinking water for days, the
morale in the English camp on the eve of the
battle was low. In contrast, the French camp was
1415
vibrant. New soldiers were arriving by the hour
and they stayed up gambling and drinking, certain 01 The armies assemble
The two forces face each other
across a narrow forest clearing. The
of victory the next day. So confident were some of
the soldiers that they had even fashioned a cart huge French army is organised into three
especially for Henry’s dead body to ride through divisions with both knights and men-
the streets of Paris upon victory. at-arms. The English army has much
A cold and wet morning broke the next fewer men, and its hopes hinge on the
effectiveness of the longbowmen.
02
day. Winter was on its way and the freshly Insult before injury
ploughed ground below the soldiers’ feet Men from either side
resembled a mudpit after heavy overnight rain. goad each other across the
The longbowmen took up their positions just recently ploughed fields. Both
before dawn on slight ridges overlooking both Henry and d’Albret are reluctant
sides of the battlefield as well as interspersing to take the initiative. The French
themselves in the core of the infantry. want to starve the English out
Although this was an English army, many of the while Henry knows that his
longbowmen were Welsh. The longbow was first strengths lie in a tight proximity.
used in great numbers in Wales and some of the
finest archers in the entire army came from there.
The archers were joined by 500 men-at-arms
who stood nervously in rank and file. Many of
them were ordinary men, not seasoned veterans
of battle, and they watched on as the French
amassed opposite them with about six times as
many men in their ranks.
King Henry, in crown and plumed bascinet,
constantly encouraged his men and would fight
shoulder to shoulder with them as he took
charge of the centre, with Sir Thomas Erpingham 04 French cavalry rush
After failing to attack the
longbowmen when they were exposed
manning the right and Lord Camoys leading the
left. Thick forest enclosed both armies into a while on the move, the French finally
unleash their feared cavalry charge. The
confined space of about 900 metres (2,950 feet)
knights are followed closely by unmounted
wide but the French were sure that there was
infantry as they near Henry’s ranks.
still room for their cavalry to flank and ultimately
encircle the English, striking the deadly archers
from all directions. Their army was divided into
three lines: the vanguard, the main body and
the rearguard. One was mounted and two were
on foot, with d’Albret and Boucicault leading the
vanguard with the dukes of Bourbon and Orléans.
The French knew the threat the longbowmen
03 The English advance
The French attack is not
forthcoming, so Henry is forced to
posed and had upgraded their armour since the move. He orders his longbowmen
days of Crécy. They now wore thick steel plates forward and they take up a position
in range of the French lines. Guarded
“THE LINES WERE by wooden stakes, they begin
pummelling the French with arrows.
SUCH A MESS
THAT FALLEN
TROOPS WERE
CRUSHED DOWN 07 Attack on the baggage train
As the English take command, the

INTO THE MUD, French dispatch a secondary force. The

attack focuses on the English baggage

UNABLE TO RISE train and initially catches Henry off guard.

An angered Henry slaughters the French

UP AGAIN DUE TO prisoners and the attack comes to nothing

as the French begin to flee.

EXHAUSTION”
44
 AGINCOURT

Ed Crooks
08 English victory
Scattered and leaderless, the
French army is a spent force. They flee
as the English ransack the French camp.
Henry claims a victory that reinvigorates 06 The heat of battle
The crazed horses unsaddle their
riders and crash into the French infantry.
the English cause in France. The
Lancastrian phase of the war begins. The English line buckles, but in close
quarters, numbers mean nothing. The
archers drop their bows and slash at the
French with swords and axes.

05 A hail of arrows
The charge is miscalculated and
reduces to walking pace as the horses get
stuck in the muddy battlefield. They are
now sitting ducks for the longbowmen,
who fire rapidly at the French as the
charge turns into a disorganised frenzy.

45
GREAT BATTLES

THE LONGBOWMAN DRAWN FROM BOTH

ENGLAND AND WALES,
LONGBOWMEN WERE THE
BACKBONE OF HENRY’S ARMY
THE LONGBOW
Made out of yew, ash, oak or birch, the longbow originated
in Wales. By the time of Agincourt, it was one of the most
feared weapons on the Medieval battlefield.
ARROWS
Many different types
of arrowhead could be
used with a longbow.
The simplest was the
bodkin point, and the
majority of arrows ARMOUR
could penetrate even Unlike the men-at-arms, the longbowmen had very
the very toughest little armour except for a boiled leather jacket and
plate armour. occasionally a helmet. The tactics of an archer were
based around being nimble and light-footed.

SECONDARY THE
WEAPONS
When engaged in close- AGINCOURT
CAROL
quarters combat, the
longbowmen would drop
their bows and fight with
swords, axes and clubs. This Deo gracias anglia
was a last resort as archers redde pro victoria.
worked best at a distance. Our kyng went forth to Normandy
Wyth grace and myth of chyvalry
Þer God for hym wrouth mervelowsly
Qwerfore ynglond may cal and cry deo gracias.
Right: Due to their limited
armour, longbowmen were often
Deo gracias anglia
positioned behind barricades or redde pro victoria.
interspersed among troops with He set a sege for sothe to say
superior protection To harflu toune wyth ryal a ray
Þat toune he wan and mad a fray
Þat fraunse xal rewe tyl domysday deo gracias.
Deo gracias anglia
TRAINING redde pro victoria.
The longbow would be Than went hym forth owr kyng comely
nothing if it wasn’t in the In achyncourt feld he fauth manly
hands of a trained archer. All Thorw grace of god most mervelowsly
sports except archery were He had both feld and vyctory deo gracias.
banned on Sundays and the Deo gracias anglia
most talented were drawn redde pro victoria.
into the English Army. Ther lordys eerlys and baroune
Were slayn and takyn and þat ful soun
And summe were browth in to londoune
Wyth ioye and blysse and greth renoune
deo gracias.
Deo gracias anglia
redde pro victoria.
Almythy god he kepe our kyng
TACTICS Hys pepyl and al hys weel welyng
Longbowmen were vulnerable to cavalry so would And 3eve hem grace withoutyn endyng
attack from range and flank the enemy. Each Þan may we calle and savely syng
archer carried 60-70 arrows each, enabling up to deo gracias.
about six minutes of continuous fire. Deo gracias anglia
redde pro victoria.

46
 AGINCOURT

with visor helmets. Each knight had a coat of

arms proudly emblazoned on his shield, and “THE LONGBOWMEN IN THE
the French battle standard, the Oriflamme, flew
on flags above them. In response, the English CENTRE HAMMERED STAKES INTO
soldiers carried a bow that was much more
powerful than the one employed during the THE GROUND, FORTIFYING THEIR
conquests of Edward III. Two-handed swords
were wielded by the higher classes of infantry on
POSITION IN A TACTIC LEARNED FROM
both sides, but the majority carried one-handed
swords or lances and even blunt weapons like
PREVIOUS CONFLICTS IN THE WAR”
maces, hammers and clubs. Unfortunately for the French, their king, Charles that got even remotely close were impaled on the
VI, was still in Paris, unable to lead his army due stakes, and any that turned back crashed into
Henry makes his move to his failing mental health. Back at Agincourt, the oncoming men-at-arms, blunting the attack.
Both sides spat insults at each other, as several units of archers had secretly tracked With the battleground now even more churned
commanders became reluctant to make the first through the forest surrounding the battlefield and up by the horses’ hooves, the foot troops moved
move. The French were unwilling to advance, as into the nearby village of Tramecourt, creating forward painfully slowly. The area was so narrow
Boucicault in particular knew the English would another angle of attack for the English. Continuing that the French crossbowmen and artillery could
starve if they went much longer without food. undeterred, the longbowmen in the centre not support their now-isolated foot soldiers, as a
Henry was all too aware of this and finally rolled hammered stakes into the ground, fortifying wall of arrows struck the exhausted infantry.
the dice as he ordered his longbowmen forward. their position in a tactic learned from previous The French attack had just enough momentum
Kneeling and kissing the ground, the archers conflicts in the war. At 11am, on the king’s order, to reach the enemy ranks, and at first the
advanced until they were about 238 metres the archers opened fire. In response, the French English line began to buckle under the strain.
(750 feet) from the enemy lines. A trained archer cavalry charged, followed by men-at-arms. Knowing that leaving the narrow battlefield would
could penetrate armour and kill or wound a target The longbowmen first shot galling arrows to result in annihilation, the English rallied as the
from up to 220 metres (721 feet) away. The purposely wound and disorientate the French longbowmen dropped their bows and took up
French had already made their first error by not ranks before switching to standard bodkin-point swords and axes. The French men-at-arms were
attacking the archers when they broke ranks and arrowheads. The combination of the narrow, protected by thick plate armour, but the nimble
moved forward. D’Albert and Boucicault were muddy battlefield and the severely undermanned archers had purposely shortened their swords
experienced soldiers but lacked the authority and charge saw the French knights slaughtered by and lances, and would slash at any unprotected
respect that a king like Henry would receive from the hail of English arrows, as their frightened and area, while the huge amount of French troops
his men. injured horses became uncontrollable. Any horses struggled to swing their powerful broadswords

In the French ranks, nobles jostled for space so

they could have their coat of arms displayed at
the battle. The result was a chaotic mess

47
GREAT BATTLES

effectively. The lines were such a mess that

fallen troops were crushed down into the mud,
unable to rise up again due to exhaustion and the
“THE ENGLISH MEN-AT-ARMS REFUSED
50-kilogram (110-pound) weight of the armour. AS IT CLASHED WITH THEIR CHIVALRIC
Any Frenchman who fell drowned in the mud as
his fellow soldiers trampled over him. CODE, SO THE ARCHERS TOOK ON THE
Within 30 minutes of fighting, two of the three
French lines had been completely destroyed. The JOB, KILLING THEM IN COLD BLOOD”
duke of Alençon lay dead in the mud as did the
French commander d’Albret. On the English side, On the frontline, a 600-man counterattack led French military had been broken on the field.
the dukes of York and Suffolk had been killed, by the Counts of Marle and Fauquemberghes had Harfleur was now an English-controlled town and
but Henry was still alive and so was his brother, been a disaster. This setback was the final straw, would be an effective launching pad for Henry’s
the Duke of Gloucester, who Henry had defended and the remaining French line withdrew. 8,000 second invasion of Normandy in 1417. Burgundy,
valiantly in the heat of battle. French (including one third of the nobility present meanwhile, still refused to strike a deal with
at the battle) had been killed while the English the House of Valois, as the French kingdom’s
Failed encirclement dead only numbered in the low hundreds. Against enemies began to stack up.
Having witnessed the carnage, the decision was all the odds, the English had won the battle. Despite the gains, Henry sailed back to
made for Isambart d’Agincourt and Robert de England after his nobles voiced fears over
Bournonville, men with local knowledge, to target Aftermath the possibility of a costly winter campaign.
the rear of Henry’s army. It was here that French Ecstatic after their victory, the English broke into He returned to a hero’s welcome, and after a
prisoners the English had captured during their song, chanting early versions of the Agincourt few more years of successful campaigning,
invasion were located. A small force of peasant Carol and other traditional celebratory tunes. The would draw up the Treaty of Troyes in 1420,
fighters and knights quickly overwhelmed the series of French mistakes had proved fatal and recognising him as regent and heir to the French
limited English defenders and plundered the the location of the battle had essentially forfeited throne. The failures of Agincourt had made the
English camp, taking horses and even a royal their numerical advantage. If the full strength of French hesitant to fight pitched battles, which
crown in the process. the French cavalry had charged at the English, contributed to English victories at the 1416 Battle
Enraged, and also concerned at the possibility even the skilled longbowmen, who could fire up to of the Seine and the 1418 siege at Rouen.
of a mass French counterattack, Henry ordered six arrows a minute, and the courage of the men- Henry’s French conquests were successful,
the killing of all his prisoners except only the at-arms wouldn’t have been able to hold them off. but the strain on his kingdom’s finances was
highest-ranking nobles. The English men-at-arms Henry’s army sacked the French camp and beginning to tell and would eventually signal
refused, as this would clash with their chivalric stripped the dead of everything of worth as the beginning of the end for the Lancastrian
code, so the archers took on the job, killing them soldiers fled in all directions. That night, the king monarchy in his later years.
in cold blood. There were more prisoners than held a banquet in nearby Maisoncelles, which was The king died in 1422, meaning he never
men in the whole English army, so this knee-jerk served by captured and now-humiliated French officially became the king of France. After his
reaction was effective in nullifying any possibility knights. After the emotion of the victory had sudden death, English fortunes on the continent
of an uprising but severely lessened the died down, the weary men were unable to march took a turn for the worse, and when the Wars of
opportunities for ransom after the battle. on Paris, voicing concerns over a lack of siege the Roses broke out in England, the control of
weapons, and they withdrew back to the safety France slipped from the new teenage king Henry
Below: Unlike many of their counterparts, English men-at-
arms and knights fought on foot
of Calais on 29 October. Despite the unlikely VI. The famous victory at Agincourt was now in
Below, right: It is thought that Henry ordered a service of victory at Agincourt, minimal territory had been the past and the era of Joan of Arc and the return
thanksgiving on the battlefield after the English victory gained and Charles VI was still in power, but the of French military power was at hand.

48
 AGINCOURT

ROYAL STRATEGY
DR MATTHEW BENNETT DISCUSSES THE KING’S
COMMAND AND THE FRENCH HESITATION

D
r Matthew Bennett recently retired How did the long siege of Harfleur affect
after a full career as senior lecturer Henry’s objectives and plans?
at The Royal Military Academy The 12,000-strong English army landed in mid
Sandhurst. He is a Medieval military historian August and a month-long siege ensued. The
and contributed the battle account in the garrison was a bare 300 men, but the town of
catalogue for the Agincourt 600 exhibition Harfleur was well fortified by walls and 24 towers,
at the Tower of London. His publications together with ditches and a moat on the seaward
include Agincourt: Triumph Against The Odds side. Siege artillery, both gunpowder and traction,
(Osprey, 1991) and several specialist studies pounded the main gate, which was protected by Right: Dr
Matthew
of English archery tactics used in the Hundred a wooden bulwark. The unsanitary conditions of Bennett regularly
Years’ War. the siege lines caused an epidemic of dysentery, lectures about
which killed or incapacitated some 2,000 of the Medieval warfare
How did Henry V’s campaign plan in English, including its leaders. When Harfleur
1415 differ from Edward III’s Crécy finally surrendered on 18 September, it seemed Did Henry ever consider cutting
campaign in 1346? that Henry’s plans had suffered a serious check. his losses and turning back? Were there any
There is no doubt that Henry was inspired by mutinies or desertions?
the achievements of his great-grandfather. What should we make of the story that Henry The sources do not really provide an answer.
Edward had invaded Normandy via the originally intended to march south to Bordeaux In the light of the stunning victory at Agincourt,
Cherbourg peninsula, sacked Caen and and Guyenne, and what would have happened any dissension may have been written out
advanced to just north of Paris, challenging had he done so? of the record. The churchman who wrote an
the French king to battle. He then withdrew The English Crown also held lands in Aquitaine, eyewitness account of the campaign, The Deeds
northwards to Poitou where he was victorious so marching south would have emphasised the Of Henry V, does admit that the soldiers were
at Crécy. The following year he besieged the link with these ancient possessions. However, it often uncertain and frightened. However, the
bridgehead port of Calais. In contrast, Henry was late in the year for campaigning and it would king kept strict discipline, enforcing regulations
landed at Harfleur, in the mouth of the River have required significant logistical support. and hanging pillagers. Also, the risk of leaving
Seine, capturing it after a bitter siege and then Known as a chevauchée, such expeditions could the army and being at the mercy of the enraged
marched to Calais. have a symbolic effect, but in the latter years French peasantry was probably greater than
of Edward III’s reign, there had been several keeping together.
Was the planned expedition popular at court disastrous attempts of this nature. The French
and among the nobility? had learned not to confront English armies, but Why were the French, with a much larger army
Generally, the war against France, fought in to harry them and deny them provisions, so the and home advantage, so hesitant to engage
France, was desirable to the military aristocracy risk for Henry was too great. the English?
because it offered opportunities for glory, This is the key question. First, French strategy
plunder and lands. Richard II’s unpopular Why did Henry march on land to Calais rather remained non-confrontational. Second,
peace policy had been an important factor in than take a safer passage by sea? they hoped to wear the English down before
Henry Bolingbroke’s 1399 usurpation. Young This was indeed the question that Henry’s challenging battle. Third, it may be that they
Henry had proved his valour in his first battle at chief advisers asked the king! They feared that did not actually have a huge advantage. This is
Shrewsbury in 1403, aged only 16, where he the English army would be caught ‘like sheep certainly the argument of Professor Anne Curry
was wounded in the face by an arrow. As king, in fold’ as French forces combined against it. in her book Agincourt: A New History. Her study
Henry V won support from the nobility, but also The answer must be that Henry was making a of the English documentary records indicates
the financiers of the City of London, and its lord statement about his right to march wherever he that the army may have been 9,000 strong.
mayor, Richard Whittington, who recognised a wanted in a country he claimed that he had the In contrast, France was in the midst of a civil
good investment. right to rule. He may also have contemplated war, with a mad king and rival Burgundian and
winning a decisive action against the French, as Armagnac factions. Their commanders were
Edward had done 69 years earlier. bitterly divided and it may be that all their forces
did not come up to fight. They had a greater
Were there any skirmishes with the French number of fully armoured men-at-arms, but their
en route to Agincourt? If so, were any of botched battle plan meant that they failed to
them significant? utilise them effectively.
The French, who had not attempted to relive
Harfleur, merely shadowed the English line What sort of condition was the English army in
of march when the army set out. They on the eve of Agincourt?
relied on blocking the bridges and fords The English set out with a week’s rations, but
of the River Somme. Faced with this had been on the road for 16 days. They had
Images: Alamy; Getty; Thinkstock

obstacle, Henry was forced to lead his subsisted on nuts, berries and dirty water.
men south east, away from the direct Anne Curry points out that although no source
route to Calais, and the English supplies states that they were suffering from diarrhoea,
soon ran out. He did manage to cross it seems likely. The archers are described
near Péronne, which was a week’s as rolling down their hose (leg coverings) to
march from his destination, but the the knee. This strongly suggests that their
French still avoided combat. bowels were running. They may well have been
weakened, but they were both desperate and
Left: An English Henry V halfpenny on the front. Henry’s inspired by a charismatic leader, which was
campaign put a strain on the finances back in England enough to win the day.

49
FLIGHT OF HITLER’S CONDOR LEGION

“THE EUROPE OF THE 1930S,

DESPITE BEING EXHAUSTED
BY WORLD WAR I AND THE
GREAT DEPRESSION, WAS ALSO
FEROCIOUSLY IDEOLOGICAL, WITH
NUMEROUS REGIME CHANGES
AND EXPERIMENTAL POLITICS
SHAKING THE CONTINENT”

Soldiers of the Condor

Legion stand in front of
a He 111

50
FLIGHT HITLER’S OF

CONDOR LEGION
After quietly nurturing the rebirth of the German
military through ‘civilian’ organisations, in 1936 the
chance came to test the reformed Wehrmacht
WORDS ALEXANDER PURTO

O
n 17 July 1936, international with numerous regime changes and
attention was drawn to Spain experimental politics shaking the continent.
following a swift coup d’etat Europe was under the ‘spectre of communism’,
in Spanish Morocco and and a series of revolutions and leftist violence
Spain’s Overseas Territories throughout the continent prompted the rise
by the conservative, right- of nationalist Third-Position politics, such as
wing ‘Nationalist’ Forces of the military. The fascism and Nazism, in countries including
‘pronunciamiento’ quickly spread across Germany, Austria, Italy and Portugal.
continental Spain, with the rebels seizing In light of this clash of ideologies, the
Seville and several other small towns in the geological position of Spain made it a vital
south and north-west. This finally prompted the decider of the European conflict in the years
democratically elected republican government to come. The Soviet Union, which had signed
to distribute arms to sections of its multi- a treaty of mutual assistance with France in
ideological, leftist, civilian population. The 1935, sought to establish a ‘Red Bastion’ in
harsh polarisation of Spain between a leftist, the far west. Conversely, Adolf Hitler saw that
progressive, socialist republic and a right-wing, the installation of a right-wing government to
conservative, absolutist reaction quickly became the south of France would put pressure on the
representative of European attitudes at the time. radical left-wing French government and further
The Europe of the 1930s, despite being antagonise the ideological conflict between
exhausted by World War I and the Great the communists and ‘Croix de Feu’ fascists in
Depression, was also ferociously ideological, France at the time.

51
FLIGHT OF HITLER’S CONDOR LEGION

THE FIGHT FOR SPAIN

The Reich to the rescue
It was no surprise, then, that when General
Francisco Franco found himself stranded in
Morocco with an army comprising 35,000
religious zealots from the Spanish-Moroccan
17 JULY 1936 SAW THE SPANISH STATE VIOLENTLY FRACTURE IN TWO, AS EUROPEAN ‘Army of Africa’ and 30,000 defecting Spanish
HEADS OF STATE WATCHED WITH BAITED BREATH soldiers, he was quick to look to the Third Reich
Spain in the 20th century was a political powder keg. The progressive, left-leaning Popular Front, and a conservative, for help. The Spanish Republic had assembled
overthrowing of Queen Isabella II in 1868 and the abdication reactionary ‘Confederation’. The next six years were a naval blockade in the Strait of Gibraltar, and
of a potential successor in 1873 led to the proclamation characterised by street violence and discontent with the it didn’t seem possible to transport such an
of the First Spanish Republic. While the First Republic was ever-reshuffling, ever-antagonistic governments. Following overwhelming number of military personnel.
hampered by instability and soon collapsed in the Bourbon the 1936 election and widespread factional violence, Nevertheless, by 26 July, just six days after
Restoration of 1874, it did enable a whirlwind of new political the political powder keg finally exploded. The seizure of General Franco’s initial request for aid in the
concepts to take root in Spain. Spanish Morocco by a conservative, right-wing military transport of his army to the Iberian Peninsular,
The Restoration was greeted by an antagonised working on 17 July 1936 jump-started a conflict that would nine German Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft
class, and the following 53 years of political instability led quickly threaten to become an international crisis and landed in Tetouan, Morocco. An additional 11
to fears of a communist revolution against the monarchy, one that would demonstrate the ineptness of the Western Ju 52s were bundled into a support package
prompting the seizure of state power by the military under governments in the face of a pressing Nazi Germany. of 86 ‘volunteer’ military personnel, 16
Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923. When support for the Crucially, the war would allow Hitler to distract the experimental aircraft, 30 anti-aircraft guns and
new regime yet again dwindled, a Second Republic was world from his Central European plan, seize the resources 100 tons of military equipment and loaded onto
proclaimed on 12 April 1931. needed for the future of the German rearmament, test new the Usaramo, a German passenger ship bound
The Second Republic did not solve the political strife, warfare and innovations and establish a fascist ally to the for the Spanish port town of Cadiz.
but rather emphasised two distinct political factions – a south of a nervous and divided France. This initial package would be the beginnings
of what would evolve into the infamous Condor
Unión General de Trabajadores Legion. Its initial days would be shrouded in
(UGT) propaganda emphasising
the supposed foreign origins
the mystery of Operation Magic Fire/Guido –
of the enemy was prevalent on an attempt by Hitler to secure his interests
both sides of the conflict in Spain while avoiding the unnecessary
antagonism of Western states. The operation
was undertaken in the utmost secrecy, with the
state-run company Sociedad Hispano-Marroquí
de Transportes (HISMA – Spanish Moroccan
Transport Company) being established for the
sole purpose of providing a civilian facade to
the blatantly militaristic airlift operation.
Starting on 28 July, the nine Ju 52s
conducted up to five transport flights a day
between continental Spain and its Moroccan
possession. There was a sense of urgency in
the operation, with German pilots transporting
up to 40 fully equipped Nationalist troops
per journey, a quantity well above the
recommended quota of 17 persons.
Despite the operation of the Ju 52s well
beyond their functional capacity, there was only
one incident resulting in the loss of an aircraft.
On 15 August, a cargo-vacant Ju 52 crashed
in the municipality of Jerez de la Frontera
– the cause was presumed to be severe
engine deterioration and failure caused by the
continuous operation in the Northern African
environment. As such, extensive operation of
aircraft in such harsh environments provided
the Nazis with useful information that would
later be employed during the North African
Campaign in World War II.
With the arrival of the Usaramo and its cargo
in Cadiz on 6 August 1936, the first reformation
of the Nazi operation in Spain began. Initially
with the purpose of supplying and training
Nationalist troops, the operation underwent a
small evolution after it became apparent it would
be more effective for the Nazi pilots to conduct
sorties, rather than relying on the Spanish

“THIS INITIAL PACKAGE WOULD

BE THE BEGINNINGS OF WHAT
WOULD EVOLVE INTO THE
INFAMOUS CONDOR LEGION”
52
 FLIGHT OF HITLER’S CONDOR LEGION

MACHINES OF THE LEGION NOT ONLY DID THE CONDOR LEGION PROVIDE A PLATFORM FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TECHNOLOGY VIA EVALUATION, IT ALSO
ALLOWED OLD TECHNOLOGY TO BE IMPLEMENTED IN NEW WAYS

“THE INNOVATIVE, AUTOMATIC

PULL-UP DIVE BRAKES
ENABLED PILOTS TO DIVE
AT TARGETS WITH THE
CONFIDENCE THAT THE PLANE
WOULD RECOVER, EVEN IF THE
JUNKERS JU 87 ‘STUKA’ PILOT BLACKED OUT”
Faced with the threat of superior Soviet weaponry, the
Condor Legion needed to innovate in order to succeed.
The answer came in the inverted gull wings and fixed
spatted undercarriage of the Model 87, from German
manufacturer Junkers Flugzeug und Motorenwerke AG.
Sturdy and accurate, the Ju 87 was soon found to be
an effective ground attack aircraft, earning it the name
of ‘Stuka’, from ‘Sturzkampfflugzeug’, the German word
for ‘dive bomber’. The innovative, automatic pull-up
dive brakes enabled pilots to dive at targets with the
confidence that the plane would recover, even if the pilot
blacked out.
At the suggestion of an air technician, Wolfram
von Richthofen had a propeller-powered siren added
to the exterior of the craft. The wailing siren, known
as a ‘Jericho Trumpet’ was a foray into experimental
psychological warfare by the Nazis, and would become
the defining characteristic of the aircraft.
The Ju 87, while being introduced towards the end
of the war in Spain, arrived at a crucial time, and as well
being the first aircraft to be utilised in the Knickebein
system, (a system of night-time bombing wherein the
aircraft was blindly guided towards the target via radio
communication), the Stuka would make its name in
Spain. It was an important tool of the Condor Legion Although the Stuka had a
in iconic clashes, such as the Battle of Bilbao and the maximum bomb load of 500kg,
Catalonia Offensive. this could only be carried if the
gunner vacated his seat

The Ju 52 could be used in

transport roles and as a bomber
JUNKERS JU 52 ‘IRON ANNIE’
The Ju 52 was arguably the most important contribution by the Nazi
government to Franco’s Nationalist forces. Recognisable by its low, cantilever
wing, bulky fuselage and three-engine design, the Ju 52 began its life as a
craft typically utilised by commercial airlines. Its triple BMW engines, which
could generate about 700 horsepower, and modifiable cargo hold were
initially utilised for military purposes in South America.
The 1932 Columbia-Peru War and the 1934 Chaco War saw the aircraft
implemented in a supply and evacuation context. Nevertheless, the Luftwaffe
was quick to recognise the Ju 52’s potential, and in 1934, the first prototype
bomber class Ju 52s were produced. In Spain, the Ju 52 was primarily
assigned to the role of skirting the Republican blockade and transporting
the Nationalist army to continental Spain. Later, many of the remaining Ju
52s would be converted to tactical bombing aircraft, and used in a ‘terror
bombing’ campaign against the Republican civilian population throughout the
Spanish countryside, and most notoriously in the bombing of Guernica.

53
FLIGHT OF HITLER’S CONDOR LEGION

“A 25-GALLON MIXTURE OF GASOLINE, GREASE AND USED Operation Guido was coming to an end. Having
transferred more than 13,500 troops, 127 light

ENGINE OIL WAS COMBINED WITH THE FORCE OF TWO 22-POUND armaments and 36 field guns from Morocco to
Spain, a number of the surviving Ju 52s were

EXPLOSIVES IN ORDER TO CREATE AN ANTI-PERSONNEL WEAPON” converted into bombers. Although the official
operations of the reformed Condor Legion
began on 8 November with the beginnings of
trainees, who were severely inexperienced with Spanish mineral sector – such resources being the Siege of Madrid, there were several sorties
aircraft and evidently prone to crashing. vital to the rearmament of the Wehrmacht and beforehand, most notably the experimental
The Eiserne Legion (Iron Legion), the Hitler’s long-term goals. direct bombing of civilians in Plaza de Colon,
predecessor of the Condor Legion, claimed On 2 October, the Rohstoffe-und-Waren- Madrid, on 27 October.
its first victim, a Republican reconnaissance Einkaufsgesellschaft GmbH (ROWAK – Raw The month-long assault on Madrid that would
aircraft, at the hands of future ace Johannes Materials and Goods Purchasing Company) begin two weeks later would see the arrival of
Trautloft, on 25 August 1936. Despite the was established with a credit of 3 million the International Brigades on the Republican
escalation of the role of German units in actual Reichsmarks and the purpose of buying up side and a three-day bombing campaign
combat, the real change came at the beginning a portion of the Spanish mining industry. A against the republican civilian population by
of September. The situation in Spain became month later, on 6 November 1936, 6,500 the Condor Legion. The battle also saw the
‘threateningly red’ with the election of Socialist German volunteers and six bomber squadrons loss of air superiority by the Condor Legion
Prime Minister Francisco Largo Caballero on 4 disembarked at Cadiz, and news spread of in the face of a Republican side bolstered by
September and the arrival of Soviet advisers Germany’s involvement in Spain. Such news the arrival of squadrons of the technologically
and military equipment six days later. was all but verified on 19 November, when, in a superior Soviet Plikarpov I-16 fighter class and
Hitler was worried about the possibility of joint announcement, the Nazi and Italian fascist Soviet Tupolev ANT-40 bomber class. The siege
further Soviet intervention, but also unwilling regimes recognised Franco’s government. ended less than a month after it began with the
to commit a large portion of the recovering exhaustion of both sides and the establishment
Wehrmacht to Spain without the possibility of The Legion takes flight of a static front line.
dividends. Following the 1 October assertion The full militarisation of the Condor Legion,
of Franco as ‘generalissimo’, Hitler sought to including the name change, had, in actuality, Below: Orders and documents of Staff Sergeant Nicolaus
trade military assistance for resources from the began as early as 30 September 1936. Lechner, with the Tank Badge of the Condor Legion (far left)

54
 FLIGHT OF HITLER’S CONDOR LEGION

FIGHTER ACES
Disappointed with the failure of the assault
of Madrid, the opening months of 1937 saw
the Condor Legion use its political influence to
support the introduction of a campaign against
the less-fortified areas of the Republican
front. Additionally, the arrival of new staff,

OF THE LEGION
such as Wolfram von Richthofen as chief of
staff, prompted a revising of technology. It
was decided the Heinkel He 51 had become
obsolete, and by late April a replacement was
under way, with the Messerschmitt Bf109
offering a fitting replacement.
This was not an easy task, and it required
a significant restructuring of the Legion itself,
with fighter groups such as the Jagdgruppe 88 SOME OF GERMANY’S DEADLIEST ACES MADE THEIR NAMES IN THE BATTLE FOR SPAIN
(J/88) experiencing a partial rotation of staff.
An influx of new prototype technology was
under way, with infamous names, such as the
Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 87 and the Dornier
WOLFRAM VON RICHTHOFEN ‘THE TARTAR’
Born into nobility, Richthofen rejected an academic life and began his military career
Do 17, appearing in a military context for the in the German Calvary in 1913, earning an Iron Cross. In 1918, Wolfram joined the
first time. The old aircraft were passed on to Luftstreitkräfte, the Imperial Air Service of Germany, where he witnessed the death of his
the Nationalist Air Force, and with a mutating cousin Manfred – the legendary ‘Red Baron’.
air force, the Condor Legion joined the War in After a brief delve into academia, Richthofen joined the Condor Legion in Spain
the North. in 1936. He worked to expand Close Support Doctrine – advocating for co-operation
The German forces set a precedent of between an equally weighted ground force and air force.
violence for the Biscay Campaign on 31 March, Additionally, he pioneered the ‘Air Shuttle’ technique, in which the sorties of aircraft
when, to the horror of the Republic and Basque would be staggered in order to allow a constant air presence. Last, upon joining the under-
forces, the town of Durango, a defenceless equipped Condor Legion, he famously improvised, utilising 88mm anti-aircraft batteries
settlement of little military value, was levelled. in the place of artillery. The Luftwaffe’s Special Purpose Division was constructed with
Less than a month later on 26 April, Guernica, a Richthofen’s findings in mind.
town housing 10,000 refugees of the War in the
North, famously met the same fate.
Both attacks saw the introduction of the new
aircraft, but also of ‘the little man’s bomb-
carpet’ technique, known contemporarily as
ADOLF ‘DOLFO’ GALLAND
Learning to fly in gliders at the age of 16, Galland stood out as raw flying talent, and was
‘carpet bombing’. In fact, the War in the North asked to join the Condor Legion in 1936. Arriving in Spain on 7 May 1937, Galland’s first
saw the introduction of many such innovations in major engagement was in the Battle of Brunete. From the date of his arrival, Galland was a
the use of aircraft. distinguished member of the Condor Legion and flew 300 missions as a leader.
In addition to the realisation of carpet After becoming one of the men awarded the Spanish Cross in Gold, Galland returned
bombing’s effectiveness, the ‘Knickebein’ to Germany, where he would go on to participate in the invasion of Poland. He became an
system and ‘Devil’s Egg’ improvements established ace of World War II and led the Fighter Pilots’ Revolt against Goering.
were also trialled. The former was a system In his later life he was invited by Juan Perón to train the young Argentinean air force,
of bombing wherein the bombers, providing leaving a tactical legacy that would become ingrained in Argentinean military aviation for
close air support, would be guided to the years to come.
target by radio, effectively creating ‘airborne
artillery’, and setting the stage for the infamous
Blitzkrieg tactics employed a few years later.
The latter was an innovation in incendiary bomb
design. A 25-gallon mixture of gasoline, grease
WERNER ‘VATI’ MÖLDERS
Born in 1913, Mölders was initially declared “unfit for flight” by the Luftwaffe in 1932, due
and used engine oil was combined with the to his severe airsickness. Through willpower, he overcame his ailment and applied once
force of two 22-pound explosives in order to again for the Luftwaffe, this time being accepted and transferred to the Condor Legion,
create an anti-personnel weapon that hinged on arriving to take over from Adolf Galland on 14 April 1938.
the mixture’s ability to produce a burning, sticky Despite his late arrival, he became the highest scoring ace of the Condor Legion, with
substance upon detonation. 15 kills in the Spanish Civil War alone. He was, like Galland, awarded a Spanish Cross in
Napalm wouldn’t be properly invented and Gold in recognition of his skill, but also of his combat pioneering.
implemented in war until the bombing of Berlin Mölders introduced the ‘Schwarm’/‘Finger-Four’ formation and the ‘Cross Over Turn’ to
by the US Army Air Force on 6 March 1944. the Luftwaffe – both tactics would prove to be vital in securing Germany’s future victories.
Regardless, the system of bombing developed Mölders died in a civilian aircraft crash in 1941 while attending the funeral of a superior
during the War in the North, as well as the in Crimea.
experimental bombs themselves, would later be
evaluated and applied to Nazi military strategy.
By the end of the Biscay Campaign, the Condor
Legion had undergone a metamorphosis.
To the south, the Nationalist line was
JOHANNES ‘HANNES’ TRAUTLOFT
Born in 1912, Trautloft joined the covert Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule in 1931, and was
faltering in the opening stages of the Battle of transferred to the Condor Legion in 1934. He was among the initial six pilots, paired with
Brunete, due to an unexpected ambush of the Heinkel He 51s, to arrive in Spain on 7 August 1936.
town by the Republican forces on 6 July. The As well as claiming the first recorded kill by the Condor Legion, Trautloft developed the
Condor Legion responded immediately with a theory behind the deployment of the new Bf109. Like Galland and Mölders, Trautloft was
newly equipped air force. This time, the tables awarded the Spanish Cross in Gold with Diamonds.
had turned. The Republican Air Force was now In World War II, Trautloft famously rescued 160 Allied airmen from Buchenwald
under-equipped, and the Condor Legion was Death Camp by transferring them to a prison camp just days before their executions.
quick to assert its dominance in the skies He later joined the Fighter Pilots’ Revolt and, following the end of the war, served in the
above Brunete. Bundesluftwaffe – the air force of West Germany, until his death in 1995.

55
 FLIGHT OF HITLER’S CONDOR LEGION

The 19-day battle saw an almost

oversaturation of Nationalist aircraft, and it
was widely believed that the Battle of Brunete
decided the war – a belief that Hermann
Goering would utilise in order to gain favourable
concessions from the Nazi government in the
future. The protection of Nationalist Brunete
was a great success, and would be repeated
upon the return of the Condor Legion to the War
in the North, and the decisive victory at the end
of the month-long Battle of Santander.
That said, the overconfident Condor Legion
– which was quickly becoming an economic
burden for Nazi Germany – would face difficulty
in the battles of Teruel and Belchite, but would
emerge victorious. Regardless, the issues in
Spain were quickly becoming overshadowed by
developments in Central Europe, the Anschluss
of Austria and annexation of the Sudetenland. A Stuka dive bombs a
The bombing of Barcelona on 16 March Spanish city in 1938
would again see the use of military force
against civilian targets, this time with the added The Battle of Ebro, which began on 25 July Wehrmacht high command was satisfied by the
innovations of experimental timed explosives 1938 and ran for the greater part of that year, establishment of a Spain that was friendly, or
and the ‘Silent Approach’ method. This would further transform the Condor Legion and at the very least neutral, to the future actions
technique was orchestrated by deactivating the wider crisis in Spain into a nuisance. The of Nazi Germany. The Condor Legion began
the engine in order to glide from a high altitude exhausting battle saw staff recalled, reshuffled its withdrawal in February 1939, with the last
silently and bomb the desired target, before and redeployed for the last time, with Richthofen troops leaving the Iberian Peninsula by May.
restarting the engine and climbing once more once again taking up the position as chief of staff. The intervention by Nazi Germany in the
to a safe altitude. The timed explosive would The last three months of deployment Spanish Civil War did pay its dividends. The
penetrate much deeper into the buildings consisted of a first phase, wherein the Legion Nazi regime was able to innovate and invent a
or streets before detonating. These were conducted a series of sorties against the new kind of warfare, seize industry vital to the
among the last experimental innovations to be Republicans in the Nationalist’s final offensive. regrowth of the German military, and train the
implemented during the war, and they wouldn’t With the Munich Agreement assuring that the next generation of pilots who would excel in the
be seen again until the London Blitz of 1940. Republic would not receive any future aide, the crucial opening months of the next great war.

THE BOMBING OF GUERNICA

THE MORBIDLY ICONIC BOMBING OF THE BASQUE TOWN OF GUERNICA WOULD BE ONLY TOO TELLING OF THE CHARACTER
OF THE NAZIS’ ‘TOTAL WAR’ STRATEGY
26 April 1937 opened as any other Monday would in the The church bells rang and people ran for the fortifications The consequential number of casualties is largely
Basque town of Guernica. It was market day, so the streets – built following the bombing of Durango. Five minutes disputed, and ranges from as little as 300 to as large
Images: Alamy; Corbis; Getty

were packed with people from the surrounding region. later, the first bomber appeared, dropped its payload and as 1,700 civilians. Additionally, as with the bombing of
Despite the civil war that was engulfing the rest of Spain to departed. Then came a second – both initial attacks aiming Durango, the Nationalist forces initially blamed communist
the south, Guernica saw very little conflict itself. Refugees for the centre of the town. Only 15 minutes later, three militants for the destruction of the city – a story that has
had sought asylum in the ancient capital, but otherwise, the Junkers Ju 52s arrived and began carpet bombing the city not stood the test of time, with the modern government
civil war seemed almost exterior to the town’s inhabitants. indiscriminately. This was repeated every 20 minutes until of Germany apologising for the actions of its predecessor
What the people of Guernica couldn’t possibly anticipate 7.45pm with a rotational force utilised. This consisted of in 1997. What is not disputed is the fact that the Condor
was that their small settlement was positioned in such a way squadrons of Junkers Ju 52s for bombing and demolition Legion was experimenting with psychological warfare at the
that was strategically important to the Nationalist forces, purposes, and squadrons of recently introduced Bf109 time, and that the attack shattered any notion to resist the
who were invading the northern provinces. At 4.30pm, the fighter planes, which took up a more anti-personnel role, invading Nationalists, who took control of the city by the end
first German aircraft began their descent into the town. allegedly attacking civilians and livestock. of the month.

The carpet bombing tactics employed by the

Condor Legion absolutely devastated Guernica, “THE NATIONALIST FORCES INITIALLY BLAMED
proving the tactic to be effective and so worthy
for utilisation in the future conflicts of the
German state
COMMUNIST MILITANTS FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF THE
CITY – A STORY THAT HAS NOT STOOD THE TEST OF TIME”

56
 ‘IN A
SECONDARY DIFFERENT
SCIENCE TEACHERS
WANTED
1990’
Great rates for qualified teachers to teach • At DOWNING STREET, Prime Minister Thatcher
urges the Americans to continue the war...
motivated 11-16 year olds GCSE science on
• IN THE NORTH SEA, HMS Tenacious hunts
weekday evenings and/or Saturdays, Soviet Subs...

based in North London since 2007. • IN NORWAY, the SAS mounts a daring commando
raid on a Soviet held airbase...

Please email CV to: • IN GERMANY, the British Army of the Rhine fights a
info@afterschoollearning.com massive armoured battle...

• It’s two minutes to midnight in World War 1990:

020 8440 8586 Operation Arctic Storm
www.afterschoollearning.com
 SUPERCANNONS
OF THE WORDS MARWAN KAMEL

OTTOMAN EMPIRE
When Mehmet II marched on Constantinople in
1453, he brought with him some of the largest
bombards the world had ever seen
T
he siege of Constantinople Then, a tree supposedly rose from
marked a significant the light in his belly and spread its
transition from the Medieval branches across the world.
world of swords, catapults and Osman arrived to a fragmented
trebuchets to the triumph of political patchwork of small,
the gunpowder empire. As the competing warlord states in
impenetrable walls of Byzantium Anatolia that were only nominally
were crushed by super-sized under the control of the central
cannons, down with them came Seljuq state. So, when he came
the might of millennia of the with his 400 horsemen, he seized
Roman Empire as dust under the the opportunity to declare the
feet of the sultans. independence of his own beylik
When Sultan Mehmet entered (principality) from the Seljuqs.
the city in 1453, its capture The empire gradually expanded
was mourned in the Latin West from humble beginnings under
as a destruction. However, the Osman’s heirs and came to
Ottomans saw themselves not only encircle Constantinople, which
as heirs to the caliphates, but as had essentially become an ailing
the inheritors of Rome. city-state – albeit with much
The Ottomans carried on the more powerful foreign allies. The
cultural legacy of a great empire Byzantines, however, were on the
in the Mediterranean and even opposite end of their historical
continued the tradition of military trajectory. While in the 19th
pomp. More importantly, they century the Ottoman Empire would
carried on the legacy of military be referred to as the ‘sick man of
might, conquest, and engineering, Europe’, in the 15th century, it was
and nothing is more emblematic the Byzantines who filled this role.
of this than Orban’s gargantuan By this time, the empire had
supercannon, which helped barely recovered from a long
conquer Constantinople in 1453. period of civil war and assaults
from external aggressors. After
The rise of the Ottomans Constantinople was sacked by
and the wane of the Crusaders in 1204, the Byzantine
Byzantine Empire Empire split into three successor
The Ottoman Empire’s origins lie states: the Empire of Nicaea,
in the slow crumble of the Turkic the Despotate of Epirus, and
Seljuq Empire in Anatolia and the the Empire of Trebizond. They
northern part of the Near East. became engulfed in an extremely
The Seljuqs had been under complex civil war in the Balkans,
continuous onslaught against during which the Emperor John
forces like the Persian Safavids VI Kantakouzenos hired Ottoman
and the Byzantine Empire from the mercenaries to subdue his rivals.
west. In 1299, a relief force from Unfortunately, what he ended
modern-day Turkmenistan changed up with was the Ottomans
the course of the conflict. establishing themselves in
The force was led by Osman, the Balkans. As they gradually
whose rise to power had been pushed south east, Byzantium
foreshadowed by a dream in which found itself sandwiched between
he saw a moon rise from a holy Ottoman strongholds. In 1453,
man’s breast and sink into his own. Constantinople stood isolated.

58
 SUPERCANNONS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

“THE OTTOMANS SAW THEMSELVES NOT

ONLY AS HEIRS TO THE CALIPHATES, BUT
AS THE INHERITORS OF ROME”

A painting of the Fall of

Constantinople in the Panorama
1453 History Museum in Istanbul

59
SUPERCANNONS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

MEDIEVAL MASTER SMITHS

Until the mid-15th century, gunpowder weapons later Renaissance European micro-kingdoms,
BORE
The bore was reported to be large enough for
a man to enter the barrel on his hands and
knees. Shots were almost never an exact fit. To
were largely ineffective and were still in their which regularly besieged one another. compensate, the gunners would have to wad the
nascent stage of development. Though they had At first, the goal was to create huge-calibre gaps with sheepskin, wood or other materials.
been used in China for centuries, the majority guns of more than 50 centimetres in diameter
of siege technology focused on rams, catapult that fired large stone projectiles, with the goal
devices and so on. The Islamic empires of the of smashing the walls of fortresses. This would
period, which housed some of the most advanced be accomplished by welding together a series
science of the day, were eager adaptors of foreign of longitudinal iron bars, held in place by rings
technological innovations. As they pressed or occasionally bronze casting. The results were
eastwards, they began adopting and expanding often fairly unimpressive: stubby guns or huge,
upon the devices they encountered through the impractical monstrosities. Many would explode
Mongols and the Chinese – including gunpowder as their gunners packed them with huge loads of
– as well as incorporating European technologies gunpowder, or otherwise shatter their projectiles
they encountered. on walls rather than penetrate. These guns were
This thalej al-sin or ‘Chinese snow’, as extremely expensive and time consuming to
gunpowder was known, would be revolutionary produce, so instead European engineers moved
in the history of siege warfare. One of the most away from these supercannons and towards the
prominent early uses was during the Battle creation of multiple, cheaper, more-effective and
of Mohi in 1241, during the Mongol Invasion smaller-calibre guns.
of Europe – the Mamluks also used it against In the Middle East, although siege weapons
the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260. Gunpowder of this type were used, gun technology tended
would be central to the rise of a chain of Middle to move more towards individual hand cannons
Eastern empires, but the evolution of massive and handguns, rather than huge siege cannons.
supercannons was mostly centred around the By the Ottoman period, despite their ineffective, HEAVY FIRE
slow-loading handguns, the elite Janissaries The Basilica cannon measured

“MANY WOULD EXPLODE were a force to be reckoned with.

Finding his services of little demand in
more than 27 feet in length,
with eight-inch thick walls to

AS THEIR GUNNERS PACKED Europe, Hungarian engineer Orban saw

opportunities in south-east Europe and the
accommodate its enormous blast.
It had a diameter of more than 30

THEM WITH HUGE LOADS Middle East. So, after attempting to sell his
services to the Byzantine emperor in 1452, who
inches and was designed to be
loaded with a stone shot weighing

OF GUNPOWDER” couldn’t afford his extravagant fees, Orban was

hired by the Ottomans.
more than half a ton.

The Siege of Constantinople as depicted

on the exterior fresco of the Moldovita
Monastery, Romania

60
 SUPERCANNONS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

INSIDE THE SUPERCANNON GETTING INTO POSITION

The cannon designed to destroy the walls of Babylon itself was designed by The gun was cast of solid bronze and
Hungarian engineer, Orban, and used to a devastating effect by the Ottomans. laboriously transported by a team of
They besieged the city with the deafening roar of their cannons and inspired fear 60 oxen with an accompanying crew
with their military band. When a small group of Janissaries raised the Ottoman of up to 400. They travelled at rate
banner on the ramparts, Constantine XI’s men knew they were done. The history of of 2.5 miles a day to within a mile of
siege warfare came crashing down at the end of Ottoman cannoneers, who were Constantinople’s wall. Its crew would
masters of ballistics and adept adaptors of foreign technologies. also double as its on-site repair team.

Illustration: Rebekka Hearl

SIZE AND POWER
Orban’s cannon dwarfed the crews who manned RELOADING
the volatile weapon with caution. The Ottoman During the extremely time-consuming task of
cannons were both deafening and dangerous, so reloading the gun, it would be hidden behind a
their psychological effect was almost as powerful wooden flap that covered the gap in the wood and
as their physical impact. Crews were often injured earthen ramparts in which it sat and protected
and killed during the operation of guns in the siege. its operators from defensive projectiles. When
Orban himself is rumoured to have later been killed ready to be fired again, the flap would be raised to
by one of his own malfunctioning cannons. provide a clear shot.

THE ORBAN CANNON

batteries were capable of launching about 150
volleys per day.
Basilica’s ammunition was mined from areas
along the Black Sea and was never of an exact
The uniqueness of Orban’s gun was not in its The siege began in April 1453. From the size, so it would be padded with sheepskin
composition, but its scale. He intended to build start, Ottoman gunners had a difficult time or wood. Its production was so intensive that
the biggest, most powerful gun that had ever aiming this huge cannon, as it was positioned Ottoman gunners would often attempt to drag
been created. When he approached Mehmet on a combination of removable wooden blocks, undamaged munitions back from the walls with
II offering his services, the sultan asked if his as well as earthen ramparts. It was positioned large nets, to be recycled. Despite the enormous
gun would be powerful enough to penetrate the with a group of four smaller cannons that the amounts of bronze, its construction was still
walls of the city. Orban’s response was that Ottomans called ‘bear and cubs’. Teams also too weak for the enormity of its shot. During the
he would build something that could “blast the had to clear out fields of fruit trees to provide a siege, it had to be repaired by Orban numerous
walls of Babylon itself.” clear line of sight. times, and was reinforced by iron rings after it
At this point, the Ottomans had made the To make things worse, the gun kept sinking had cracked.
most formidable empire in the Islamic world. in the April mud. Once fired, it took an The defenders of Constantinople also
They had learned a great deal about the use extraordinarily long time to cool down and had responded to Ottoman attacks with their own
of artillery during previous engagements with to be drenched with copious amounts of oil cannons and even packed some with multiple
the Mamluks to the south and during conflicts and cleaned frequently. The cannon was only small projectiles in a shotgun-
in Hungary. While they had developed very capable of about seven shots per day, each like fashion. However, their guns
little of their own technology, Ottoman gun reinforced in a triangular pattern by the smaller were smaller and their recoil often
crews were extremely skilled in its use, both cannons. In all, the 69 guns of Mehmet’s damaged their own walls.
in portable handheld forms and larger artillery
pieces. Even Sultan Mehmet II himself was A view of the partially ruined remains of
well educated in the art of ballistics and, upon the walls of Constantinople as they stand
in modern-day Istanbul
seeing some of his batteries being ineffective,
pioneered a new use of a long-range mortar
during the siege.
Orban set to work near the capital of
Edirne and Mehmet stockpiled supplies for
gunpowder, copper and tin as he worked. His
crews dug enormous casting pits in the ground
and melted scrap bronze in nearby furnaces,
superheated by bellows to pour into the
mould. From the moulds, a monster emerged.
SUPERCANNONS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

FALL OF
CONSTANTINOPLE
In the end, cunning strategy toppled the Byzantines,
not the use of a sole super weapon. Although
Orban’s supercannon was able to penetrate the
walls of Constantinople that had stood unbreached
for more than a millennium, this was not enough to
conquer the city.
Sparsely populated after being sacked so many
times by Crusaders, in 1453 Constantinople was
only urbanised in its easternmost extremity, with
the rest of the area inside the massive walls
comprising village-sized settlements separated by
large fields and rural segments. Within the walls its
citizens grew their own food and farmed livestock.
In theory, it could withstand extremely long sieges,
as it had before – including an Ummayad assault in
the 7th century.
The Byzantines had intended to dig in and
withstand the siege long enough for significant
reinforcements to arrive. Had this happened, it is
unclear what the ultimate goal could have been
as a completely encircled city-state. Nonetheless,
Emperor Constantine XI made desperate pleas for
help from the Latin West, even asking the pope
himself to come to his aid despite their theological
differences. When the siege began, the city had only
about 10,000 professional soldiers at its disposal, of
which almost 3,000 were foreigners – mainly from
the major powers of Venice and Genoa.
Although the defenders were outnumbered,
Constantinople was still arguably the best-defended
city in Europe at the time. In opposition, the
Ottomans intended to batter the walls patiently by
both land and sea. By doing so, they planned to
quickly capture the city before the world had any
chance to react.
Whenever the Byzantines and their allies
presented a formidable obstacle to Ottoman forces,
the Ottomans would find a way around it. At sea,
the defenders had a distinct advantage – their ships,
albeit fewer in number, were larger and stronger than
the Ottomans’ and they had blockaded the Golden
Horn with a large chain barrier. In response, the
Ottomans created a greased wooden slipway and
transported their ships on land around the defences.
Also, as the walls were slow to fall, the Ottomans
created a pontoon bridge across a weaker point in
the Golden Horn to allow for the transport of artillery
and troops, bringing them closer to the city.
As the Ottoman artillery began cracking the
walls, the defenders worked endlessly and kept
plugging the holes and reinforcing them with earth
and wood to absorb their impact. Inevitably, they
were overwhelmed by the speed and volume of
the attacks, and a group of 50 Janissaries poured
into the cracks near Kerkoporta, with the prospect
of an elevation of rank for the first who scaled
the walls and raised the Ottoman banner on the
ramparts. Once Saint Romanus’s gate was breached,
Constantine XI himself sat within sight.
With these first volleys of the sultan’s cannons
came the beginnings of modern artillery and,
likewise, the Byzantine defenders saw the entire
history of siege warfare disintegrate before them. No
longer was a fortress enough to keep out an invader.

Right: Mehmet the Conqueror enters the

defeated city of Constantinople

62
 SUPERCANNONS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

SUPERCANNONS OF THE FUTURE

Unfortunately the Basilica gun was lost to Whenever heavy fortifications emerged again, mechanised warfare seemed to prefer more
history following the siege. Nonetheless, the concept of the supercannon also returned mobile equipment. As such, these guns, even
Munir Ali, Orban’s successor, carried on the as a possible solution. During the Crimean having proved their effectiveness at specific
tradition of casting supercannons as well as War, the British developed ‘Mallet’s Mortar’ but engagements, remained largely a curiosity.
other artillery. Eventually, these guns were never used it in combat. In World War I, a series As it stands, modern militaries have shifted
superseded by other artillery pieces with of extremely long railway-mounted howitzers towards asymmetrical warfare and away
smaller bores but longer barrels, and more- emerged to dislodge troops from trenches. from heavy fortifications of any kind. If they
efficient gunpowder. The Nazis resurrected the idea in the ever return, the guns to breach them and the
For the next few centuries the development 1930s with the Schwerer Gustav and Dora inheritors of the legacy of Orban’s gun, are sure
of weaponry trended in this direction and these rail cannons, with the intent of destroying the to emerge again.
super guns made only occasional appearances concrete defences of the Maginot Line, and
Right: Mallet’s Mortar
again. Their use had become increasingly was used in the Siege of Sevastopol. At the end
was designed to fire
irrelevant as heavily fortified cities became less of World War II, the USA experimented with a 1,270kg cartridges
and less prevalent. modern bombard nicknamed ‘Little David’ in a
In 1463, Munir Ali cast a gun that would planned siege against what they imagined was
stand watch over Istanbul for the next three a heavily fortified Japan.
and a half centuries. It would later be used After World War II, the USSR and USA both
by desperate Ottoman troops in 1807, to developed field cannons capable of firing
devastating effect against a British fleet that nuclear weapons – an extreme continuation
tried to force the Dardanelles. of this same legacy. For the most part,

“WHENEVER HEAVY FORTIFICATIONS EMERGED AGAIN, THE

CONCEPT OF THE SUPERCANNON ALSO RETURNED AS A
POSSIBLE SOLUTION”

Images: Alamy, Corbis

A railway supercannon fired by

French troops during World War I

63
 Heroes of the Medal of Honor

ALVIN C YORK
In one of the most infamous assaults of World War I, Sergeant York defied
the odds and took 132 German soldiers prisoner with a handful of men
WORDS DOM RESEIGH-LINCOLN

C
onsidering the icon of American military his family, but was also a burgeoning alcoholic, Regiment, 82nd Infantry Division at Camp
success he’d become, Sergeant Alvin prone to brawls and dust-ups in local bars. Gordon, Georgia, but his new posting didn’t
C York of the 82nd Division was an He still attended church on a regular basis sway his fears. Troubled by the war, York was
unlikely candidate for warfare. A reformed with his devout mother and siblings, but it granted ten days of leave; when he returned, he
violent alcoholic and devout Christian, the wasn’t until January 1915 that York finally left came with the belief that God intended him to
Tennessee-born son of a blacksmith originally the alcohol behind and embraced his faith. fight, devoting himself to his new mission with
tried to avoid enlisting for military service – not While he was raised a Methodist, it was a all the fervour he’d given his new church.
because he wanted to dodge the responsibility more recent branch of the Christian faith that York and his division were then posted
of serving his country, but rather because he drew his attention. His new congregation, to France to take part in the US Army’s first
didn’t believe in taking up arms against his the Church of Christ in Christian Union, had offensive of World War I, the Saint Mihiel
fellow man. no official pacifist doctrines per se, but it did Offensive. Up until this point, the United States
“I was worried clean through. I didn’t want shun violence as much as it opposed division had attempted to stay out of the conflict,
to go and kill,” he remarked at a lecture later between the many Christian sects. but the unrestricted and vicious attacks
in his life. “I believed in my Bible.” But his On 5 June 1917, the Selective Service Act from German submarines had proved an
request for conscientious objection (a position came into effect and men aged between 21 encroachment too far, with President Woodrow
he would later deny) was formally rejected and and 30 were legally bound to enlist for military Wilson requesting Congress officially declare
he was soon shipped off to fight. Yet for all service. York attempted to seek conscientious war in April that year.
protestations, Sergeant York would perform one objection on the grounds of his stringent When US Army forces, including the US Air
of the most daring acts of the entire conflict new spiritual beliefs, but as the Union wasn’t Army Service (later known as the US Air Force)
and earn the most prestigious commendation recognised as an official branch, his request arrived in north-east France in September 1917,
in the US military: the Medal of Honor. was denied. He was drafted into the US Army they caught the Germans in a state of retreat.
The third of 11 children, Alvin C York and assigned to Company G, 328th Infantry The unprepared enemy scrambled to react to the
was born on 13 December 1887 into an new American military presence, and York (now
impoverished family living in Pall Mall, Below: York became a figurehead for promoting the US a corporal) and his fellow compatriots helped
military’s successes in World War I, but he never grew
Tennessee. The United States was only two comfortable with this new fame secure an Allied victory in a matter of a few days.
decades removed from the onslaught of the The 82nd Division was then shifted further north
civil war when York entered the world and the to take part in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
former secessionist state was still recovering one of the final battles of World War I.
from the devastating domestic conflict. Times On 8 October, Allied forces, including the
were hard. As such, York, like his seven 82nd, successfully took Hill 223, located along
brothers, spent only nine months in formal the Decauville railway line north of Chatel-
education before his father William brought him Chéhéry. However, as forces swarmed down the
home to work full time on the farm. hill on the other side, they found the triangular
From an early age, the young York was no valley at the bottom was a death trap. German
stranger to the hard graft of farm work. When machine-gun emplacements were encamped on
his father died in November 1911, the running ridges around the valley and they gunned down
of the household fell to the 23-year-old (his two Allied soldiers in their droves. Pulling back to
older brothers Henry and Joseph had already a safe distance, it was decided that the only
moved out of the family home) and he soon way to progress forward and take control of the
took up a number of jobs, including logging and Decauville railway was to manoeuvre around
working on the local railway. He was devoted to the gun nests and silence them.

64
 ALVIN C YORK

York’s exploits against the gun

emplacements were immortalised

“The success of this assault in the 1941 film ‘Sergeant York’

(although with a little creative licence)

had a far-reaching effect

in relieving the enemy
pressure against American
forces in the heart of the
Argonne Forest”
Official report from 82nd Division
to General HQ

65
HEROES OF THE MEDAL OF HONOR

“WITH THE GUNNERS DISTRACTED BY THE REMAINDER OF HIS

TEAM, THE CORPORAL MOVED FORWARD ALONE, MANOEUVRING
SWIFTLY AND SILENTLY THROUGH THE TRENCHES”
05 German surrender
Despite the deadly wave of
bullets peppering his position, York
reportedly kills a total of 20 German
soldiers. With his unit also proving
unwaveringly defiant, German First
Lieutenant Paul Jürgen Vollmer orders
the surrender of the emplacements.
A total of 132 German soldiers are
taken prisoner.

03 Taking charge
With Sergeant Early among
those critically wounded, York is now
in command of the unit. With the
gun emplacement still shredding the
cover around them, York leaves the
remaining eight able soldiers to guard
the prisoners while he moves forward
alone to silence the guns.

01 Behind enemy lines

Four noncommissioned
officers, including a recently 02 Assault under fire
York and the unit overrun the
promoted Corporal York, and 13 headquarters of a German unit that
privates are ordered to infiltrate was planning to launch a counter-
enemy lines. Under the command attack. While Early’s men are dealing
of Sergeant Bernard Early, they’re with the prisoners obtained from the
tasked with taking out a series of German headquarters, a nearby gun
machine-gun emplacements. nest hammers the exposed American
soldiers, killing six of the team and
wounding three others.
Acute Graphics

66
 ALVIN C YORK

“Fearlessly leading seven men, he charged with

great daring a machine-gun nest that was pouring
deadly and incessant fire upon his platoon”
Official citation for Sergeant York’s Medal of Honor

A unit under the command of Sergeant Lying prone and peeking over the
Bernard Early was tasked with moving embankments, York began sniping at the
behind enemy lines and overrunning gunners, killing enemy after enemy as the
the emplacements. A total of four Germans struggled to locate this unexpected
noncommissioned officers, including York, and source of fire. However, just because he had
13 privates used the large amount of brush accepted that his life as a soldier was a calling
and tall bushes to flank the gun nests, moving from God didn’t mean that he’d left his ideals
through woodland until they were positioned at behind in Georgia. He began calling out to the
the rear of the network. Working from such an soldiers, imploring them to surrender and avoid
advantageous position, Early, York and the rest further bloodshed, only returning fire when it
of the unit were able to immediately overrun the was clear such a course of action was not a
main headquarters. consideration. With his men also pressing the
The tactic proved to be both a blessing and gun emplacement, a contingent of six German
a curse for the team. Caught completely by soldiers were dispatched to hunt him down. The
surprise, the HQ was taken almost entirely kill team might have been successful had York
without bloodshed and Early and his men took not spied them in time, switching to his pistol
a large contingent of prisoners within minutes and dispatching each one at close range.
of beginning their offensive. Unfortunately, York continued his assault on the machine-
the covert nature of the assault was soon gun emplacement, picking off any soldier
torn apart when one of the German soldiers that was foolish enough to peer over the
manning a gun emplacement noticed the embankment. As time went by, the man
fracas and opened fire on the exposed unit. in charge of the gun nest, First Lieutenant
Six Americans were killed outright, and another Paul Jürgen Vollmer, realised his men were
three were critically injured in the opening too exposed and proceeded to offer his and
salvo, including Early. his men’s surrender to the lone sniper. York
With his senior officer incapacitated, accepted and returned to American lines with
command of the unit was passed to York. By this 132 German prisoners in tow.
stage, the gun emplacement was peppering the Some reports suggest York killed up to 20
cover sheltering York, the wounded and those German soldiers that morning, although he has
soldiers still able to fight. It had become clear always distanced himself from those claims as
that the unit wouldn’t be able to silence the well as the propaganda that swirled around him
guns from their current position, so York ordered upon his return. Yet whatever that final number
his men to stay where they were and continue may have been, Corporal York put his life on the
exchanging fire. With the gunners distracted by line in one of the most daring acts of valour. He
the remainder of his team, the corporal moved was swiftly promoted to sergeant and awarded
forward alone, manoeuvring swiftly and silently the Distinguished Service Cross. Following
through the trenches. the end of the war, all commendations were
reviewed and York’s medal was upgraded to the
Below: The Meuse-Argonne Offensive was one of the Medal of Honor in recognition of his actions in
costliest to American lives, with more than 26,000 dead the final months of the conflict.

04 Exchange of attrition
More than 30 German machine
guns are now blazing at York and his
men. While calling out continuously
in an effort to convince them to
surrender, York is forced to kill enemy
after enemy with his rifle. Six soldiers
attempt to run him through with their
bayonets, but he reluctantly dispatches
them all with his pistol.

67
 SPECIAL SUBSCRIPTION OFFER
SUBSCRIBE
AND SAVE 30%
PAY ONLY
£21
EVERY 6
ISSUES

ORDER HOTLINE ONLINE AT

0844 245 6931 WWW.IMAGINESUBS.CO.UK/WAR
Calls will cost 7p per minute plus your telephone company’s access charge
 BY POST
Send your completed form to:
History of War Subscriptions, 800 Guillat Avenue,
Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne, Kent ME9 8GU

EVERY ISSUE YOUR DETAILS

Title
Surname
First name

PACKED WITH...
Address

Postcode Country
● Real stories of heroism Telephone number
from the front line Mobile number
Email address

● Innovative weapons that

changed the face of warfare DIRECT DEBIT PAYMENT
■ UK Direct Debit Payment
● Blow-by-blow accounts of the I will pay just £21 every 6 issues (save 30%)
world’s bloodiest battlefields Instruction to your Bank or
Building Society to pay by Direct Debit
Please fill in the form and send it to: Imagine Publishing Limited, 800 Guillat Avenue, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne, Kent, ME9 8GU

● Inside the genius technology of Name and full postal address of your Bank or Building Society
To: The Manager Bank/Building Society
Originator’s Identification Number

devastating war machines

5 0 1 8 8 4
Address

Reference Number

● In-depth analysis of the roots of Postcode Instructions to your Bank or Building Society
Please pay Imagine Publishing Limited Direct Debits from the account detailed in this
instruction subject to the safeguards assured by the Direct Debit guarantee. I understand

modern conflict
Name(s) of account holder(s) that this instruction may remain with Imagine Publishing Limited and, if so, details will be
passed on electronically to my Bank/Building Society

Signature(s)
Branch sort code

● Military masterminds from the Bank/Building Society account number

ancient world to the modern era

Date

Banks and Building Societies may not accept Direct Debit instructions for some types of account A6 instruction form

PAYMENT DETAILS

WHY YOU SHOULD YOUR EXCLUSIVE READER PRICE, 1 YEAR (13 ISSUES)
■ UK – £52 (save 20%) ■ Europe – £70 ■ World – £80

SUBSCRIBE…
■ USA – £80
Cheque
■ I enclose a cheque for £
(made payable to Imagine Publishing Ltd)

Credit/Debit Card
● Save 30% on the cover price – ■ Visa ■ Mastercard ■ Amex ■ Maestro
just £21 every 6 issues Card number Expiry date
on Direct Debit
● FREE delivery direct Issue number ■■ (if Maestro)
to your door Signed
Date
● Never miss an issue
Please tick if you do not wish to receive any promotional material from Imagine Publishing Ltd by post ■
by telephone ■ via email ■

ORDER BY
Please tick if you do not wish to receive any promotional material from other companies by post ■
by telephone ■ Please tick if you DO wish to receive such information via email ■

TERMS & CONDITIONS

This offer entitles new UK direct debit subscribers to pay only £21 every 6 issues. New subscriptions will
start from the next available issue. Offer code PS15 must be quoted to receive this special subscription
31 December 2015 price. Details of the Direct Debit Guarantee are available on request. This offer expires 31 December
2015. Imagine Publishing reserves the right to limit this type of offer to one per household. Subscribers
Use code PS15 for this offer. can cancel this subscription at any time.
 B-26 MA
Operator’s Handbook

Only 17 per cent of B-26s were lost

in battle, the lowest ratio of any
Allied plane during the war

MARTIN B-26G ‘MARAUDER’

ROLE: HIGH-PERFORMANCE TWIN-ENGINE MEDIUM BOMBER
NATIONS SERVED: USA, UK, SOUTH AFRICA, FRANCE
LENGTH: 17.7M (58.3FT)
WINGSPAN: 21M (71FT)
MAXIMUM SPEED: 458KM/H (285MPH)
MAXIMUM ALTITUDE: 6,035M (19,800FT)
RANGE: 1,770KM (1,100 MILES)
CREW: 6/7 MEN
ENGINES: 2 X 1,930HP PRATT AND WHITNEY R-2800-43
“AFTER SOME MODIFICATIONS AND EXTRA PILOT
ARMAMENT: 11 X .50-CALIBRE BROWNING MACHINE GUNS TRAINING, THE B-26 BEGAN TO REALISE ITS POTENTIAL AS
BOMB LOAD: 1,814KG (4,000LB)
A BOMBER THAT COULD TURN THE TIDE OF THE WAR”
70
ARAUDER
B–26
SOPWITH
MARAUDER
PUP

WORDS JACK GRIFFITHS

B-26 bomber nic

knamed ‘A Kay Pe
which was later hit a’s Dream’,
by flak during a rai
d over France

Nicknamed the ‘Flying Torpedo’, this US Army Air Force

war bird helped crush the Axis from the skies
C
oming in almost 20 variants, the An innovative cantilever shoulder wing Used for tactical air support, 5,157
B-26 was the workhorse of the United monoplane design, the aircraft began B-26s were constructed, with the RAF also
States Army Air Force (USAAF) bombing unimpressively as it recorded a number of purchasing 522. It was most effective in
operations of World War II. First introduced in training accidents with 15 crashing in 30 days, the European Theatre, operating in medium-
1941, 201 Marauders were ordered straight off earning it the nicknames ‘Widow Maker’ and altitude attacks in Normandy and the
the drawing board with no time to build and test ‘Martin Murderer’. invasion of Italy. B-26s also saw service in
a prototype. The design put cruise efficiency ahead of the Battle of Midway in the Pacific Theatre.
Part of President Roosevelt’s 50,000 aircraft handling at low speeds, so many crews initially As the war ended, the role of the Marauder
for US defence programme, it went on to serve stayed well away from the aircraft. However, was fast diminishing. The majority were
in both the European and Pacific Theatres of after some modifications and extra pilot retired from service by 1947, and only a
the war, flying out with the 22nd Bombardment training, the B-26 began to realise its potential handful remain in existence today as relics of
Group the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor. as a bomber that could turn the tide of the war. the mass World War II bombing operations.

71
OPERATOR’S HANDBOOK

From the B model onwards, the B-26

became the first aircraft of the war to
use powered weapons pods

In early models, the

gunner had to lie prone,
but in later B-26s, the
crew could sit in an
upright position

ARMAMENT
The B-26 boasted some serious weaponry.
11 .50-inch machine guns provided an
immense amount of firepower with four guns
on the fuselage sides, one in the nose, two
in the dorsal and tail area and two in ventral
positions. These turrets were the first of
their kind and rotated on large ball bearings.
Experienced gunners could turn 360 degrees
and create a diagonal swathe of fire to shoot
Axis fighters out of the sky.
As well as the main armament, some B-26s
included several smaller .30-inch machine
guns, which were dotted around the fuselage.
These guns acted in a defensive capacity
and would protect the aircraft from enemy
fighters and anti-aircraft positions when on
bombing runs. The rear gun was invaluable as
it helped take down Messerschmitts, Zeros
and any other Axis planes on the bomber’s
tail. However, the B-26’s main feature was
its bombs. It had two bomb bays, one in
In addition to the larger guns,
the fore and one in the aft. Up to 1,814 .30-inch machine guns were
kilograms (4,000 pounds) could be carried for installed on the front and rear
devastating strike sorties. transparent nose cones

72
 B–26 MARAUDER

PROPULSION
To carry the weighty payload, the B-26 used
two four-bladed propellers. It was the first Allied
aircraft built in World War II to use four blades
in its propulsion system and could generate up
to 1,930 horsepower. The Pratt and Whitney
R-2800-43 wasn’t limited to the Marauder, and
was also used on other US aircraft such as the
F4U Corsair, F6F Hellcat and P47 Thunderbolt
fighters. The 18-cylinder engine was incredibly
versatile and was used in planes in the Korean
War as well as World War II.
The undercarriage of the B-26 was unique in its
design. Using a tricycle shape, it incorporated a
nose wheel rather than the traditional tail wheel.
It had a landing speed of 209 kilometres per hour
(130 miles per hour), unusually high for a plane of
the era, and remained an effective, if unorthodox,
control system for a medium bomber. The
design of the B-26 was altered in development
and it originally featured a twin tail, but this was The aircraft’s power system
dropped in favour of a single fin to give the tail was so advanced that it could
gunner a better view of oncoming targets. create a supercharging effect
at higher altitudes

The bombs painted under the

cockpit indicate how many
missions the plane had flown

THE B-26 OF THE UTAH During D-Day, the US 9th Air Force attacked
German defences on Utah Beach, where this

BEACH MUSEUM B-26 is currently housed

HAVING BEEN AT THE MUSEUM

SINCE 2011, THE MARAUDER IS
A POPULAR EXHIBITION AND ONE
OF ONLY SIX LEFT IN EXISTENCE
The Marauder on display at the Utah Beach
Museum in Normandy arrived in France on 20
May 1945. It was put into service too late to
fly in any combat missions and it resided in the
French base at Mont-de-Marsan, just south
of Bordeaux. After the war, it was painted in
French Army colours and given to Air France,
who used the aircraft to train future mechanics.
It was later donated to the French Air and Space
Museum in 1967 and locked away in storage for
25 years. However, in 1993, it resurfaced
as technicians tasked with refurbishing
the plane found that numerous pieces
of original equipment were missing. A
restoration team managed to locate the
missing parts as the B-26 neared its
original condition. In 2011, the plane “THE REAR GUN WAS INVALUABLE AS IT
was moved to the Utah Beach Museum
and repainted in the colours of the 386th HELPED TAKE DOWN MESSERSCHMITTS,
Bomb Group, who served with distinction
on D-Day. For more information on the ZEROS AND ANY OTHER AXIS PLANES
museum and its work, please visit:
www.utah-beach.com. THAT WERE ON THE BOMBER’S TAIL”
73
OPERATOR’S HANDBOOK

Above: Based on practicality rather

than comfort, the cockpit wasn’t big
on crew luxuries

COCKPIT
The armour-plated cockpit of the
B-26 was operated by a pilot and a
co-pilot. A centre console stood at
the front, which included the throttle
as well as propeller and mixture
controls. The controls for the landing
gear and flaps were at the back of
the console. Notoriously tricky to
handle for many pilots, many had no
experience of twin-engine aircraft
prior to the B-26. The weight of the
Marauder also made the stalling
speed and landing speeds higher
than the majority of other planes in
the US Military. The early issues with
the B-26 were down to its rushed
production, as it was overloaded
with equipment and put into low-level The crew of a Marauder comprised
a pilot, co-pilot, bombardier, radio
attack missions, something it was operator, navigator, dorsal gunner
completely ill-equipped to undertake. and tail gunner

BOMBERS OF THE USAAF THE OTHER AIRCRAFT THAT THE USA USED TO BOMB GERMANY AND JAPAN INTO SUBMISSION
B-25 MITCHELL B-24 LIBERATOR DOUGLAS A-26 INVADER B-17 FLYING FORTRESS
The Mitchell was once the most The most produced US aircraft of Also sometimes called a B-26 As the name suggests, the B-17 was
heavily armed plane in the world. It the war, an astonishing 18,400 were but not to be confused with the a giant of the sky. Many were based
participated in the 1942 Tokyo Raid, made. The Liberator served all over Marauder, the A-26 was a versatile in the UK and deployed to Germany
the first Allied attack to strike the the world utilising its range of more and long-serving aircraft. It served to take part in relentless daylight
Japanese home islands. than 2,000 miles. in the Korean and Vietnam wars. bombing raids.

74
 B–26 MARAUDER

CONSTRUCTION
It may have been rushed off the production
rather than lapped seams in its covering,
making the fuselage more streamlined, earning
it the ‘torpedo’ nickname.
line, but the B-26 was a sophisticated war The Marauder carried so much equipment
machine. Entering, and subsequently winning, that it couldn’t sustain much flak before getting
a competition for a new US medium bomber in in trouble. This made it ineffective at low-level
1939, one of the major differences between it attack missions, meaning it was soon changed
and its predecessors was the use of plastic. to a medium-level bomber to make it more
Before the Marauder, military aircraft were durable in combat. The original models also
made mostly out of metal, but the B-26 suffered from problems with the landing gear,
changed this by using cheap and readily but these were corrected by a heat-treatment
available plastic. It also used butted seams process that improved the hydraulic system.

“BEFORE THE MARAUDER, MILITARY AIRCRAFT WERE MADE

The design was put forward by Peyton M Magruder MOSTLY OUT OF METAL, BUT THE B-26 CHANGED THIS BY USING
of the Glenn L Martin Company, but was a work in
progress for the first few years of its life CHEAP AND READILY AVAILABLE PLASTIC”
A small wing area helped give the B-26 a
formidable top speed of 458km/h (285mph)

A shoulder-mounted monoplane design,

the engines had a forward placement
in the wings so the cockpit could keep
a closer eye on their condition

THE AMERIKA BOMBER PROJECT

During the latter stages of the war, a long-range bomber was sought after by the engine, it would have been very similar to the USAAF B-29 Superfortress. The
Axis powers. With the added resources and manpower from the USA bolstering proposal could have feasibly worked, but constant Allied bombing and a lack of raw
Britain and the USSR, attacks on the American mainland could stunt Allied wartime materials in the Third Reich dashed hopes of a transatlantic attack. As for Project
production significantly. The ‘Amerika Bomber’ and ‘Project Z’ programmes were Z, the Japanese simply did not have the engine power to make a realistic effort at
put forward by Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan respectively. The Germans attacking the USA. The Ha-44 engine was the most powerful available at the time,
prototyped the Messerschmitt Me 264 for strikes on New York from continental but it would have suffered cooling problems trying to lift a bomber capable of
Europe in December 1942. Heavily armoured and fi tted with a turbocharged sustained attacks on American soil.

Only three ME 264s were built before

the German project was abandoned

75
 BRIEFING

War in
Donbass
A separatist rebellion has torn apart Ukraine’s east
and brought relations between Russia and the
West to their lowest level since the Cold War
WORDS TOM FARRELL

A
s the capital of Ukraine’s breakaway government had inflamed its chief patron,
region of Donbass, Donetsk has President Vladimir Putin. When separatist
somehow avoided the completely rebellion spread through Donbass, Russia
shattered look of many cities in war time. began to intervene on behalf of the insurgents.
There are plenty of bullet and mortar-gouged It is uncertain how many military and civilian
buildings, but on many streets, there is a deaths have occurred since May 2014;
semblance of normalcy. Even so, at least two estimates go up to 7,000.
thirds of businesses are believed to have The alienation many Russian speakers felt
closed and there is no banking in the city. after the fall of Yanukovych is attested to by
A curfew descends at 10pm, and in the the agenda of the Donbass-based Novorossiya
distance, the thud of exploding mortars can (New Russia) Party. As announced by the
be heard. Pre-war Donetsk, a mining town Donetsk ‘People’s Governor’ Pavel Gubarev on
whose Soviet legacy is evident in its socialist- 22 May 2014, it promises the nationalisation
realist buildings of state, was home to more of key industries, Russian orthodoxy as the
than 1 million people; many of them have now
fled. Donbass encompasses the two Oblasts
state religion and a confederation of Ukraine’s
southern and eastern regions.
“It is uncertain
(administrative divisions) of Donetsk and
Luhansk. Its pre-war population was 4.5 million,
A key turning point in the conflict came
in mid-2014, when Putin began extending how many
and most of the 2 million civilians internally
displaced by the fighting in Ukraine originated
‘humanitarian’ assistance across the border.
Donbass has since come to resemble one military and
from here.
Although the pro-Russian insurgents who
of the proxy battlefields of the Cold War.
During this period, unwilling to risk a direct civilian deaths
control the city have not erected checkpoints
around Donetsk, they can sometimes be
confrontation and possible escalation to
a nuclear war, Moscow and Washington have occurred
seen bouncing through the streets in cars or
minivans. On occasion, they may pass the
‘outsourced’ conflict to various client regimes
and insurgencies throughout Africa, Asia and since May 2014;
estimates go up
11-storey government buildings where, on 11 Latin America. Today’s conflict in the industrial
May 2014, the separatist Oplot militia gathered east of Ukraine, however, is ethno-nationalist

to 7,000”
to declare independence from Ukraine. and territorial rather than ideological.
Oplot was led by the 37-year-old Alexander But the Cold War echoes are evident.
Vladimirovich Zakharchenko. By the time he Officially, the Kremlin denies it has troops
was appointed prime minister of the Donetsk fighting in Ukraine even if bases are
Peoples’ Republic (DPR) in August, the region mushrooming on the Russian side of the
was mired in bitter fighting. border. Officially, the United States has sent
In the aftermath of the populist revolt that 300 troops to western Ukraine for advisory and
toppled President Viktor Yanukovych, the EU training purposes. Total ‘non-lethal’ aid has
and NATO-friendly posture of Ukraine’s new reached $300 million.

UKRAINE’S August 1991

Following an attempted
November 2004
The Orange Revolution begins,
February 2010
Viktor Yanukovych is declared

ESCALATING coup in Moscow, Ukraine’s

parliament declares
led by Viktor Yushchenko
and Yulia Tymoshenko, after
winner in the presidential
election and begins to reverse

POLITICAL independence from the

Soviet Union in a referendum
reports of election rigging by
the pro-Russian premier Viktor
democratic reforms. His rival
Yulia Tymoshenko will be

TURMOIL endorsed by 90 per cent of

the electorate.
Yanukovych. Protests centre in
Kiev’s Independence Square.
arrested in the next year on
charges of abusing her powers.

76
 A pro-Russian
separatist taking
part in the capture
of Debaltseve in
February 2015

RUSSIA

DONBASS
REGION

POLAND
UKRAINE

TURKEY
BRIEFING

After the 17th century, when the Ukrainian

Cossacks signed a treaty with the tsar of “Molotov cocktails,
Moscovy, the western regions of Ukraine
passed between the rule of Warsaw and projectiles and
Moscow. Long after this, the glue of Soviet
power held in place a fault line between the barricades were
western and Slavic worlds for a long time. That
fault line is once again active, with nuclear- met with tear gas
armed players on either side.

Euromaidan
and riot shields”
For many outside observers, however, it had concentrated around Maidan Nezalezhnosti
been a question of when, not if, this fault (Independence Square). 24 years earlier, when
line would become active. Viktor Yanukovych it had been called Lenin Square, thousands of
himself had hailed from Donbass. Resource- students had gathered there and called for a
rich and nestling on Russia’s southern flank, a referendum on breaking from the Soviet Union.
consultative referendum in the region in 1994 A decade before, the Square had been a focal
had been called concurrently with Ukraine’s point of the Orange Revolution.
first parliamentary election. But its proposals, Now protestors once again formed their own
endorsed by most of the Donbass population, ‘zone’ in Maidan Nezalezhnosti and demanded
were ignored: Ukraine did not federalise and that Ukraine sign an Association Agreement
Russian was not adopted as a state language. with the EU.
Thereafter, calls for autonomy faded for a Tens of thousands of people clashed with
few years. At the behest of the World Bank, a the security forces on Kiev’s streets: Molotov
bracing programme of privatisation was pushed cocktails, projectiles and barricades were
through Donbass and many mines were closed. met with tear gas and riot shields. Then, on
Awash with new, and often corrupt, money, a 20 February, the police used live rounds,
regional elite of oligarchs became rich. Many killing more than 50 civilians. Yanukovych was
provided support for Yanukovych. shipped off to Moscow a few days later. Russia
Upon taking power in February 2010, he denounced the overthrow of his government as
rapidly reversed the pro-Western stance of a “fascist coup.”
his predecessor Viktor Yushchenko, who had
been elevated to the presidency by the 2004 Crimea annexed and aftermath
‘Orange’ Revolution. Not that Ukraine’s strongman was prepared to
Ukraine’s politics were watched cautiously by gently bow out: on 1 March, Yanukovych, now
President Putin. Nationalistic and authoritarian, in exile, called on Russian forces to “establish
the former KGB lieutenant colonel has sought legitimacy, peace, law and order, stability and
to re-establish a Russian ‘sphere of influence’ defending the people of Ukraine.”
of the type that existed in the Cold War era. Putin certainly had some radical ideas on
Moscow has sought to reign in any overtures how to do this. On 16 March, a referendum
to the west by several nearby nations: Belarus, in the Crimean region decisively endorsed
Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. Russian rule. By that point, Russian troops had
But Ukraine was ahead of the others in having already seized key locations in the peninsula.
already initialised a trade agreement with the The referendum results were internationally
European Union. contested: sanctions were imposed on Russia
Opponents of Yanukovych wanted more, along with travel restrictions and bans against
however. During November and December of certain citizens.
2013, there had been anti-government protests Putin did not budge: the loss of Crimea to
in Kiev. The ‘Euromaidan’ movement sought a Western-aligned regime would spell the end
a closer relationship with the EU and, later, of Russia as a world power if the Russian fleet
changes to the Constitution that would lessen could not access Sevastopol, their only warm-
presidential power. water port.
To Putin and his Slav-nationalist power base, Moreover, while these events unfolded, semi-
this was a dangerous precedent, one that populist revolts erupted in the resource-rich
could bring NATO right up to Russia’s borders. east. The first phase of the ‘War in Donbass’
A critical turning point came on 17 December, would last roughly from mid April to late June
when Yanukovych announced a deal struck 2014. Self-proclaimed militias representing the
with Putin wherein Russia agreed to buy $15 Russian-speaking minority materialised and,
billion in Ukrainian bonds and slash the price of usually after standoffs with the authorities,
natural gas by one third. seized key buildings.
Essentially, this was a rebuke to the Once the independence of Donetsk and
protestors, who nonetheless were back on the Luhansk had been formally declared on 11
streets by 24 December. The protests were May, the battles grew more violent. Pro-Russian

21 November 2013 16 January 2014 20 February 2014 22 February 2014

Yanukovych’s cabinet abandons After thousands of Several dozen As protesters seize
a trade agreement with the EU protesters occupy demonstrators are killed administrative buildings,
and later announces a deal on Independence Square in over 48 hours in Kiev in the Yanukovych disappears and later
energy and the purchase of Kiev, parliament passes worst violence in the capital resurfaces in Moscow. Yulia
bonds with Russia’s Vladimir anti-protest laws. Clashes for decades. Video footage Tymoshenko is freed from prison
Putin. First anti-government with the security forces shows uniformed snipers and parliament votes to remove
protests begin. become more violent. firing on protesters. the president from office.

78
 WAR IN DONBASS

rebels were able to

source government-
owned vehicles and
weaponry. But by mid
July, most rebel-held
towns had been retaken
by the government forces.
Following a week-long
ceasefire, the breakaway
region seemed poised to be
retaken by the government.
This first phase of the war
got under way while the dust of
the Euromaidan revolution was still
settling in Kiev. In May, presidential
elections brought Petro Poroshenko
to power. A Western-friendly oligarch who
had built his fortune on confectionary, his
administration proved a controversial bulwark
against the supposed expansionism of Putin.
Ukraine’s 150,000-man army would stand
little chance should Russian forces directly
Above: Donetsk International intervene in the fighting. Thus his government
Airport lies in ruins after being permitted the incorporation of several
captured by rebels militantly nationalist groups into the recently
Left: In January 2014, a barricade re-established National Guard that had been
is set alight in Kiev after anti- tasked with counter-insurgency. These included
government protests turned violent some decidedly unsavoury factions that had
nonetheless played an important role during
Below: A Russia-backed rebel
takes cover in the ruins of Donetsk the Euromaidan protests.
International Airport Notable among these was Right Sector,
whose ideology encompasses Christian
Below, left: A Cossack fighter stands fundamentalism, gun rights and homophobia.
near two Ukrainian soldiers’ bodies
on the outskirts of Debaltseve Early on it was claimed that Right Sector had
come to the rescue of the pro-government
Donbass Battalion: in May 2014, Right Sector
had allegedly helped them escape when they
became besieged by angry villagers while
attempting to clear a separatist checkpoint in
Karlivka, a village north west of Donetsk. Both
the battalion and the Poroshenko government
denied their involvement.
But the invocation of fascist or communist
extremism has been an easy matter in a nation
that was brutalised by both ideologies within
living memory. That same month, the leader
of the Donbass People’s Militia, Igor Girkin –
who is also know as Strelkov – called on the
Russian Federation to provide military support
“against NATO” and “genocide.”
A referendum, not recognised by Kiev,
resulted in 89 per cent of the Donetsk and
96 per cent of the Luhansk electorate voting
to break from Ukraine. By that time, fighting
between government forces and separatists
had convulsed Artemivsk, Sloviansk,

“The loss of Crimea to a western- Karamtorsk, Horlivka, Mariupol and several

smaller towns.

aligned regime would spell the end of In these cases, the separatists seized
government buildings. On some occasions,

Russia as a world power” police and soldiers defected to their side.

On others, they were able to requisition large
supplies of weaponry. Girkin’s forces entered

27-28 February 2014 7 April 2014 11 May 2014 25 May 2014 5 July 2014
Pro-Russian gunmen seize Protesters in the Russian-speaking Separatists declare independence in the The EU-friendly oligarch DPR fighters abandon their
government buildings in the east occupy government buildings in Donbass region after a referendum that is Petro Poroshenko is stronghold of Sloviansk
Crimean capital of Simferopol. Donetsk, Luhansk and Kharkiv, calling not recognised by Kiev. The declarations elected president of as fighting comes close
Gunmen appear outside the main for an independence referendum. of the Donetsk People’s Republic (DPR) Ukraine and vows to quell to the Russian border.
airports in the peninsula. A ballot Acting President Olexander Turchynov and Luhansk People’s Republic (LRP) are separatism in the east. Already, Ukrainian Airforce
endorsing Russian rule is contested announces an ‘anti-terrorist’ operation supposedly endorsed by almost all of the Much of the east does not helicopters and planes have
by Ukraine and the West. aimed at recapturing rebel-held areas. electorate in both Oblasts. vote in the election. been shot down.

79
BRIEFING

Sloviansk in April, for example, driving six

“As fighting raged close to the

armoured personnel carriers they claimed to
have captured from the Army’s 25th Airborne

Russian border, the cause of Donbass

Brigade in Kramatorsk. When separatists
raided the armoury in Artemvisk, it housed

seemed precarious – then in mid July,

about 30 tanks.
From early on, Donetsk International Airport

the conflict took a shocking new turn”

was the focal point of heavy fighting between
the government and the separatists. On 26
May 2014, about 200 members of the pro-
Russian Vostok Battalion captured the main
terminal of the airport and set up roadblocks
on the outskirts. Several dozen insurgents were
killed before government forces were able to
recapture the airport.
By late June, Ukrainian forces claimed to
have cleared separatists from the southern
and western sectors of Donetsk Oblast and
northern sector of Luhansk.
By that time, Ukrainian troops, assisted by
the National Guard, had retaken the key port
city of Mariupol, which, with the rebels still
holding Donetsk City, was designated as the
capital of Donetsk Oblast. On 5 July, the towns
of Sloviansk and Kramatorsk were retaken.
But even as government forces bore down on
Donetsk and Luhansk, the scale of the fighting
was escalating.
The most obvious example had been the
fighting around Yampil, a town held by several
thousand rebels close to government-controlled
Krasni Lyman. Government forces intended
to take Yampil and push forward to rebel-held
Siversk. On 19 June, they attacked Yampil with
air and artillery strikes; although the insurgents
admitted to a death toll in the hundreds, they
did not withdraw for at least 24 hours and also
claimed to have downed a Su-25 bomber. Pro-Russian fighters in
Debaltseve in February 2015
As fighting raged close to the Russian border,
the cause of Donbass seemed precarious –
then in mid July, the conflict took a shocking
new turn.

Flight MH17
None of the 15 crew or 283 passengers on
Malaysia Flight MH17 could have imagined
their fate as the Boeing 777 ascended from
Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport on 17 July. The
aircraft was the same model, ironically, that
had vanished over the seas of South East Asia
four months earlier.
En route to Kuala Lumpur, contact was
lost with the pilot at 13.20 GMT about 50
kilometres from the Russia-Ukraine border.
Footage soon emerged from rebel-controlled
Donetsk showing wreckage and witnesses
reported seeing bodies falling from the sky.
None of the crew or passengers, including
80 children, survived. Weeks passed before all
the wreckage and bodies were removed, the
work being hampered by fighting in the region.
Eventually, a deal was done with the militias
and investigating teams went in.

17 July 2014 22 August 2014 28 August 2014 5 September 2014 21 October 2014
Malaysia Airlines MH17 from A huge ‘humanitarian’ convoy The DPR leader Alexander The Ukraine government Human Rights Watch accuses
Amsterdam is shot down near the of Russian vehicles delivers Zakharchenko says that and the insurgents sign Ukrainian forces of having used
Russia-Ukraine border with the loss aid to the besieged rebel-held at least 4,000 Russian a truce in Minsk but it is cluster bombs during attacks
of 298 lives, including 80 children. town of Luhansk. Ukraine does civilians have joined the subject to many violations. on the city of Donetsk. More
Russia denies accusations that they not authorise the operation insurgents. Ukraine releases Many Russian troops Russian troops stationed near
supplied the ‘BUK’ missile believed and later says a Russian video footage of captured withdraw from the the border are ordered by Putin
to have downed the aircraft. invasion is under way. Russian paratroops. Donbass region. to return to their bases.

80
 WAR IN DONBASS

Just who shot down Flight MH17 has since were able to recapture many of the strongholds
become a matter of heated argument. US established during April and May.
officials from the office of the Director of The Russians have often fought without
National Intelligence have concluded that quarter. In September, following their
the plane was “likely” downed by a Russian- abandonment of the town of Ilovaisk, Ukrainian
supplied SA-11 missile, known as a ‘BUK’, forces were reportedly attacked by Russian
while Moscow has placed blame at the feet of forces while travelling through a ‘green
Ukrainian forces. corridor’ arranged for their retreat. According to
The Dutch Safety Board is currently leading Ukraine’s military, hundreds were killed.
an international probe, having already recovered Two attempted peace ‘protocols’ called
the aircraft’s flight recorder. In July of this year, Minsk I (5 September) and Minsk II (11
Malaysia pushed for the draft resolution of an February) sought to implement ceasefires and
international tribunal into the fate of the aircraft demilitarisation in the region during 2014-
to be put before the UN Security Council. Only 15. They were signed after extensive talks
one of the 15 council members used its veto to in Belarus and brokered by the Organisation
block the resolution: Russia. for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Both
were repeatedly violated. By late September,
Russian intervention a second battle broke out at Donetsk
The ill-fated MH17 was not the first aircraft International Airport and this time the DPR were
to be blown out of the skies. On 14 June, a victorious. Within a week of Minsk II, Ukrainian
Ukrainian Airforce Ilyushin Il-76 was shot down forces abandoned Debaltseve, an important
while attempting to land troops and supplies at road and rail junction on the eastern edge
Luhansk Airport, killing all 49 aboard. More and of Donetsk. The battle left dozens dead or
more sophisticated weapons were appearing on missing on both sides.
the battlefield, including big guns and advanced At present, although there are skirmishes
missile systems. along both sides’ lines of control, there have
Although Putin denied involvement been no changes of territory since June.
in Donbass, Russian ‘volunteers’ were
increasingly appearing on the battlefield. They Frozen conflict
have not been the only foreign fighters reported The military deadlock in Donbass may reflect
in the region: Don Cossack, Chechen, Ossetian a wider political impasse. Russian troops are
and Abkhazi paramilitaries have been seen at believed to be ready for a large-scale conflict
such battle sites as Donetsk Airport. and there are about 40,000 troops in Rostov
Pro-Russian rebels fire grad rockets On 27 August, after two columns of Russian Oblast. A possible future target could be the
on Ukrainian positions on 13 February
tanks crossed the border, Ukraine’s Foreign port of Mariupol, which has large metallurgical
2015 in Debaltseve, Ukraine
Minister called the conflict an invasion by plants and provides access to the Sea of Azov.
Russian forces. NATO later verified that troops From Putin’s perspective, it makes sense
from the 76th Guard Air Assault entered that to establish a land corridor to the Crimean
month and other evidence emerged in the region, which is now sunk in recession, afflicted
ensuing months: in January 2015, for example, by inflation and collapsed investment. But
a Russian BPM-97 armoured personnel carrier according to two US studies, Russia would
was filmed in Luhansk. need to set aside nearly 150,000 troops to
But ‘voluntary’ or not, the presence of do this. Given that the Russian armed forces
Russians in Donbass marked the beginning of consist of 750,000 soldiers, this is unlikely.
a reversal of the separatists’ fortunes. After Putin may feel frustrated that Poroshenko’s
coming close to defeat, DPR and LPR forces government hasn’t fallen. Russia risks more
sanctions being imposed with further action

“Although and the war has done the economy no favours:

by December 2014, the ruble had fallen by 40

Putin denied per cent. But the options for the Ukrainians are
also limited.

involvement in Poroshenko is relying on links with the

West; the IMF and EU have offered billions

Donbass, Russian in aid but these are dependent on political

reforms. Politically, he will gain little at home

‘volunteers’ were from a conciliatory approach that tacitly

concedes power to Russia in Crimea or

increasingly recognises some form of limited self-rule in

Donbass. He will certainly be badly imperilled

The victims of flight MH17 appearing on the by another military defeat on the scale of
Debaltseve. The conflict looks unlikely to

battlefield”
are remembered end soon: the historic fault-line could trigger
Images: Getty Images, Rex Features

dangerous earthquakes.

3 November 11 February 2015 3 June 2015 31 August 2015

2014 Second Minsk Protocol is signed DPR insurgents attack One member of the
Elections in the east take but fighting continues. DPR fighters government-held Marinka National Guard is killed
place but are condemned capture Donetsk International and briefly hold part of in clashes with right-wing
as bogus by Poroshenko. Airport, which is almost completely the town before being nationalists outside Kiev’s
The polls are condemned destroyed after weeks of fighting. expelled by Ukrainian parliament as MPs vote on
by the West but backed Ukrainian forces abandon the forces. Artillery and tanks plans to give autonomy to
by Russia. eastern town of Debaltseve. are used in the battle. the Russian-speaking east.

81
THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

A kamikaze attack on
carrier USS Belleau Wood
off the coast of Luzon left a
fire that killed 92 crewmen

82
 the
Divine Wind
DEATH
of

Inside the culture of sacrifice and nationhood

behind Japan’s kamikaze pilots
WORDS MIGUEL MIRANDA

T
hey called it the Pacific War. Barely three A week later, on the morning of 25 October,
years after the spectacular success Japanese A6M Zeros from the 201st Air Group
at Pearl Harbor, the Imperial Japanese came in low and fast over Leyte Gulf. The
Navy (IJN) was on its last legs. From Midway previous day’s missions had been difficult and
to Palau, Japan suffered losses – carriers, inconclusive, but now the sun was out and
cruisers, submarines, planes and men – that the American carriers were exposed just off
couldn’t be replaced even with the utmost Tacloban, Leyte’s capital.
effort to maximise industrial production. These were escort carriers – basically large
In the last quarter of 1944, any remaining hulls supporting broad wooden decks loaded
hope for victory over the Allies was brutally with fighters. They were first used in the
quashed. On 12 October, US Army aircraft Atlantic to hunt U-boats; in the Pacific, they
clashed with the Japanese planes stationed on became indispensable for air cover during
Formosa, and more than 300 Japanese planes landings. Escort carriers were so prolific that
were lost, denying air cover for the garrisons in US shipyards built more than 120 of them, and
the Philippine Islands. they were in production until the war’s end.
The latest intelligence revealed that a vast The Zeros each carried a 500-pound bomb
American armada was steaming towards Leyte and pilots were determined to sink their
Gulf unopposed. There weren’t enough combat targets even as the tracers from incoming AA
aircraft to block an amphibious landing, and it guns menaced them. The squadron leader,
would take days before two flotillas that had Lieutenant Yukio Seki, was killed together with
been sent from Singapore and Japan arrived. his men, their planes blown to fiery bits.
Desperate times, as the saying goes, called for However, Lieutenant Seki was skilled enough
desperate measures. to crash his plane on the USS St Lo’s runway,
On 17 October, the same day the US Sixth his payload detonating below deck. It was
Army began its assault on Leyte, Vice Admiral a nightmare to behold: acrid black smoke
Takijiro Onishi set foot in Luzon, the Philippines’ engulfed the flat top as its crew abandoned
main island. The brash air-power advocate who ship. St Lo took 113 men with it to the bottom
once lobbied for an all-carrier IJN fleet was of the sea. Its sister carriers USS Santee,
taking command of the battered 1st Air Fleet Kitkun Bay and Suwannee suffered hits too.
based in Mabalacat Airfield. This was a shocking new type of war.

“IF ONLY WE MIGHT FALL

LIKE CHERRY BLOSSOMS IN THE SPRING –
SO PURE AND RADIANT!” – Haiku of an unknown kamikaze pilot

83
THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

TRAINING FOR THE TOKKO TAI

BY EARLY 1945, THOUSANDS OF YOUNG MEN WERE BEING RECRUITED AND
‘VOLUNTEERED’ FOR A CAMPAIGN OF UNRELENTING AERIAL SUICIDE ATTACKS
With the Philippine Islands lost, Japan’s 1945, Tokko Tai pilots were only given 30
generals and admirals were worried about hours of flight training in airfields outside the
an impending American sprint across the town of Chiran, in Kagoshima Prefecture.
Pacific toward the mainland. To thwart this If a mission was aborted, the Tokko
possibility, they envisioned dedicated special Tai manual instructed that a pilot “should
attack squadrons of suicide aircraft called be jovial and without remorse” upon his
‘tokubetsu kôgeki tai’ or ‘Tokko Tai’ for short. return. Tokko Tai pilots flew with no special
Tokko Tai formally became a new branch equipment or designation. Before flying,
of the Army and Navy Air Corps in March they scribbled a haiku, sipped from a cup of
1945, after US forces captured Iwo Jima. The whiskey and tied a white hachimaki round
concept of suicide flights really began with an their heads.
experimental weapon, the Ohka, but officers The excellent A6M Zero manufactured by
like Vice Admiral Onishi showed how planes Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, along with many
excelled at the same role. It was during the older planes, was used indiscriminately in the
battle for Okinawa that US intelligence picked Philippines and Okinawa. The ideal kamikaze
up a new term from Japanese propaganda tactic was to skim the waves as they neared
broadcasts: kamikaze. It recalled the tempest an American warship. The coup de grace
that annihilated Kublai Khan’s invasion of was to climb and then dive towards the area
Japan in the 13th century. between the bridge and the smokestacks. In
Young men, with or without flying their last seconds of consciousness, it was
experience, were given the choice to volunteer suggested that pilots scream “hissatsu!”
for the Tokko Tai if they were already enlisted. (meaning ‘certain kill’) to hasten a doomed
Many others, usually undergraduates still ship’s destruction.
in university, were drafted. On multiple Sentimentality also mattered for Tokko Tai
occasions, officers who volunteered were pilots. Their manual told them to remember
denied simply because their skills would their mothers as they perished. Upon dying,
be put to better use training the would- they were assured “all the cherry blossoms at
be kamikazes. Tokko Tai pilots weren’t Yasukuni shrine in Tokyo will smile brightly at
brainwashed to venerate death, however. It you.” In practice, hundreds of kamikazes were
Members of 72nd Shinbu Squadron. They
was made perfectly clear their actions were lost crashing into the water rather than their
flew kamikaze attacks the next day
a last resort. At its peak in the summer of intended targets.

the father of kamikaze

TAKIJIRO ONISHI WAS A VETERAN PILOT CREDITED AS THE FIRST OFFICER TO ORGANISE
A SUCCESSFUL SPECIAL ATTACK ON ALLIED FORCES
Born in Hyogo Prefecture on 6 June 1891, Takijiro Onishi’s Like many of his peers, Onishi harboured serious doubts
life coincided with the rise of Imperial Japan. Detailed about the effectiveness of Special Attack tactics. It was
biographies about him are very scarce and few go beyond particularly disturbing for an officer with his background,
crediting Onishi as the ‘Father of Special Attack’. This given his expert grasp of modern air combat.
supposedly originated from an unconventional tactic he Onishi kept his misgivings to himself. Like the rest of
explained to subordinates for crippling a US Navy aircraft the IJN in 1944, he was gripped by a determination to do
carrier – by crashing a bomb-laden plane into it. anything for the Japanese cause, more so with the Allies
He was one of the first IJN fighter aces during the drawing near in ever greater numbers.
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45). A staunch patriot, Onishi’s personal conduct during the campaign to
Onishi also believed that it was unsound for Japan to reconquer the Philippine Islands is unknown. But the Tokko
wage war on the United States of America. Despite Tai tactics he devised were still being carried out well into
this, he is recognised as one of the planners 1945 by IJN holdouts in the Philippines, with disappointing
behind the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. results. Back in Tokyo, Onishi knew, at least privately, that
Some kamikaze writers suggest Onishi was Special Attack tactics were squandering lives.
introduced to the concept of self-sacrifice The architect of kamikaze met a terrible end. Hearing
among Japanese pilots in either 1943 or of the emperor’s surrender message over the radio, the
early 1944. disheartened Onishi committed seppuku, or ritual suicide.
By the time he arrived in the Philippine But in a macabre twist, he was found a day later, on 16
Islands, Onishi had new orders – from August, writhing in agony. Having disembowelled himself
exactly who is unknown – to organise with a knife, he was unable to slit his throat and refused
a Special Attack operation using the a swift decapitation from a second. He lingered for hours
squadrons of the 1st Air Fleet. before finally dying.

“HE WAS GRIPPED BY A DETERMINATION TO DO ANYTHING FOR THE

Takijiro Onishi was responsible for
some of the technical details of the
attack on Pearl Harbor
JAPANESE CAUSE, MORE SO WITH THE ALLIES DRAWING NEAR”
84
 THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

Before taking to the skies, Tokko Tai

pilots donned a cotton hachimaki
bandana as a symbol of their
individual determination

85
THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

MACHINE OF DEATH
WHILE THE KAMIKAZE’S MISSION WAS OFTEN FRUSTRATED BY
MECHANICAL FAILURE, THEIR AIRCRAFT WERE SUPERB EXAMPLES
OF ENGINEERING AND AERODYNAMIC INNOVATION

Japan entered World War II with the

finest combat aircraft in Asia. The TANDEM
problem was that the USA could build ARMAMENTS
more of its own fighters. Japanese The Zero carried two
planes also had weaker engines, less light machine guns
armour protection, and couldn’t match the and a pair of nastier
altitude of US heavy bombers. carriers in Midway, the Philippine Sea and other surprises. These were
For the Tokko Tai, however, the type of battles limited its effectiveness. two Type 99 20mm
aircraft wasn’t always important. The plan, The advent of Tokko Tai tactics marked the cannons, one on
drawn up at Tachiarai Joint Service Flight Zero’s undoing. With insufficient armour plating, each wing. Based on
School outside Chiran as well as in other countless numbers of them were blown to bits the Swiss Oerlikon,
THE IMPERIAL nearby airfields, was to deploy as many Special as they approached US warships. The IJN Air the Allied ships also
CHAMPION Attack formations as possible. Corps officers used aircraft like ordnance and used the same gun on
Entering production in In 1945, there was still enough A6M Zeros cared little for keeping their planes airworthy. incoming Zeros.
1940, the A6M Reisen
left for use in kamikaze missions. Hundreds This, along with diluted aviation fuel supplies,
or Zero became
of the older A5M fighters were co-opted for explains the high rate of failure among Special
notorious in China for
defeating any aircraft
the missions as well. Designed by the inventor Attack missions. Below left: Zeros prepare
that flew against it. and engineer Jiro Horikoshi in the late 1930s, Once a Tokko Tai pilot was selected and for takeoff to take part in
During the months the Zero was a lightweight marvel with superb trained, his plane was given enough fuel the first wave of the attack
manoeuvrability and an excellent 14-cylinder to reach the area of operations. A single on Pearl Harbor
after Pearl Harbor, Below centre: The one-
it continued winning 1,130 horsepower engine. 500-pound bomb was loaded along with man cockpit of an A6M5
dogfights against At the beginning of Japan’s Pacific War, the ammunition for the twin 7.7mm machine guns Zero Model 52
many Allied planes it Zero proved its superiority over American rivals and 20mm cannons. Barring a mid-air crash or Below: A Mitsubishi A6M2b
like the F4F Wildcat. More than 10,000 Zeros an accident, the Tokko Tai pilot embraced his Zero from the Zuikaku
faced in the air.
Aircraft Group during the
would be built, but the gradual loss of IJN end as he flew to his target. attack on Pearl Harbor

86
 THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

A FATAL FLAW
The Zero’s greatest asset was its manoeuvrability. This
was made possible by its lightweight airframe, which had
little armour protection. When the Allies started deploying
heavier planes like the F6F Hellcat, the Zero couldn’t
survive sustained damage.

a final flight
MOST TOKKO TAI PILOTS WERE
DETERMINED TO KILL THEMSELVES, BUT
ON ONE OCCASION, FATE HAD OTHER
PLANS FOR AN UNLUCKY FLIER
weekly news magazine, about the experiences of
a genuine kamikaze pilot. Contrasting the often
one-dimensional and racist depiction of Japanese
servicemen, the profile of Norio Okamoto tackles
letter home. He wrote to his parents for delivery
after he died.
But he was soon disappointed by his
treatment at the hands of the Tokko Tai officers.
its subject matter with a little humour. Not that he was abused or maligned, rather
For thousands of American sailors and pilots, Okamoto fit the profile for a Tokko Tai candidate. Okamoto was forced to endure lectures about
thwarting the incoming kamikaze was a living A 23-year-old flight instructor wanting to avenge the virtues of ancient samurai and sent off on
nightmare. Surviving the experience naturally a brother killed on Formosa, he volunteered with “an old sea plane.”
inspired a curious regard for the Japanese who grim enthusiasm. Okamoto then revealed a rare Okamoto crashed halfway to Okinawa due to
seemed so eager to vanquish them. Soon after courtesy extended to Tokko Tai pilots. Before their engine failure and was stranded at sea with his
the war’s end, a story ran in Yank, the US Army’s deployment, they were allowed to write a short navigator, who perished in the shark-infested
waters. After hours afloat, he reached an island
Grim proof of Onishi’s handiwork. Once inhabited by suspicious natives deathly afraid of
Tokko Tai missions began in October US air strikes. He was well fed and sat out the
1944, any large Allied ship was fair game
war until its end.
Interestingly, Okamoto didn’t mind helping
himself to boxes of American C-rations that
floated ashore. He wasn’t bitter towards his
country’s occupiers either. Okamoto aspired to
become a trader of imported merchandise.
Numerous accounts of Tokko Tai pilots and their
experiences have been published since 1945; just
as many films and documentaries are released
based on their memoirs. But not all recollections
were as light-hearted as Norio Okamoto’s.
For Warrant Officer Shoichi Ota, who carried
out the doomed Ohka programme with its
emphasis on a manned bomb, the stigma of
being involved in Special Attack activities was
too much to bear.
A rumour spread that he crashed a plane
into the sea after Japan’s surrender. It turned
out that he changed his name during the Allied
occupation of Japan and raised a family, putting
his past behind him. He never spoke about his
role during the war until he became unwell in
his old age. Shortly before his death in 1995, he
finally confessed to his son.

87
THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

STATE SHINTO AND

THE GOD EMPEROR
WHAT WERE THE UNDERLYING REASONS BEHIND JAPAN’S CULT OF SELF-SACRIFICE
AND WHY DID SO MANY YOUNG MEN ACCEPT THEIR ROLE AS KAMIKAZES?
There are still many false assumptions surrounding the in its classical sense wasn’t immediately intertwined with
kamikaze of World War II. Most striking is the belief that it the conduct of kamikaze pilots. When the Yasukuni shrine
was embraced by the IJN as a credible strategy. For Tadanao was erected in Tokyo in 1869, the final year of the Meiji
Miki, an engineer tasked with building the Ohka flying bomb Restoration that replaced the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan
(dubbed the ‘cherry blossom’), the idea was bizarre when slowly shed its feudal system and its values. Instead,
first mentioned to him. What made its practice widespread, Yasukuni represented Japan’s newfound modernity and the
especially during the Okinawa campaign, was the profound emperor’s place in it.
sense of duty among Japanese servicemen and citizens. This After a Prussian-influenced constitution was adopted in
is why personal appeals by the emperor together with rosy 1898, a deference for state institutions began to mould
propaganda inspired so many volunteers. It was certainly the national character. This meant total obedience to the
ignoble death, but it was for a higher cause. emperor, whose divine mandate imbued the government,
Japanese soldiers, being patriotic to the core, weren’t the military, the university and civil society with an
obsessed with dying either. Death in battle overwhelming importance above the needs of any individual.
was a last resort and many kamikazes who This state of mind was reinforced by powerful symbolism,
survived the war admitted a reluctance to like the 16-petal chrysanthemum, the Imperial seal, and a
squander their lives. call to obedience used as an emblem by the Japanese Army
Although Japan’s samurai and Navy.
heritage is often pointed out as an Japanese servicemen began sacrificing themselves as
inspiration for suicidal actions in soon as the tide began to turn against their country. The
battle, it’s quite ironic that the critical moment was the arrival of American long-range
samurai ideal of ‘bushido’ bombers in 1944. Unable to defeat American B-29s with
machine guns, remote incidents of fighter pilots ramming
their planes began to warrant notice.
Below: Kamikaze pilots A growing awareness of Japan’s vulnerability influenced
at the Imperial Japanese the suicide ideal among the officer class. With the tacit
Chiran air base in Chiran, endorsement by the Japanese high command, those
Kagoshima, toast responsible for the Ohka flying bomb programme and willing
cups of sake before
departing on their officers in the IJN Air Corps soon organised a genuine
Tokko Tai missions suicide force despite its low chances of success.

A human deity who lived in secluded

splendour, Emperor Hirohito is
believed to have secretly approved of
the Tokko Tai program

88
 THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

THE CHERRY BLOSSOM TAKES FLIGHT

LIKE A CRUDE EXOCET, A RESOURCE-POOR JAPAN MANAGED TO BUILD A VIABLE ANTI-SHIP MISSILE. BUT COULD IT TURN THE TIDE?
As early as 1943, the Aeronautical Research
Laboratory was tasked with developing a
rocket-powered ‘flying bomb’. In or before
August 1944, Warrant Officer Shoichi Ota told
a befuddled Lieutenant Commander Tadanao
Miki that in lieu of a guidance system, his
team should just install a cockpit on the MXY7
Ohka, the primitive cruise missile they referred
to as cherry blossom.
The suggestion launched the Divine Thunder
God Corps, the IJN’s newest elite unit and the
original Tokko Tais. The Thunder Gods were
supposed to steer their missile, which was
packed with 2,600 pounds of explosive, to
a target after being dropped in mid-air by a
‘mother ship’ – a bomber.
There was precious little time to organise, Air crew relax in front of a
Mitsubishi bomber loaded with an
train and equip the Thunder Gods for their MXY-7 Ohka plane
deployment. The first batch of Ohkas were
supposed to be deployed in the Philippine
Islands in 1944 but their transport, the warplanes and destroyed. Later in the Okinawa repeatedly failed their missions. When US
aircraft carrier Shinano, was sunk by an campaign, a single Ohka reportedly managed forces seized production models of the Ohka
American submarine. to target the destroyer USS Mannert L Abele on 1 April 1945, they re-christened it the Baka
The largest Thunder God mission involved a and sink it. – Japanese for ‘stupid’. Maybe because it
flight of 18 G4M medium bombers heading for The concept behind the Ohka might have was April Fool’s Day, or perhaps the idea of a
Okinawa. The formation was intercepted by US been futuristic, but these cherry blossoms piloted bomb was too silly to comprehend.

“THE THUNDER GODS WERE SUPPOSED TO STEER THEIR MISSILE, WHICH

WAS PACKED WITH 2,600 POUNDS OF EXPLOSIVE, TO A TARGET AFTER
BEING DROPPED IN MID-AIR BY A ‘MOTHER SHIP’ – A BOMBER”
PROPELLANT
The original MXY-7 Ohka was CHARGE
supposed to have rocket boosters
on its wing tips, but production
models shed this feature

SIMPLE
ALTIMETER

AIR SPEED

Illustration: Rebekka Hearl

INDICATOR

ROCKET MOTORS

ARMOUR PLATE
CHARGE

NOSE FUSE

ROCKET IGNITION
SWITCH
89
THE DIVINE WIND OF DEATH

CRACKING THE
AIR LIKE THUNDER
FOR ALLIED WARSHIPS AND THEIR CREWS, THE LAST AND ONLY LINE OF DEFENCE
FROM FANATICAL KAMIKAZES WAS GOOD OLD-FASHIONED FLACK
The Special Attack proved more ineffective the would blow it to pieces. Just as vital was US
more it was used. Since the kamikazes were Navy air cover for blowing up any incoming
only used en masse in two campaigns – Leyte suicide planes.
Gulf and Okinawa – a specific doctrine was By the time Okinawa was firmly under
never developed by the US Navy and Air Corps American control, it proved to be the costliest
to counter them. Most kamikaze missions battle in the Pacific Theatre. A total of 2,363
failed anyway, thanks to poorly maintained kamikaze attacks between October 1944 and
aircraft, shoddy training, and a far more lethal 21 June 1945 left more than 5,000 US and
factor: US gunnery. Allied dead.
By 1945, US warships were equipped with Approximately 40 Allied ships of all types
incredible anti-air and anti-submarine weapons. were sunk. An additional 368 were damaged. A
The former included radar-assisted guns, AA little more than a month after Okinawa, atomic
gun batteries and rapid-fire cannons. Most bombs levelled Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
effective were the twin 40mm Bofors mounted Japan surrendered on 15 August. The last
in nests on US Navy destroyers, carriers and kamikaze squadrons were disbanded and the
transports. These ack-ack guns filled the air once-doomed pilots lived on to demobilise for The US Navy’s four-barrel 1.1-inch or 28mm
with flack at medium ranges. peacetime. 70 years since, the kamikazes’ cannon was a crude close-in weapons system
If a lone kamikaze got too close, a 20mm notoriety remains a potent symbol of Japanese that spewed hot lead at 600 rpm
Oerlikon or tandem .50-calibre machine guns fighting spirit during World War II.

“IN BLOSSOM TODAY, THEN SCATTERED;

Below: The 40mm Bofors of Sweden was a
European success before licensed production
began in the United States in June 1941

LIFE IS SO LIKE A DELICATE FLOWER.

HOW CAN ONE EXPECT THE
FRAGRANCE TO LAST FOREVER?” - Admiral Takijiro Onishi

This image, moments before a kamikaze’s

impact, shows how Japanese pilots targeted
aircraft carrier elevators at an impossible angle

90
 BOOK REVIEWS
History of War’s pick of the newest military history
titles waiting for you on the shelves

AGINCOURT: GREAT BATTLES SERIES

Writer: Anne Curry Publisher: Oxford University Press Price: £18.99 Released: Out now
ONCE MORE UNTO THE BREACH… THE 600TH ANNIVERSARY OF AGINCOURT INSPIRES YET
ANOTHER BOOK, BUT THIS TIME FROM A UNIQUE ANGLE
Trafalgar, Waterloo, Balaclava… these place names may have
exotic origins but, because of the battles fought there, all are
now quintessentially English words weighted with meaning.
Despite the relative insignificance of Henry V’s victory over the
French near Azincourt castle in 1415, it is the name Agincourt
that rings out loudest through history.
In Anne Curry’s wonderfully accessible book about the
battle, she explores not only the truth about the clash itself
using contemporary sources, but just how it has come to play
such a significant role in English culture ever since. Along the
way she debunks some glorious myths – alas the origins of the
classic two-fingered salute wasn’t a defiant gesture created
by the English archers – while shoring up others that sounded
like later embellishments from a poet’s pen. The sky really was
black with arrows that day apparently, while the king himself
really could deliver a rousing team talk to his troops.
According to Curry, part of Agincourt’s resonance through
the ages seems to have been down to Henry’s particularly
fine grasp of PR. He was swift to take political advantage of
his victory, sending out a loud message across Europe and at
home that he wasn’t a man to be messed with and that God
was on his side. But it was undoubtedly the contribution of a
certain Mr W Shakespeare that has done the most to confirm
Agincourt in the English imagination as an inspiring tale of
overturned odds.
Shakespeare’s Henry V was written at a time when England
was involved in a protracted conflict with Spain and was
steeling itself for what would be a messy conflict in Ireland.
The rousing speeches that pepper the play were intended
by Shakespeare to fire up his audience’s spirits in a time
of darkness. As England is a country that’s been at almost
perpetual war ever since, it is not surprising that the play’s
speeches and sentiments have frequently resurfaced. The
most famous example, of course, being Laurence Olivier’s
filmed version of the play during World War II.
A full 600 years after the last arrow was fired, Agincourt is
still a mainstay of English national identity and can even be
seen as an original cornerstone of patriotic pride. By exploring
English history from a truly intriguing angle, Curry’s insightful
book shows us how the myth of Agincourt, harnessed by
jingoism, has been used to convince the country on repeated
occasions of its own invincibility. Fascinating stuff.

“Alas the origins of the classic

two-fingered salute wasn’t a
defiant gesture created by the
English archers”
92
 REVIEWS

Writer: Karen Farrington Publisher: Aurum Press Price: £18.99 Released: Out now

THE BLITZED CITY

THE DESTRUCTION OF COVENTRY, 1940
A THOROUGH ACCOUNT OF HOW A PROVINCIAL then sweeps through the build up to war and its
early days, switching between the fighting on
BRITISH CITY BECAME THE TESTING GROUND the continent and the changing life of Coventry’s
FOR A NEW KIND OF WARFARE citizens as the storm clouds draw ever closer.
The effect works well. We’re fed a decent potted
By the time World War II ended, it had served history of events that provide a good backdrop
up innumerable atrocities on an unprecedented for what is to come – the bombing – while an
scale. With its gas chambers and atomic bombs, impending sense of disaster brews ominously.
it was the first truly total war, and one of the The raid comes about a third of the way into
first indications of what that meant came in the book. Throughout, Farrington has used
November 1940 with the bombing of Coventry. first-hand accounts to help paint her canvas,
Cities had been bombed from the air before but it’s here that those testimonies really come
of course. Zeppelin raids had hit London during into their own. She provides a real sense of the
World War I; Guernica and Barcelona had both terror the raid caused, as Coventry’s citizens
been struck by bombers during the Spanish Civil huddled in claustrophobic shelters or toiled in
War; while Warsaw had been terrorised from the burning streets to save lives. There is also
above when Hitler ordered the invasion Poland. a real sense of the bewilderment the raid’s
What made the bombing of Coventry different, survivors felt when the smoke cleared and they first for propaganda purposes, helping to
however, as Farrington points out in her hugely saw that most of their “Medieval gem” of a city propagate support in the then-neutral USA,
readable account of it, was that it marked had vanished. and then as an excuse to unleash Britain’s own
the moment when aerial bombing became a Coventry wasn’t destroyed completely, bombing offensive. As RAF Bomber Command
weapon of mass destruction. Her book begins though, and the latter part of the book uses boss Arthur Harris put it at the time: “[The
with a brief history of Coventry, explaining how the same weave of historical master narrative Nazis] sowed the wind. They’ll now reap the
its position in the industrialised East Midlands and first-hand accounts to show how both whirlwind.” So they did – again and again – with
put it at the heart of the British war effort and Coventry recovered and Britain responded to appalling consequences in Berlin, Hamburg,
consequently on the front line. The narrative the atrocity. The raid was used by Churchill Cologne and Dresden.

SPEER – HITLER’S ARCHITECT

Writer: Martin Kitchen Publisher: Yale University Press Price: £20 Released: 15th October 2015
WOULD THE REAL ALBERT SPEER PLEASE STAND UP? A NEW BIOGRAPHY FINALLY REVEALS THE TRUTH ABOUT HITLER’S CITY-PLANNING SIDEKICK
Of all the senior Nazis, Albert Speer is largely complex and culpable than his legacy suggests.
remembered by history as his lawyer at the Others, of course, have argued that Speer knew
Nuremberg trials wanted him to be seen about Hitler’s genocide all along, and that he
– a cultured technocrat with no interest in was more than just a man who designed pretty
Hitler’s racist policies and no knowledge of its cities for his architecturally obsessed Führer.
consequences. Described as courageous in Hitler’s Architect, however, is the first biography
the court’s judgement of him, he escaped the of Speer to take the evidence that he did know
hangman’s noose, and although he spent the of the regime’s atrocities and put it into context
next 20 years in jail for war crimes, calls for this with the rest of his life.
apparently civilised man to be released early What emerges is a portrait of a man who was
came from such notables as Charles de Gaulle a vain, opportunistic playboy, and an intelligent,
and Nuremberg prosecutor Harley Shawcross. brooding loner. What he ultimately was, though,
On emerging from prison, where he’d spent was a cold-hearted conman whose decisions
much of his time composing two memoirs and actions resulted in the anguished deaths
in which he insisted he knew nothing of the of countless souls. Speer’s life as we’ve known
Holocaust, he gave a series of high-profile it until now was a fiction, a piece of theatre as
interviews. Speer used these to broadcast his showy and diverting as the enormous stage sets
ignorance of the regime’s more heinous crimes, he built for his Führer to hold his rallies in, or
and to portray himself as a man who merely preach hate parades from.
dreamed of creating beautiful buildings for his Kitchen’s book systematically destroys the
beloved country. His books – along with another myth that Speer was somehow a ‘good Nazi’,
about the SS – went on to become international and in doing so rips the mask of respectability
best sellers, and he died of natural causes, from this legacy. Part history, part criminal
aged 76, a wealthy man. investigation, part biography, Kitchen’s book
Albert Speer was, however, as Martin is as captivating as it is significant. Hitler’s
Kitchen’s new book points out, much more Architect is a vital work.

93
REVIEWS

50 STRATEGIES THAT
RECOMMENDED READING
HITLER’S
FORGOTTEN
CHILDREN
Born a child of
the Lebensborn
CHANGED THE WORLD
Writer: Daniel Smith Publisher: Apple Price: £12.99 Released: Out now
A BREAKDOWN OF THE GREATEST STRATEGIES IN HUMAN HISTORY, FROM THE BLOODY
programme, Ingrid BATTLEFIELD TO THE BOARDROOM AND SOCIAL MEDIA
von Oelhafen’s book For history buffs, this engaging book may be Barrack Obama’s presidential campaign). There
details her memories a welcome reprieve. Rather than the usual are a few entries that seem slightly tenuous,
of her childhood in weighty tomes that are invariably densely or retread ground already covered earlier in the
Hitler’s home for packed with information, it’s a bold and book, but these are small quibbles in what is
Aryan children. colourful publication, divided into digestible overall a strongly recommended title.
snippets that will work for readers of all

BELFAST ‘69
interest levels.
Author Daniel Smith, who has also written
“It’s a bold and
Bringing home the
real human tragedy
other appealing-sounding titles such as 50
Leaders That Changed History and How To
colourful publication,
of The Troubles,
Andrew Walsh’s
Think Like Sherlock, has done a superb job
condensing some of human history’s greatest
divided into digestible
historical account of strategies and tactical manoeuvres into easy-
to-understand chapters, most of which cover
snippets that will
work for readers of all
the Battle of Bogside
is interspersed with four pages that also include timelines, maps,

interest levels”
eyewitness accounts family trees and other fun visual tools.
from people at the It’s worth stating that this is not a purely
heart of the battle. military-focused book. Smith also includes
strategies that come under commerce, politics
and society. Part of the book’s strength,
HOW TO WIN A however, is that it shows quite
CHARIOT RACE plainly how the strategies
This collection of are easily interchangeable
facts, stories and between varying arenas of
titbits of information conflict, whether they are
offers a glimpse into militaristic, economic or
the ancient world, perhaps sociopolitical.
and is not, in fact, a Smith covers the breadth
step-by-step guide of human history, beginning
about how to succeed with perhaps the most
at chariot racing. famous and celebrated of
all military strategies, the
Trojan Horse (or “infiltrate the
VOICES FROM enemy” as he broadens it to).
THE PAST From there, he covers many
Told by the people of military history’s finest
who were there, successes, including George
Voices From The Washington’s guerrilla-like
Past delves into strategy in the American War
the chaotic scenes of Independence, Nelson’s
on the Channel innovative naval formation
Islands as Hitler’s at the Battle of Trafalgar and
Blitzkrieg arrived and the Allies’ intricate planning
occupation ensued. ahead of D-Day. Smith isn’t
afraid to recognise the
success in all strategic areas,
STAR SHELL even when the results are
REFLECTIONS horrific, such as the Nazis’
In the closest thing Final Solution.
we have to a first- Outside of the military-
hand account of WWI focused chapters, there’s
almost 100 years plenty of interest, from
since its end, Jim the Suffragettes battle for
Maultsaid’s detailed equality to Rupert Murdoch’s
diary provides an media empire and even the
insightful perspective launch of Facebook (and most
on the conflict. specifically, how social media
became a crucial tool in

94
 REVIEWS

AGINCOURT: THE STORY OF A BATTLE

Writer: Rosemary Hawley Jarman Publisher: Amberley Price: £9.99 Released: Out now
A DETAILED AND VIVID ACCOUNT OF THE ENTIRE STORY BEHIND THE FAMOUS BATTLE
A prominent author of historical fiction, of the most appealing aspects of the book
Rosemary Hawley Jarman turns her attention is how Jarman delves into the mind of King
to fact in the brilliant Agincourt: The Story Of A Henry, explaining his desire to emulate the
Battle. Detailing the whole of Henry V’s invasion, achievements of his great-grandfather Edward
this is a thorough account of an integral part III and his devotion to his faith. After some
of English and French history. Split into easily gorgeous hand-drawn illustrations, the only
digestible chapters, the book explains how the chapter dedicated to the battle itself arrives.
Hundred Years’ War was a full European war Compact yet thorough, it doesn’t hold back on
and incorporates detail that is absent in similar description, with the “shoeless, gloveless, pale
releases. It is clear from the outset that Jarman and desperate” longbowmen portrayed as the
is a writer of fiction and the whole invasion is heroes of the hour. After the catastrophic French
detailed superbly. The residents of the “noxious defeat where “deep piles of corpses towered
graveyard of Harfleur” are described as “running higher than a man’s head,” the book slows down
around like inhabitants of a kicked antheap,” and enters a reflective aftermath that focuses
vividly illustrating the panic that was present in on the wider aspects of Henry’s reign.
the seemingly impregnable walled city. A tremendous release, this book is
This excellent description prevents the book recommended highly and is an excellent way to
from ever getting bogged down in facts and remember Jarman’s writing, as she sadly passed
statistics, a trap that some do fall into. One away on 17 March 2015.

“Compact yet thorough, it doesn’t hold back

on description, with the ‘shoeless, gloveless,
pale and desperate’ longbowmen portrayed
as the heroes of the hour”

THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN PHOTOGRAPHS:

1943 – THE TURNING POINT Writer: John Christopher & Campbell McCutcheon Publisher: Amberley
Price: £15.99 Released: Out now
A PICTORIAL ACCOUNT OF THE YEAR THAT SAW THE ALLIES GO ON THE OFFENSIVE, WITH MAJOR
VICTORIES IN NORTH AFRICA, THE PACIFIC AND EUROPE – LEADING TO PREPARATIONS FOR D-DAY
Another stellar entry in this excellent series, compromise before the Allies could launch a
John Christopher and Campbell McCutcheon’s full-scale attack of France.
book tells the overall story of the war in As with the other books in this series, a bulk
1943, as opposed to Louis Archard’s earlier of the 160 pages are packed with fascinating
book in the series, which focused primarily visuals, comprising photographs (both colour
on the battle in the air. Focused, as it is on and black and white), maps, cartoons and
photographs, the story is told in relatively broad posters from the time.
strokes, though an in-depth introduction lays Among the most striking images are a
out the finer details of the war in 1943, making British destroyer completely encrusted in ice
this a solid read for casual and expert World en route to Russia, a prototype for Germany’s
War II enthusiasts. revolutionary Messerschmitt Me 262 jet,
It’s fair to say that this book offers more a Douglas Dauntless dive bomber that’s
interesting details than previous entries into somehow ended up standing nose-first on an
the series, largely because of the time on which aircraft carrier deck, and a Lewisham school
it is focused, chronicling the Allies’ efforts to annihilated in an air raid (where 42 children
overcome the Axis and turn the tide of the war were killed – a stark reminder that while the
for good. Events covered include the Battle of war had come to a turning point, there would
the Huon Gulf, in which the Allies destroyed be many millions of more casualties before
three Japanese transports and 80 aircraft; it would end). Overall, this is a great starting
Stalingrad, where the loss of the 6th Army point for researching one of World War II’s most
resulted in Germany’s most humiliating defeat crucial periods – and possibly the best entry
in the war so far; and the invasion of Sicily, a into this series so far.

95
FamilyTree for unbeatable
family history stories & expert
genealogy advice

&
PC AC E
MPATIBL
COM

iSingle issues,
iback issues and
isubscriptions available
online at www.pocketmags.com
and available from all good newsagents

Now available as a digital and print subscription package

Phone 0800 6128377 for details
www.family-tree.co.uk quote HIST15
 NEXT MONTH Imagine Publishing Ltd
Richmond House, 33 Richmond Hill
Bournemouth, Dorset, BH2 6EZ

THE
☎ +44 (0) 1202 586200
Web: www.imagine-publishing.co.uk
www.greatdigitalmags.com

RED BARON
www.historyanswers.co.uk
Magazine team
Editor Tim Williamson
☎ 01202 586 230
frontline@imagine-publishing.co.uk
Senior Designer Curtis Fermor-Dunman
Senior Staff Writer Jack Griffiths
Research Editor Peter Price
Production Editor Callie Green
Photographer James Sheppard
Editor in Chief James Hoare
Senior Art Editor Helen Harris

DISCOVER THE LETHAL TACTICS BEHIND THE WORLD’S Publishing Director Aaron Asadi
Head of Design Ross Andrews

MOST FAMOUS FIGHTER ACE

Contributors
Anne Curry, Marc G DeSantis, Tom Farrell, Matthew Ford, Marwan
Kamel, Miguel Miranda, Alexander Purto, Dominic Reseigh-Lincoln,
Nick Soldinger, Frances White
Images
Acute Graphics, The Art Agency, Alamy, Corbis, Ed Crooks,
FreeVectorMaps.com, Getty Images, Rebekka Hearl, Thinkstock,
Graham Turner
Advertising
Digital or printed media packs are available on request.
Head of Sales Hang Deretz
☎ 01202 586442
hang.deretz@imagine-publishing.co.uk
Account Manager Lee Mussell
☎ 01202 586424
lee.mussell@imagine-publishing.co.uk
International
History of War is available for licensing. Contact the International
department to discuss partnership opportunities.
Head of International Licensing Cathy Blackman
☎ +44 (0) 1202 586401
licensing@imagine-publishing.co.uk
Subscriptions
To order a subscription to History of War
☎ 0844 245 6931
☎ Overseas +44 (0) 1795 592 869
Email: historyofwar@servicehelpline.co.uk
13 issue subscription (UK) – £52
13 issue subscription (Europe) – £70
13 issue subscription (USA) – £80
13 issue subscription (ROW) – £80
Head of Subscriptions Sharon Todd
subscriptions@imagine-publishing.co.uk
Circulation
Head of Circulation Darren Pearce
☎ 01202 586200
Production
Production Director Jane Hawkins
☎ 01202 586200
Finance
Finance Director Marco Peroni
Founder
Group Managing Director Damian Butt
Printing & Distribution
Wyndeham Peterborough, Storey’s Bar Road, Peterborough,
Cambridgeshire, PE1 5YS
Distributed in the UK, Eire and ROW by: Marketforce, 5 Churchill
Place, Canary Wharf, London, E14 5HU
☎ 0203 787 9060
Distributed in Australia by: Network Services (a division of Bauer
Media Group), Level 21 Civic Tower, 66-68 Goulburn Street,
Sydney, NSW 2000
☎ + 61 2 8667 5288

ON
Disclaimer
The publisher cannot accept responsibility for any unsolicited material lost or damaged
in the post. All text and layout is the copyright of Imagine Publishing Ltd. Nothing in
this magazine may be reproduced in whole or part without the written permission of
the publisher. All copyrights are recognised and used specifically for the purpose of

SALE
criticism and review. Although the magazine has endeavoured to ensure all information
is correct at time of print, prices and availability may change. This magazine is fully
independent and not affiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein.
If you submit material to Imagine Publishing via post, email, social network or any other
means, you grant Imagine Publishing an irrevocable, perpetual, royalty-free licence to
use the material across its entire portfolio, in print, online and digital, and to deliver the

3 November
material to existing and future clients, including but not limited to international licensees for

2015
reproduction in international, licensed editions of Imagine products. Any material you submit
is sent at your risk and, although every care is taken, neither Imagine Publishing nor its
employees, agents or subcontractors shall be liable for the loss or damage.

ISSN 2054-376X
© Imagine Publishing Ltd 2015

97
 ARTEFACT
of

WWI VENTRILOQUIST’S
DUMMY
Douglas was used by Arthur
Langley Harden in his ventriloquism
act to entertain the troops when
he served with the Royal Artillery
during World War I

One of the most popular

ways to relieve soldiers of
boredom on the battlefield
was a ventriloquism show
L
ife in the British Royal Artillery during the
Great War could be very dull. One way of
ending the tedium was with ventriloquism
acts, and ‘Douglas’ was the star of one of these
popular shows.
Rumoured to be named after Field Marshal
Haig, Douglas was the prop of soldier-turned-
ventriloquist Arthur Langley Harden, who
arrived in France for service in March 1917.
Initially performing in front of the 59th
Divisional Ammunition Column, after a
few shows Colonel K C Brazier-Creagh
noticed the positive affect the
dummy was having on morale.
Subsequently, Harden and
Douglas were moved away from
the front line to perform the act
to injured soldiers. The show
was such a success that it even
dissuaded Harden from pursuing
an officer’s commission, a
decision that he said could well
have saved his life.
Ventriloquism was just one
of the ways that troops were
entertained on the front. Theatre and
football were popular but the men also improvised
as well. Shows were put on that included men
cross-dressing, acting out folk tales such as
Cinderella, and soldiers even wrote new material on
the front. The Balmorals were a theatrical troupe
that performed satirical sketches, and even POWs
performed when they were imprisoned to raise
the morale of the others in German prison camps.
Props were created out of anything the men could
find on the front line as the soldiers did their best to
take themselves away from the harsh reality of war.
Douglas is currently on display at the Imperial
War Museum, London. For more information visit
www.iwm.org.uk.
Image © IWM

Far left: A party of Royal Irish Rifles resting in a

communication trench early in the Battle of the Somme
Left: Football was another form of entertainment. This picture
is of a match in Greece, Christmas Day 1915

98
 It’s 200 years since Wellington triumphed over Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.
Add to or begin your collection with these beautiful statement pieces from our Napoleonic range.

2 Piece Set 2 Piece Set

1 Piece Set
B36148 Dutch Lancer Charging B36147 Dutch Lancer on
No.1 B36142 British 1st Foot Guard Rearing Horse
Battalion Company Ensign with
Regimental Colour No.1

To locate your nearest stockist please visit: http://britain.bachmann.co.uk

1:30 Scale Model, Collect & Create
 JOURNEYS OF
REMEMBRANCE
BESPOKE TOURS WITH THE ROYAL BRITISH LEGION

LIBOR FINES FUNDED NORMANDY TOURS

D-Day, 6 June 1944, has gone down in the annals of history as the greatest of all air and seaborne
invasions. These very special Journeys of Remembrance will take you to the heart of Normandy’s
rich and eventful WW2 history and the beaches immortalised by the D-Day landings.
The tours follow the ever popular D-Day anniversary Journey of Remembrance and funding is
available for a Normandy veteran and two carers / family members (3 travellers in total max).
An official Royal British Legion guide and a medic accompany the group.
2016 Tour dates: Please call 01473 660 800 for more information
Includes:
5 days / 4 nights bed & breakfast
Qualified medic on board
An official Royal British Legion guide

BURMA
This pioneering tour offers a unique experience to pay Remembrance to those who fell during the
1942-45 Burma campaign.
Many were from the British 14th Army and were awarded more Victoria Crosses than any other
Second World War campaign. We pay tribute to troops who secured a vital foothold in the Allied
invasion of Burma and the ultimate defeat of the Japanese.
We also offer the opportunity to visit Rangoon with its cemeteries to those who died in Burma, the
vibrant former capital Mandalay and the Chindit area of operations in the North, only reached by
special train up the historic line.
Join us to discover an unspoilt land of rugged jungle, rice fields, beautiful temples, colourful markets
and charming, friendly people.
Thur 10th- Fri 18th November 2016
With: Mike Bradley Prices: £2499 per person
Please contact Arena Travel on the number below for more information

SOMME 2016 OVER THE CENTENARY

The Battle of the Somme began on a bright July morning in 1916. After five months of gruelling
struggle this piece of French countryside was reduced to razed villages and burnt out farmland. By
the end of the battle there were over 420,000 casualties.
It is those men who we will never forget and who we honour on this tour. We will arrange personal
visits to the memorials and cemeteries in the Somme area and learn how they are maintained by
the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.
This tour will take place over the International Centenary event on the weekend of 1st July. There
will be a memorial event at Thiepval on 1st July. If you would like more information please contact
Arena Travel on the details below.
Tour price: TBA
Tour includes: 4 nights accommodation on a B&B Basis
Coach travel throughout from UJC, London
Return ferry crossings
RBL guide

Remembrance Travel is the travel arm of The Royal British Legion and has been running tours since 1927. We now work in
partnership with Arena Travel on First World War & Second World War Journeys of Remembrance and anniversary events.
Whether you are an association, a group of friends or a club, we can also create a bespoke,
personalised tour, which is unique to your needs. Call 01473 660 800