‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ‬

‫ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ‬

‫‪Fundamental Concepts‬‬
 ‫א‬ ‫מא‬

‫ﻣﻘــﺪﻣﺔ ‪ -‬ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬ ‫‪1-1‬‬

‫ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺣﻮﺍﺳﻪ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺑ‪‬ﻴ ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﳊﺎﺭ‪‬ﺓ ﻭﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺩﺓ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﺑﺘﺪﻉ ﻃﺮﻗﹰﺎ ﻟﺘﺴﺨﲔ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬

‫ﻟﺘﱪﻳﺪﻫﺎ‪ .‬ﺑﻞ ﺃ‪‬ﻧﻪ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻟﻐﺎﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﺪﻓﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃ ﹾﻥ ﺍﺧﺘﺮﻉ ﺟﻴﻤﺲ ﻭﺍﻁ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﺘﻴﻨﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻣﻦ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗ‪‬ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬

‫ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻟﺘﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭ‪‬ﻟﺪﺕ ﺍﳊﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺗﺄﺛﺮ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻓﺮﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺍﳌﻌﻨ‪‬ﻲ ﺑﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﺎﻛﺮﻭﺳﻜﻮﺑﻴ‪‬ﺔ )ﻛﻜﻞ( ﲢﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﱃ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﻴﻜﺮﻭﺳﻜﻮﺑﻴ‪‬ﺔ )ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ(‪ .‬ﻭﻛﻜﻞ ﺃﻓﺮﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﺒﻨﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫ﻗﻮﺍﻋ ‪‬ﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺎ ٍﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﳌﺨﱪﻳ‪‬ﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺑﻔﻀﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﺷﺘﻘﺎﻕ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﲔ ﻛﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴ‪‬ﺔ‬

‫ﻛﻤﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺩ ﻭﺍﻹﻧﻀﻐﺎﻃﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﳌﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﺯﻟﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﻭﻣﺪﻯ ﺗﺄﺛﺮﻫﺎ‬

‫ﺑﺎﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﺗ‪‬ﻨﺒﺌﻨﺎ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺃﻳﻀﹰﺎ ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺟﺐ ﺍﳊﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﳐﱪﻳﹰﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﺗ‪‬ﻠﺨ‪‬ﺺ ﰲ ‪) 3‬ﺃﻭ ‪ (4‬ﻗﻮﺍﻧﲔ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﻭﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ 1‬ﻭﺍﳌﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ "ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﱢﺮﻱ" ‪ The Zeroth Law‬ﲟﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬

‫ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﰲ ﺣﲔ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ 2‬ﻭﻳ‪‬ﺪﻋﻰ "ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ" ﻫﻮ ﺗﻌﻤﻴﻢ ﳌﺒﺪﺃ ﺣﻔﻆ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬

‫ﻟﻴﺴﺘﻮﻋﺐ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻛﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ‪ .‬ﻳ‪‬ﺪﺧﻞ "ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﰲ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ" )ﻭﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ (3‬ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻹﻧ‪‬ﺘﺮﻭﰊ ﻭﻫﻲ ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﹸﻬﺪﺭﺓ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ‬

‫ﺺ ﰲ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﺻﻴﻐﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺃﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻇﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﻭﰲ ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﺃﹸﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﻛﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﰲ‬
‫ﻭﻳﻨ ‪‬‬

‫ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ ﺷﻐﻞ )ﺃﻱ ﺇﱃ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ(‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﳋﺎﺿﻌﺔ ﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﻘﺮﺑ‪‬ﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻖ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪1 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳـﻔﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪2-1‬‬

‫ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﰲ ﺻ‪‬ﻠﺐ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﻻ ‪‬ﺑﺪ‪ ‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﳌﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻧﻌﺮﻓﻪ ﺍﻵﻥ‪ .‬ﲤﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﻨ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ‬

‫ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺳﻪ ﳌﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ ﻓﻠﻘﺪ ﺃﹸﺿﻄﺮ ﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﺪﻯ ﻛﻮﻥ ﺟﺴ ٍﻢ ﻣﺎ ﺣﺎﺭﹰﺍ ﺃﻭ ﺑﺎﺭﺩﹰﺍ ﺃﻭ ﻓﺎﺗﺮﹰﺍ‬

‫ﻭﺍﺑﺘﺪﻉ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺗﻌﺎﺑﲑ ﻻ ‪‬ﺑﺪ‪ ‬ﻣﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻔﻬﺎ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔﹰ‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﺣﺪﻭﺩﻩ ﻭﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺘﻪ‪.‬‬

‫‪System and Boundary‬‬ ‫ﺃ( ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﳊـﺪ‬

‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻳ‪‬ﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ "ﻛﻞ ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ"‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳉﺰﺀ ﳏﺎﻁ ﺑﺴﻄﺢ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﻳ‪‬ﻌﺮﻑ ﲝﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭﻛﻤﺜﺎﻝ ﺗ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺍ‪‬ﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺴﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻨﺘﻤﻲ ﳍﺎ ﻛﻮﻛﺒﻨﺎ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺍ‪‬ﺮ‪‬ﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﺑﺪﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﻧ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ‬

‫ﺑﺪﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﺗ‪‬ﺸﻜﱢﻞ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﺎﹰ‪ ،‬ﻫﻮ ﺟﺰ ٌﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﻜﻞ‪ .‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﻏﺎﺯ ﳏﺼﻮﺭ ﰲ ﺃﻧﺒﻮﺑﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﺎﹰ‪،‬‬

‫ﻭﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﻮ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺘﻪ‪.‬‬

‫ﻼ ﺗ‪‬ﺸﻜﻞ ‪‬ﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺴﻲ ﺣ ‪‬ﺪﹰﺍ‬

‫ﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮ ﹸﻥ ﺍﳊـ ‪‬ﺪ ﺳﻄﺤﹰﺎ ﻣﻐﻠﻘﹰﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺣﹰﺎ ﻭﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻴﹰﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺧﻴﺎﻟﻴﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﺜ ﹰ‬

‫ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺣﹰﺎ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﻳ‪‬ﺸﻜﱢﻞ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺑﺔ ﺣ ‪‬ﺪﹰﺍ ﻣ‪‬ﻐﻠﻘﹰﺎ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﶈﺼﻮﺭ )ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﹸﻌﺘﱪ(‪.‬‬

‫‪Surrounding‬‬
‫ﺏ( ﺍﳌﹸﺤﻴﻂ‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﻌﲎ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺗﺘﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺃﹸﺧﺮﻯ‪ .‬ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ "ﳏﻴﻂ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ" ﻭﻳ‪‬ﺸﻜﱢﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﻣﻌﹰﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻳ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺑﺎ‪‬ﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻥ ‪) universe‬ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪.(1-1‬‬

‫‪Isolated and non isolated systems‬‬ ‫ﺝ( ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺰﻭﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﻌﺰﻭﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪2 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫ﻱ ﺗﺒﺎﺩ ٍﻝ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺰﻭﻝ ﻭﺇ ﱠﻻ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻌﺰﻭﻝ‪.‬‬
‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﺑﲔ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﻭﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﺃ ‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ 1-1‬ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ ،‬ﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻮﻥ‪.‬‬

‫‪Open and closed systems‬‬

‫ﺩ( ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﻔﺘﻮﺣﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﻐﻠﻘﺔ‬

‫ﻱ ﺗﺒﺎﺩ ٍﻝ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﺄﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺣﺼﻞ ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ‬
‫ﻳ‪‬ﻘﺎﻝ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﺲ ﺑﻴﻨﻪ ﻭﺑﲔ ﻭﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﺃ ‪‬‬

‫ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺡ‪.‬‬

‫‪Properties‬‬ ‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ‪ -‬ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬ ‫‪3-1‬‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﳐﱪﻳﹰﺎ ﻟﻨﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﻣﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺃﻭ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗ‪‬ﺤﺪ‪‬ﺩ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ .‬ﺗ‪‬ﺸﻜﱢﻞ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺃﻣﺜﻠ ﹰﺔ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ‬

‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺗﺪﺭﺱ ﻣﻐﻨﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻘﻄﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺯﻟﺔ ﻭﺳﻄﻮﺡ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺍﺋﻞ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﻭﻏﲑِﻫﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﻭﺱ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺪ‪‬ﺓ )‪(extensive variables‬‬

‫‪m‬‬
‫ﺚ ﺗ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ‬
‫ﺚ ‪ m‬ﺗ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﻭ‪ ρ‬ﺍﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ‪ Etot = EK + Ep‬ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬
‫= ‪ ، V‬ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬ ‫ﻛﺎﳊﺠﻢ‬
‫‪ρ‬‬

‫‪ EK‬ﻭ ‪ Ep‬ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﺔ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﱄ‪ .‬ﺃﻣ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﻛﺎﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪3 -‬‬ ‫‬

‫מ‬ ‫א‬

‫ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﻓﺘ‪‬ﺪﻋﻰ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﹸﺮﻛﱠﺰﺓ )‪ .(intensive variables‬ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ﻭﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ‬

‫‪value per‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋ‪‬ﻴﺔ ‪ specific value‬ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ﻭﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﹰﺎ ﺑﺄﻧ‪‬ﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ )‬

‫‪V‬‬
‫= ‪ v‬ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ‪ .‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺿﺢ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻲ‬ ‫‪ .(mass unit‬ﻭﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻫﻮ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ‬
‫‪m‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﳌﺘﻐﲑ ﻣﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ﻣﺮﻛﱠﺰ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭﻧﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺃﻳﻀﹰﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﻟﻴ‪‬ﺔ ‪ molal specific value‬ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ﻭﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﳌﻮﻻﺕ‬

‫ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ .‬ﻧ‪‬ﺬﻛﱢﺮ ﺑﺄ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳌﻮﻝ ‪ mole‬ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﻋﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﻟﺘ‪‬ﻤﱢﺜ ﹶﻞ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺃﻓﻮﺟﺎﺩﺭﻭ ﰲ ﻭﺯﻥ ﻧﻮﻋﻲ ﻟﻌﻨﺼ ٍﺮ ﻣﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪NA=6.023×1023‬‬ ‫ﻓﻤﻮﻝ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﲔ ﻳﻌﲏ ‪ 32 g‬ﻣﻦ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﲔ ﻭﳛﻮﻱ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺃﻓﻮﺟﺎﺩﺭﻭ‬

‫ﻣﻦ ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﲔ‪ .‬ﰲ ﻛﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎﻥ ﻳ‪‬ﻔﻀ‪‬ﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ‪ ،‬ﺇ ﹾﺫ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﻣﻦ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺴﻬﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﱢﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺮﻯ ﻻﺣﻘﹰﺎ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻋﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺒﺪﻭ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﹰﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ‬

‫ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻨﺎ ﺯﻭﺟﹰﺎ )ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ( ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ‪ :‬ﺃﺣﺪ‪‬ﻫﺎ ﳑﺘﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻣﺮﻛﱠﺰ‪ .‬ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻷﺣﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﲑﺓ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺪ‪‬ﺓ ﻭﺍﻷﺣﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ ﺍﳌﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺮﻛﱠﺰﺓ‪ .‬ﻧ‪‬ﻠﺨ‪‬ﺺ ﰲ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ‪ 1-1‬ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﺑﻌﺾ‬

‫ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺪ‪‬ﺓ ﻭﺍﳌﹸﺮﻛﱠﺰﺓ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﻣﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﳑﺘﺪ‪‬ﺓ‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﻣﺮﻛﱠﺰﺓ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬

‫ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ‪V‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ‪P‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎﺋﻊ )ﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺃﻭ ﻏﺎﺯ(‬
‫ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ‪l‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺸﺪ ‪γ‬‬‫ﻗﻮﺓ‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻚ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ‪Z‬‬ ‫ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ‬ ‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬
‫ﻋﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﻗﻄﱯ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬ ‫ﺍ‪‬ﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻋﺎﺯﻝ‬
‫ﻋﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﻗﻄﱯ ﺍﳌﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ‬ ‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻹﻧ‪‬ﺘﺮﻭﰊ ‪S‬‬ ‫ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪T‬‬ ‫ﲨﻴﻊ ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ‬ ‫ﺃﻱ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ‪ :1-1‬ﺃﺯﻭﺍﺝ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺪ‪‬ﺓ ﻭﺍﳌﺮﻛﱠﺰﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪4 -‬‬ ‫‬

‫מ‬ ‫א‬

‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:1-1‬‬
‫ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﻣﺘﻐﲑﹰﺍ ﳑﺘ ‪‬ﺪﹰﺍ ﻭﺃﻳ‪‬ﻬﺎ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﻣﺘﻐﲑﹰﺍ ﻣ‪‬ﺮﻛﱠﺰﹰﺍ ؟‬

‫‪ .1‬ﺍ‪‬ﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﰲ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺻﻠﺐ‬

‫‪ .2‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﺳﻠﻚ‬

‫‪ .3‬ﺍﻟﺸﺪ )ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺗﺮ( ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻮﺗﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺢ ﰲ ﻃﺒﻘﺔ ﺭﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺖ‬

‫ﺍﳊﻞ‪:‬‬
‫→‬ ‫→‬ ‫→‬
‫ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﳌﺘﺠﻬﺔ ﻭﻛﻼ‬ ‫‪j‬‬ ‫ﺚ ‪ ρ‬ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻭﻣﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭ‬
‫ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬ ‫‪E = ρj‬‬ ‫‪ .1‬ﻣﻦ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺃﻭﻡ ﺑﺼﻴﻐﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﳜﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻧﻌﻠﻢ ﺃ ﱠﻥ‪:‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻻ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ‪ ∴ .‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺿﺢ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍ‪‬ﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﰲ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺻﻠﺐ ﻻ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﻭﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ﻣ‪‬ﺮﻛﱠﺰ‪.‬‬

‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪m‬‬
‫ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ‪ V‬ﻭﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﳌﻘﻄﻊ ‪ A‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ‬ ‫= ‪l‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪ .2‬ﻳ‪‬ﻌﻄﻰ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺳﻠﻚ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪ρA‬‬

‫ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ‪ l‬ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ﳑﺘﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪Fs‬‬
‫= ‪γ‬‬ ‫‪ .3‬ﻳ‪‬ﻌﺮ‪‬ﻑ ﺍﻟﺸ ‪‬ﺪ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﺑﺄﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﳌﺆﺛﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﻱ ﺧﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪l‬‬

‫ﻭﻫﻲ ﻛﻤ‪‬ﻴﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺇ ﹾﺫ ﺗ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻛﻤﻴﺘﲔ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺘﻐﲑﻳ‪‬ﻦ‬

‫ﳑﺘ ‪‬ﺪﻳ‪‬ﻦ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ‪ γ‬ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ﻣ‪‬ﺮﻛﱠﺰ‪.‬‬

‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:2-1‬‬
‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪:1 g cm-3‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ‪ MKS‬؟ ﻭﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻲ؟‬

‫‪ .2‬ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋ‪‬ﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﻟﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ‪ MKS‬؟‬

‫ﺍﳊﻞ‪:‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪5 -‬‬ ‫‬

‫מ‬ ‫א‬

‫‪.1‬‬

‫‪ρ = 1 g cm-3 = 1 ×10-3 kg × 106 m-3 = 1000 kg.m-3 = 1 ton m-3‬‬

‫ﻭﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻲ ﻫﻮ‪:‬‬

‫‪1‬‬
‫= ‪v‬‬ ‫‪= 10 − 3 m3 kg−1‬‬
‫‪ρ‬‬

‫‪ .2‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ‪ 1 kilomole‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ .18 kg‬ﻟﻨﻌﺘﱪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ ‪ m‬ﲢﻮﻱ‬

‫‪.n kilomole‬‬

‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪mρ‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬

‫= ‪v‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪18 × 10 − 3 m3 kg−1‬‬
‫‪n‬‬ ‫‪m 18‬‬ ‫‪ρ‬‬

‫‪Hydrostatic Pressure‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬ ‫‪4-1‬‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﻌﺮ‪‬ﻑ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻲ )ﻭﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﲡﺎﻭﺯﹰﺍ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ( ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺳﻂ ﻣﺘﺼﻞ ﺑﺄﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﳌﺆﺛﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ‬

‫ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ‪ .‬ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻫﻮ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﺸﺪ ﺍﳌﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬

‫ﺍﳌﺆﺛﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺤﻪ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻲ‪ (1 :‬ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﻭ ‪ (2‬ﻻ‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ‪ .‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺣﺔ ‪ area element‬ﻫﻮ ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻘﺘﻄﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﹸﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ‬

‫ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺘﻪ ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ‪ dA‬ﻭﺷﻜﻠﻪ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻤﹰﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﻛﺄﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻲ )ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﹰﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻵﻥ( ﻳ‪‬ﻌﺘﱪ ﺍﻟﺸﺪ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺎﺋﻊ )ﻏﺎﺯ‬

‫ﺃﻭ ﺳﺎﺋﻞ( ﺳﺎﻛﻦ ﰲ ﻭﻋﺎﺀ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﺿﻐﻄﹰﺎ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻴﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻏﻤﺮﻧﺎ ﺟﺴﻤﹰﺎ ﺻﻠﺒﹰﺎ ﰲ ﻭﻋﺎﺀ ﳛﻮﻱ ﺳﺎﺋﻼﹰ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﻳ‪‬ﺬﻳﺐ‬

‫ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺐ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺐ ﺧﺎﺿﻊ ﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ‪ .‬ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ‪ MKS‬ﻫﻲ‬

‫ﺚ ‪.1 dyne = 10-5 N‬‬

‫‪ N m-2‬ﻭﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ‪ cgs‬ﺍﻟﻘﺪﱘ ﻫﻲ ‪ cm-2 dyne‬ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪6 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :2-1‬ﺟﺴﻢ ﺻﻠﺐ ﻣﻐﻤﻮﺭ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ‪" .‬ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺎﺭﺱ" ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺐ ﺿﻐﻄﹰﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻌﻜﺲ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭﺗ‪‬ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ‪ ،1 bar = 105 N m-2 = 106 dyne cm-2‬ﻭﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﳍﻮﺍﺀ ﰲ‬

‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﺗ‪‬ﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺍﳉﻮﻱ )‪ (atm =atmosphere‬ﻭﺗ‪‬ﻜﺎﻓﺊ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻋﻪ ‪ 76 cm‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺘﻪ ‪ ، ρ = 13.5951 g cm-3‬ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ‬

‫ﺗﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﳉﺎﺫﺑﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﻫﻮ ‪ g =980.665 cm s-2‬ﺃﻱ ﺃ ﱠﻥ‪:‬‬

‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪mg‬‬ ‫‪mg‬‬

‫= ‪P‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= ρ gh‬‬
‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪V h m ρh‬‬
‫‪∴ 1 atm = 13.5951 × 980.665 × 76‬‬ ‫)‪(1-1‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪−2‬‬
‫‪= 1.01325 × 10 dyne cm‬‬
‫‪= 1.01325 × 105 N m− 2 ≈ 1 bar‬‬

‫ﻭﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬

‫‪ .760‬ﰲ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬ ‫ﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺍﳉﻮﻱ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺿﻐﻂ ‪ 76 cm Hg‬ﺃﻭ ‪mm Hg‬‬
‫ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﹰﺎ ﺃ ﱠ‬

‫ﺚ ﻳ‪‬ﻔﺮ‪‬ﻍ ﺍﳍﻮﺍﺀ ﺑﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﹰﺍ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ‬

‫ﺍﳌﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺟﺪﺍﹰ‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﰲ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺛﻮﺩﻱ ﺃﻭ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﻋﺎﺕ ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬

‫)ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻹﻳﻄﺎﱄ ‪ (Torricelli‬ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺮ‪‬ﻓﺔ ﺑﺄ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺟﻢ ﻋﻦ‬ ‫‪1 Torr‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﲔ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻠﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ‬

‫ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻋﻪ ‪ ،1 mm‬ﺃﻱ ﺃ ﱠﻥ‬

‫‪1 Torr = 1 atm/760 = 133.3 N m-2‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪7 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א א‬ ‫א‬

‫ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮﻱ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ‬ ‫‪5-1‬‬

‫‪Thermal Equilibrium, Temperature – The Zeroth Law‬‬

‫ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻭﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬ ‫‪1-5-1‬‬

‫ﻗﹸﻠﻨﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳊﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﻨﲔ "ﺳﺨﻮﻧﺔ" ﺃﻭ "ﺑﺮﻭﺩﺓ" ﺟﺴﻢ ﻣﺎ ﺃﺩ‪‬ﺕ ﺇﱃ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍﻉ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻜﻞ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﺍﱁ ‪ ...‬ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺣﻮﺍﺳﻪ ﻭﰲ‬

‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺧﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺩﺓ ﻛﺎﻥ "ﺇﺣﺴﺎﺳﻪ ﺑﺎﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ" ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺣﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻤﺲ ﻫﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺿﺢ ﺃ ﱠﻥ‬

‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﻜﺬﺍ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﻏﲑ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ ﻭﳏﺪﻭﺩ ﰲ ﻣﺪﺍﻩ )ﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﳌﺲ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳌﺼﻬﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﻼﹰ‪ ،‬ﻧﺎﻫﻴﻚ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺤﺎﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺑﻌﻴﺪ ﺃﻭ ﺻﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ(‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺣﺼﻞ ﺃﻱ ﺗﻐﻴﲑ ﰲ ﳏﻴﻂ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﺑﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻷﺧﲑ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻌﺎﱐ ﺗﻐﻴﲑﹰﺍ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻪ )ﺃﻱ ﻣﺘﻐﲑﺍﺗﻪ( ﻭﺑﻌﺪ‬

‫ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﺼ ﹸﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻭﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﺘﺰﻧﹰﺎ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳﹰﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﻭﺿﻌﻨﺎ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﰲ ﲤﺎﺱ ﺃﻭ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻬﻤﺎ ﺳﻴﻌﺎﻧﻴﺎﻥ ﺗﻐﻴﲑﹰﺍ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻬﻤﺎ ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ ﻳﺼﻼ ﺇﱃ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻳ‪‬ﺼﺒﺢ ﻓﻴﻪ‬

‫ﻛ ﱞﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ‪ .‬ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻧﺴﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻣﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻟﻶﺧﺮ ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﺼﺒﺤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ "ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ"‪.‬‬

‫ﺃﻱ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻫﻲ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗ‪‬ﺤﺪ‪‬ﺩ ﻛﻮﻥ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻣﻊ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﺁﺧﺮ‪ .‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺗﺼﻞ‬

‫ﻧﻈﺎﻣﺎﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭ‪‬ﻳﹰﺎ ﻭﻭﺻﻼ ﺇﱃ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﺳﺘﻄﻌﻨﺎ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ‬

‫ﻼ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣِﺪﺓ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻣﺘﺼﻠﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻣﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻣﺘﺰﻧﺎﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭ‪‬ﻳﹰﺎ ﻛ ‪‬‬

‫ﻭﳎﺘﻤﻌﻴ‪‬ﻦ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇ ﱠﻥ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻘﻲ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻭﻑ‪ .‬ﻋﻨﺪ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻭﻋﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﰲ ﺇﻧﺎﺀ ﻣﺎ ٍﺀ ﺳﺎﺧﻦ ﻳﺘﻤﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﰲ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪8 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א א‬ ‫א‬

‫ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺮﻱ ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ ﻳﺴﺘﻘﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺞ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﳌﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺞ‬

‫ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺃﻳﻀﹰﺎ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻣﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﺃﻧ‪‬ﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﺘﺰﻧﺎﻥ‬

‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳﹰﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪ 2-5-1‬ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ‬

‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻲ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﺎ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ‪:‬‬

‫• ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮ ‪ stable equilibrium‬ﻭﻓﻴﻪ ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺇﱃ ﻭﺿﻌﻪ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻲ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃ ﹾﻥ ﻳﻌﺎﱐ "ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ‬

‫ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ" ﻋﻦ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻧﻪ ﺍﻻﺑﺘﺪﺍﺋﻲ‪.‬‬

‫• ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮ ‪ metastable equilibrium‬ﻭﻓﻴﻪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮﹰﺍ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﻪ‬

‫ﻹﺯﺍﺣﺎﺕ ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻳ‪‬ﺼﺒﺢ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺎﺕ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ‪.‬‬

‫• ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﶈﺎﻳﺪ ‪ neutral equilibrium‬ﻭﻓﻴﻪ ﻳﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﰲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﻣﺴﺒﺒﺎﺕ‬

‫ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺘﻪ‪.‬‬

‫• ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮ ‪ unstable equilibrium‬ﻭﻓﻴﻪ ﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ ﻹﺯﺍﺣﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻫﻴﺔ ﰲ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺼﻐﺮ‪.‬‬

‫‪The Zeroth Law‬‬ ‫‪ 3-5-1‬ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮ‪‬ﻱ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ‬

‫ﺇ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺓ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﰲ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻟﹻ"ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ " ﺗﺘﻤﺜﱠﻞ ﰲ ﺇﳚﺎﺩ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺗ‪‬ﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺟﺴﻤﻴ‪‬ﻦ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺽ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺟﺴﻤﹰﺎ ‪) A‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺪﻧﻴﺔ( ﻣﺘﺰﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳﹰﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﲤﺎﺳ‪‬ﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺁﺧﺮ ‪) B‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺪﻧﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺃﹸﺧﺮﻯ(‪ .‬ﻟﻨﻔﺮﺽ‬

‫ﺃ ﱠﻥ ‪ A‬ﻣﺘﺰﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳﹰﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ‪) C‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺧﺸﺐ ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬

‫ﻼ(‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ A‬ﺗ‪‬ﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪.C‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪9 -‬‬ ‫‬

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‫ﺳﻮﻑ ﳒﺪ ﳐﱪﻳﹰﺎ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺟﻌﻠﻨﺎ ‪ B‬ﻭ ‪ C‬ﻳﺘﻼﻣﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻬﻤﺎ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻜﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺃﻭ‪ ،‬ﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ‪،‬‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﺗ‪‬ﺼﺎﻍ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﳌﺨﱪﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻫﺎ ٍﻡ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻳ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺼ‪‬ﻔﺮﻱ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﻼ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣِﺪﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻬﻤﺎ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺼ‪‬ﻔﺮﻱ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ‪ :‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺟﺴﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺘﺰﻧﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳﹰﺎ ﻛ ‪‬‬

‫ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻜﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇ ﱠﻥ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﹰﺎ ﻫﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ‪ :‬ﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻓﻠﺴﻨﺎ ﲝﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﻮﺿﻌﻬﻤﺎ‬

‫ﰲ ﲤﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻭﺇﻧ‪‬ﻤﺎ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﻭﺿﻌﻪ ﰲ ﲤﺎﺱ‬

‫ﻣﻊ ﻛ ‪‬ﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻣﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣِﺪﺓ‪ .‬ﳚﺐ ﺃ ﹾﻥ ﻧﻨﺘﻈﺮ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ ﺗﺜﺒﺖ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ‬

‫ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﰲ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻘﻲ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻣﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺠﺴﻤﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ‬

‫ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﻫﺬﻩ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺭﺍﺀ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﺍﺧﺘﺮﺍﻉ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ .Thermometers‬ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﰲ ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ‪ ،‬ﰲ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ‪،‬‬

‫ﻛـ"ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ" ‪ِ thermoscope‬ﺇ ﹾﺫ ﻻ ﻳﻠﺰﻡ ﺃ ﹾﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣ‪‬ﻌﺎﻳﺮﹰﺍ‪.‬‬

‫‪The adiabatic boundary‬‬ ‫‪ 4-5-1‬ﺍﳊ ‪‬ﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻇﻢ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﻳﻌﺘﻤ ‪‬ﺪ ﻣﺪﻯ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻣﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﻣﻊ ﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻋﺎﺯﻟﺔ‬

‫ﻟﻠﺤﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﻑ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺑﺒﻂﺀ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻔﻴﺪ ﺟﺪﹰﺍ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺃ ﹾﻥ‬

‫ﻧﺘﺨﻴﻞ ﺣﺪﹰﺍ ﳚﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺪﻭﻣﹰﺎ ﲤﺎﻣﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﻳ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳊﺪ‪ :‬ﺍﳊﺪ ﺍﻷﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﰐ‪.‬‬

‫ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﶈﺪﻭﺩ ﲝﺪ ﺃﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﰐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺃ‪‬ﻳﹰﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﳏﻴﻄﻪ‪ .‬ﻳﻠﻌﺐ ﺍﳊﺪ‬

‫ﺍﻷﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﰐ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﱄ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺩﻭﺭﹰﺍ ﻣﺸﺎ‪‬ﹰﺎ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻠﻌﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺢ ﻋﺪﱘ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻜﺎﻙ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﺎ‪ .‬ﻣﻊ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪10 -‬‬ ‫‬

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‫ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻬﻤﺎ‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎ‪ ،‬ﻟﻴﺴﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳ‪‬ﻦ ﰲ ﺍﳊﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺇ ﱠﻻ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺍﺽ ﻭﺟﻮﺩﳘﺎ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺒﺴﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻛﺨﻄﻮﺓ‬

‫ﺃﹸﻭﱃ ﻟﻔﻬﻤﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻈﺎﺭ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺩﻗﱠﺔ ﳌﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺇ ﱠﻻ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺍﻵﻥ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳊﺪ ﺍﻷﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﰐ ﻫﻮ ﺣﺪ‬

‫"ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ" ﻋﱪﻩ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺻﻔﺮﺍﹰ‪ ،‬ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ ﻟﻮ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻓﺮﻕ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﲔ ﺳﻄﺤﻴﻪ "ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ‬

‫ﻭﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻲ"‪.‬‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺍﳊ ‪‬ﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳝﻠﻚ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺴﺔ ﲤﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﳋﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﳊ ‪‬ﺪ ﺍﻷﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﰐ‪ :‬ﺍﳊﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﺎﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ‬

‫ﻼ‪.‬‬
‫)‪ (diathermal boundary‬ﺃﻱ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﺣﺪ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻛﺼﻔﻴﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬

‫ﺗﻘﺘﺮﺏ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺣﺪﻩ ﺩﻳﺎﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﱠﻴﺔ‬ ‫‪6-1‬‬

‫‪Thermometers‬‬ ‫‪ 1-6-1‬ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻭ ‪‬ﺳﻠﱠﻢ ﺑﻘﻴﻢ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﳚﺐ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻈﺎ ٍﻡ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ )ﺃﻱ ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﻪ( ﻣﻊ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫‪thermometric property‬‬ ‫ﻭﻣ‪‬ﻌﺎﻳ‪‬ﺮ‪ .‬ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﳝﻠﻚ ﺧﺎﺻﻴ‪‬ﺔ "ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ"‬

‫ﻭﻳ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪.Thermometer‬‬

‫ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻲ‪:‬‬

‫ﺃ‪ -‬ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺷﺌﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺳﻠﻜﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﺪﻧﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﻴ‪‬ﻦ )ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ‬

‫‪(Thermocouple‬‬

‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺃﻭ ﻏﺎﺯ )ﻣﺎﺋﻊ( ﲢﺖ ﺿﻐﻂ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪11 -‬‬ ‫‬

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‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﺿﻐﻂ ﻏﺎﺯ ﳏﺼﻮﺭ ﰲ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬

‫ﻩ‪ -‬ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ‪ -‬ﻛﺘﻐﲑ ﻟﻮﻥ ﻣﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻐﲑ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬ ‫‪2-6-1‬‬

‫ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻛﺜﲑﹰﺍ ﻳ‪‬ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺳﻠﻚ ﺭﻓﻴﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺗﲔ ﻣﻠﻔﻮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﻋﺎﺯﻝ‪ .‬ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﱐ ‪-3-1‬ﺃ ﺗﻐﲑ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺗﲔ ﻣﻊ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪.‬‬

‫ﺏ(‬ ‫ﺃ(‬

‫)‪As(Ge‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :3-1‬ﺗﻐﲑ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ :‬ﺃ( ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺗﲔ ﺏ(‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﻼﺣﻆ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺗﲔ ﺗﺘﻐﲑ )ﺑﺒﻂﺀ( ﻣﻊ ﺗﻐﲑ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻓﻴﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ‬

‫ﻏﲑ ﺣﺴﺎﺱ ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻳ‪‬ﻔﻀ‪‬ﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﻧﻴﺦ ﺍﳌﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﲑﻣﺎﻧﻴﻮﻡ‬

‫)‪) As(Ge‬ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪-3-1‬ﺏ(‪.‬‬

‫ﻭﻟﻜﻲ ﻳﻜﻮ ﹶﻥ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺴ‪‬ﺎﺳﹰﺎ ﳚﺐ ﺃ ﹾﻥ ﻳﻜﻮ ﹶﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ‪ ∆T‬ﺃﻛ ‪‬ﱪ ﻣﺎ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰﻩ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﳋﻄﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﳚﺐ ﺃ ﹾﻥ‬

‫ﻳﻜﻮ ﹶﻥ ﻛﺒﲑﹰﺍ‪.‬‬

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‫ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ‬ ‫‪3-6-1‬‬

‫ﻼ( ﻣﻜﻮﻧﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺩﺍﺭ ﹰﺓ‬

‫ﻳﺘﻜﻮ‪‬ﻥ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﰲ ﺃﺑﺴﻂ ﺃﺷﻜﺎﻟﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻠﻜﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﺪﻧﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﻴ‪‬ﻦ )ﳓﺎﺱ ﻭﺧﺎﺭﺻﲔ ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬

‫ﻣﻐﻠﻘﺔ )ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ .(4-1‬ﻳﻨﺸﺄ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺭﺓ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴ‪‬ﺔ )ﻕ‪.‬ﺩ‪.‬ﻙ( ‪ ε‬ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻃﺮﻓﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻠﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ )‪ A‬ﻭ‬

‫‪ B‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ( ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﱵ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :4-1‬ﺃﺑﺴﻂ ﺃﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﺸﻜﱢﻞ ‪ ε‬ﺧﺎﺻﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ‪ .‬ﺗ‪‬ﻮﺿﻊ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻠﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﰲ ﻭﺳﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﻌﺎﻳﺮﺓ‬

‫ﻭﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ )ﺛﻠﺞ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺎﺀ( ﻭﺗ‪‬ﺪﻋﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ‪ ،standard junction‬ﺃﻣ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻷُﺧﺮﻯ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ‬

‫ﻭﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ‪ A) test junction‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ (5-1‬ﻓﺘﻮﺿﻊ ﰲ ﲤﺎﺱ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﺩ‬

‫ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗ‪‬ﻘﺎﺱ ‪ ε‬ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻮﻟﺘﻤﻴﺘﺮ ﺃﻭ ﳎﺰﺉ ﺟﻬﺪ ‪ G) potentiometer‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ(‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :5-1‬ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ‬

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‫ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻐﲑ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﻊ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬ ‫‪4-6-1‬‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺨﱪﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﰲ ﳐﺘﱪﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﻳﺮﺓ‪ :‬ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻱ ﺫﺍ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ )‪ .(constant gas volume thermometer‬ﻳ‪‬ﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﰲ ﻓﻘﺎﻋﺔ ‪ C‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﻊ‬

‫ﻣﺎﻧﻮﻣﻴﺘﺮ ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺿﻐﻂ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ )ﺃﹸﻧﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ .(6-1‬ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻳ‪‬ﺴﺒ‪‬ﺐ ﺿﻐﻂ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﳔﻔﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ‬

‫ﰲ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻷﻳﺴﺮ ‪ B‬ﻭﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻋﻪ ﰲ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻷﳝﻦ ‪ .A‬ﻳﺘﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺑﺎﻥ ‪ A‬ﻭ ‪ B‬ﲝﻮﺽ ﻣﻠﺊ ﺑﺎﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻋﱪ ﺃﹸﻧﺒﻮﺏ‬

‫ﻣﻄﺎﻃﻲ ‪.D‬‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺑﺈﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻛﻤﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﺭﻓﻊ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ‬

‫ﻭﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﺍﻩ ﰲ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ‪ B‬ﺇﱃ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ‪ E‬ﻭﺍﻟﱵ‬

‫ﺗﻌﲏ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﳛﺘﻞ ﺣﺠﻤﹰﺎ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻼﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﺬﺍﻥ‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﺤﺪﺩ‪‬ﺍﻥ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﻭﺃﺑﻌﺎﺩ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﳘﺎ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ‬

‫ﻼﻻ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻭﻣﺪﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﺩ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﻬﺎ ﻓﻤﺜ ﹰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :6-1‬ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻱ ﺫﻭ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ‬
‫ﻳﺼﻠﺢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺇ ﱠﻻ ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ‬

‫]‪.[-200 , 1500 °C‬‬

‫‪Temperature scales‬‬ ‫‪ 5-6-1‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﻴﺲ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﻟﻨ‪‬ﺴ ‪‬ﻢ ‪ X‬ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ‪ X .‬ﺗ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ‪ R‬ﺃﻭ ‪ ε‬ﺃﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﱵ‬

‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﱄ‪ .‬ﻭﻟﺘﻜﻦ ‪ Θ‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺃﻭ‬

‫‪Θ2‬‬ ‫ﻷﻱ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻌﻪ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ‪ .‬ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺩﺭﺟﱵ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﲡﺮﻳﺒﻴﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ‪ Θ1‬ﻭ‬

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‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳ‪‬ﺤﺪ‪‬ﺩﳘﺎ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﻣﺎ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﻗﻴﻢ ‪ X1) X‬ﻭ ‪ (X2‬ﺍﳌﺮﺍﺩﻓﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ‪:‬‬

‫‪Θ1‬‬ ‫‪X‬‬
‫‪= 1‬‬ ‫)‪(2-1‬‬
‫‪Θ2‬‬ ‫‪X2‬‬

‫ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻫﻲ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺇﻋﻄﺎﺅﻫﺎ ﻗﻴﻤ ﹰﺔ ﺟ‪‬ﺰﺍﻓﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ‬

‫ﺍﺧﺘﲑﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﻋﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻻﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﹰﺍ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ‬

‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ‪) triple point of water‬ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧ‪‬ﻔﺼ‪‬ﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻻﺣﻘﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻳﺶ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ‬

‫ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ‪ :‬ﲞﺎﺭ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﻭ ﺍﳉﻠﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﳑﻜﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ ‪.(4.58 mm Hg‬‬

‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﻋﺘﱪﻧﺎ ‪ Θ3‬ﻫﻲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒ‪‬ﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭ ‪ X3‬ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ‪ X‬ﺍﳌﺮﺍﺩﻓﺔ ﳍﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﻣﺎ ‪ X‬ﺗ‪‬ﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪X‬‬
‫=‪Θ‬‬ ‫‪× Θ3‬‬ ‫)‪(3-1‬‬
‫‪X3‬‬

‫ﺗﺜﺒﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻫﻲ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻱ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺘﻔﻖ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺎ‬

‫ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﻛﻠﱠﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻫﻮ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ‪ X‬ﻫﻨﺎ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺜﱠﻠﻨﺎ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﹰﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﻣﺜﻞ‬

‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺑﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ‪ PS/P3‬ﺑﲔ ﺿﻐﻂ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ‪-‬ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﻭﻳﺮﻣﺰ‬

‫ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ‪ s‬ﻳﺮﻣﺰ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ )‪ - (steam‬ﻭﺿﻐﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﳏﻮﺭ ﺍﻹﺣﺪﺍﺛﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﺩﻱ )ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺍﺕ(‬

‫ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ‪ P3‬ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﳓﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺧﻄﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺗﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﲨﻴﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﳏﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﰲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ‪=1.3660 :‬‬

‫‪.PS/P3‬‬

‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﺍﳌﺒﻴﻨﺔ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﳑﻜﻨﺔ ﳐﱪﻳﹰﺎ )ﻓﺎﻟﻀﻐﻂ ‪ P3=0‬ﻻ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﳊﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ( ﻭﺇﻧ‪‬ﻤﺎ ﳓﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﻌﻤﻞ‬

‫"ﺍﻣﺘﺪﺍﺩ ‪ "extrapolation‬ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺤﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺨﱪﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻷﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺃﹸﺧﺮﻯ ﻏﲑ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﳓﺼﻞ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﳌﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺯﻳﻦ‪ .‬ﻧ‪‬ﻌﺮ‪‬ﻑ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ "ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻳﺔ" ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺑﹻ‪:‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪15 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫‪ Pg ‬‬
‫‪Θ g = Θ 3 × lim  ‬‬ ‫)‪(4-1‬‬
‫‪P3 → 0 P‬‬
‫‪ 3 V‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ PS/P3 :7-1‬ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ‪P3‬‬

‫ﺱ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ‪ .‬ﻻ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ‪ Θg‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ‬ ‫ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬
‫ﺚ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ‪ V‬ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ‪ P‬ﻣﻘﺎ ‪‬‬

‫ﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﻌﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻬﺎ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻛﻜﻞ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻓﻬﻲ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﲤﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ‬

‫ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺀ‪ .‬ﻗﺒﻞ ‪ 1954‬ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺗ‪‬ﻌﺮ‪‬ﻑ‬

‫ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻘﻄﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﳘﺎ‪:‬‬

‫• ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻲ‬

‫• ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻠﺞ ﻭﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺍﳌﺸﺒﻊ ﺑﺎﳍﻮﺍﺀ ﲢﺖ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ ‪) 1atm‬ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﺪ ﺃﻭ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳉﻠﻴﺪ‬

‫‪.(ice point‬‬

‫ﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ 4-1‬ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﺳﺘﺒﺪﻟﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ‪ g‬ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻣﺰ ‪ s‬ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ‪ 3‬ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻣﺰ ‪ i‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺟﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺗ‪‬ﻌﺮ‪‬ﻓﺎﻥ‬

‫ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪Θs‬‬ ‫‪P ‬‬

‫‪= lim  s ‬‬ ‫ﻭ‬ ‫‪ΘS - Θi = 100°‬‬ ‫)‪(5-1‬‬
‫‪Θi‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬‫‪i‬‬ ‫→‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪ Pi  V‬‬

‫ﻭﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﳒﺪ ﺃ ﱠﻥ‪:‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪16 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫‪100 Pi‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬

‫= ‪Θi‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪Ps − Pi‬‬ ‫‪Ps‬‬ ‫)‪(6-1‬‬
‫‪−1‬‬
‫‪Pi‬‬

‫‪P‬‬
‫ﻼ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ‪ lim  s ‬ﻷ ﱠﻥ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ‬
‫ﺇ ﱠﻥ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﳐﱪﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﺴﺒﺔ ‪ PS‬ﻫﻲ ‪ 1.3661‬ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﻗﻠﻴ ﹰ‬
‫‪P3 → 0‬‬ ‫‪ P3  V‬‬ ‫‪Pi‬‬

‫ﻼ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳉﻠﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ‪:‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻗﻠﻴ ﹰ‬

‫”‪ΘS= Θi + 100° = 373.15 “degrees‬‬

‫ﻭ‬
‫)‪(7-1‬‬
‫‪100‬‬
‫= ‪Θi‬‬ ‫"‪= 273.15 " deg rees‬‬
‫‪0.36611‬‬

‫ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺮﻯ ﻻﺣﻘﺎﹰ‪ ،‬ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺩﺭﺟﱵ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﺮﺿﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻟِﻠﻮﺭﺩ ﹶﻛ ﹾﻠﻔِﻦ ﻣﺒﻨﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺃﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻘﺔ ﻭﻧﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ‪ T‬ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﹰﺍ‬

‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻵﻥ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ T‬ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:3-1‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺯﺋﺒﻘﻲ ﰲ ﻣﺎﺀ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪،5 cm‬‬

‫ﻧﻌﺘﱪ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻫﻮ ﺧﺎﺻﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ X‬ﻭﺃ ﱠﻥ ‪ Θ‬ﻫﻲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ "ﻳﻘﻴﺴﻬﺎ" ﻫﺬﺍ‬

‫ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ‪.‬‬

‫ﺃ‪ -‬ﺃﹸﺣﺴﺐ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺳﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪.6 cm‬‬

‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺃﹸﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ‪.‬‬

‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺩﻗﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ‪ X‬ﻫﻲ ‪ 0.01 cm‬ﻓﻬﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺑﲔ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﺪ ﻭﻧﻘﻄﺔ‬

‫ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴﺔ؟‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪17 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫ﺍﳊﻞ‪:‬‬
‫× ‪Θ 6 = Θ5‬‬
‫‪X6‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪= 273.16 × = 327.8 degrees‬‬ ‫ﺃ‪-‬‬
‫‪X5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫× ‪X S = X5‬‬
‫‪ΘS‬‬
‫×‪= 5‬‬
‫‪327.80‬‬
‫‪= 6.84cm‬‬ ‫ﺏ‪-‬‬
‫‪Θ5‬‬ ‫‪273.16‬‬

‫‪Θ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪X‬‬

‫‪Xi −X 3 = X 3 ×  i − 1 = 3 × ∆Θ‬‬ ‫ﺝ_‬
‫‪ Θ3‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Θ3‬‬

‫ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ‪ ∆Θ‬ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ 0.01 K‬ﳚﺐ ﺃ ﹾﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﻗﺘﻪ ﺃﻭ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﻴﺘﻪ‬

‫‪5‬‬
‫= ‪∆X‬‬ ‫‪× 0.01 = 1.834 × 10 − 4 < 0.01‬‬
‫‪273.15‬‬

‫∴ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﻏﲑ ﺻﺎﱀ‬

‫ﻧﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﻛﻠﻔﻦ ‪ K°‬ﺃﻭ ﻛﻠﻔﻦ ‪ .K‬ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ‬

‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻫﻲ‪ T3 = 273.16 K :‬ﻭﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ‪:‬‬

‫‪P‬‬
‫‪T = 273.16 K × lim  ‬‬ ‫)‪(8-1‬‬
‫‪P3 → 0  P3 ‬‬
‫‪V‬‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺳﻴﻠﺴﻴﻮﺱ ‪) Celsius‬ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻳﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﻗﺘﺮﺣﻬﺎ( ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺮ‪‬ﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪t C = T - Ti‬‬ ‫)‪(9-1‬‬

‫ﺚ ‪ Ti‬ﻫﻲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳉﻠﻴﺪ ﻭﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ .273.15 K‬ﻭﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﻫﻲ "ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺳﻴﻠﺴﻴﻮﺱ‬
‫ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﺃﻭ ‪ "°C‬ﺃﻭ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺌﻮﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻷ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﺪ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺗ‪‬ﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ 100 °C‬ﺇ ﹾﺫ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﺗ‪‬ﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ ti = 0 °C‬ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ‬

‫‪.tS = 100 °C‬‬

‫ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﻥ ﺁﺧﺮﺍﻥ ﻳ‪‬ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺎﻥ ﰲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﻴ‪‬ﺔ )ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ( ﻣﻌﺮ‪‬ﻓﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪18 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫ﻧﻘﻄﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻭﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﺪ ﻭﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ ‪ Ts - Ti‬ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ 180‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺑﺪ ﹰﻻ ﻣﻦ‬

‫‪ .100‬ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻳ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺭﺍﻧﻜﲔ )ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺒﺘﺪﻋﻪ ﺍﻻﺳﻜﺘﻠﻨﺪﻱ ﻭﻟﻴﻢ ﺭﺍﻧﻜﲔ( ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻓﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ‬

‫‪) Fahrenheit‬ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻷﳌﺎﱐ ﻏﺎﺑﺮﻳﻴﻞ ﻓﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ(‪ .‬ﻳ‪‬ﻌﺮ‪‬ﻑ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﻧﻜﲔ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻔﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪9‬‬
‫= ‪1R‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬ ‫)‪(10-1‬‬
‫‪5‬‬

‫ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳉﻠﻴﺪ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺗ‪‬ﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪9R‬‬
‫= ‪Ti‬‬ ‫‪× 273.15 K = 491.67 R‬‬ ‫)‪(11-1‬‬
‫‪5K‬‬

‫ﻭﺗﻌﺮ‪‬ﻑ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻓﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ ‪ t‬ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪t = T - 459.67 R‬‬ ‫)‪(12-1‬‬

‫ﺚ ‪ T‬ﺗ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﺍﻧﻜﲔ‪ .‬ﻭﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻓﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ ﻫﻲ ‪ °F‬ﻭﺍﻟﱵ‬
‫ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪.°R‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺳﻴﻠﺴﻴﻮﺱ ﻭﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻓﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ‪:‬‬

‫• ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳉﻠﻴﺪ ‪ Ti = 0 °C‬ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ ﻫﻲ‬

‫‪tF = 491.67 - 459.67 = 32 °F‬‬

‫• ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ ‪ Ts= 100 °C‬ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ ﻫﻲ‪:‬‬

‫‪9 R‬‬
‫= ‪ts‬‬ ‫‪× 373.15 K - 495.67 = 212 °F‬‬
‫‪5 K‬‬
‫ﺃﻱ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺟﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ 180‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺺ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻳﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ‪:‬‬

‫‪‬ﻧﹶﻠﺨ‪ ‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪19 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :8-1‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﻴﺲ ﺳﻴﻠﺴﻴﻮﺱ‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻔﻦ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﻧﻜﲔ ﻭﻓﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ‬

‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:4-1‬‬
‫*‬
‫‪ t‬ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‪t* = a θ2 + b :‬‬ ‫‪‬ﻋﺮ‪‬ﻓﺖ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﺚ ‪ a‬ﻭ ‪ b‬ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺎﻥ ﻭ ‪ θ‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺳﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻘﻲ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ ‪.3‬‬
‫ﺣﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ‪.‬‬ ‫*‪t‬‬

‫ﻭ ‪s = 100‬‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﳉﻠﻴﺪ‬ ‫‪t i* =0‬‬ ‫ﺃ‪ -‬ﺟﺪ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻛ ﱟﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ‪ a‬ﻭ ‪ b‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ‬

‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺟﺪ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ *‪ t‬ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ‪.X = 7.0 cm‬‬

‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺟﺪ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ *‪ t‬ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪.50°‬‬

‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﻣﺜﱢﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ *‪ t‬ﻭ ‪ X‬ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﹰﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﳊﻞ‪:‬‬
‫*‪t i‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪= 0 = a (273.15) + b‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫ﺃ‪-‬‬
‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪t *s‬‬ ‫‪= 100 = a (373.15) + b‬‬

‫ﲝﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﳒﺪ ﺃ ﱠﻥ‪:‬‬

‫‪ b = -115.4 K‬ﻭ ‪a = 1.547 × 10-3 K-2‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪20 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫‪2‬‬
‫‪Θ‬‬
‫‪t i* ( X ) = a   X 2 + b‬‬
‫‪X‬‬

‫‪Θ ‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪t i* ( X = 7) = a  5  72 + b = 1.547 × 10-3 ‬‬
‫‪273.16  2‬‬
‫‪ 7 − 115.4‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺏ‪-‬‬
‫‪ X5 ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫‪= + 110.85K‬‬

‫‪t * − b X5‬‬ ‫ﺝ‪-‬‬

‫=‪X‬‬ ‫×‬ ‫‪⇒ X(t * = 50 0 ) = 5.98 cm‬‬
‫‪a‬‬ ‫‪Θ5‬‬

‫‪X cm‬‬ ‫‪t*(X) K‬‬ ‫ﺩ‪-‬‬

‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪-115.4‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪-110.8‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪-97.0‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪-73.9‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪-41.6‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪9×10-3‬‬

‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:5-1‬‬
‫‪K 77.36‬‬ ‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﻋﻠﻤﺖ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺘﺮﻭﺟﲔ )ﺍﻷﺯﻭﺕ( ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻫﻲ‬

‫ﺝ( ﻓﻬﺮ‪‬ﺎﻳ‪‬ﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺏ( ﺭﺍﻧﻜﲔ‬ ‫ﺃ( ﺳﻴﻠﺴﻴﻮﺱ‬ ‫ﻓﺄﺣﺴﺐ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ‬

‫‪t = T - Ti = 77.35 -273.15 = -195.8 °C‬‬ ‫ﺃ‪-‬‬

‫‪9R‬‬ ‫ﺏ‪-‬‬
‫= ‪R‬‬ ‫‪× 73.15 K = 123.23 R‬‬
‫‪5K‬‬

‫= ‪tF‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪t + 32 = 320.44 F‬‬ ‫ﺝ‪-‬‬
‫‪5‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪21 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א א‬ ‫א‬

‫‪Thermodynamic Equilibrium‬‬ ‫ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻲ‬ ‫‪7-1‬‬

‫ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺰﻭﻝ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻓﺮﻭﻕ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﲔ ﺃﺟﺰﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬

‫ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﰲ ﲨﻴﻊ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﻭﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﺃﻭ ﺷﺪ ﺍﳌﺮﻭﻧﺔ ‪ elastic stress‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ )ﺑﻌﺾ( ﺃﺟﺰﺍﺀ ﻣﻨﻪ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻨﻔﺼﻞ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺘﻤﺪﺩ ﺃﻭ‬

‫ﺗﺘﻘﻠﱠﺺ ﻭﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻛ ﱢﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻳ‪‬ﺼﺒﺢ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻲ‪ .‬ﺇ ﱠﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻻ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬

‫ﻣﺘﺴﺎ ٍﻭ ﰲ ﲨﻴﻊ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ .‬ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﹰﺍ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎﺋﻊ ﺧﺎﺿﻊ ﳉﺬﺏ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ‪ .‬ﳜﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺇﱃ‬

‫ﺃﹸﺧﺮﻯ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﺩ ﻟﻜﻨ‪‬ﻪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻲ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﳛﻮﻱ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺪ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺯﻣﻨﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺗﻨﺘﻬﻲ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﺎﻭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﳌﻤﻜﻨﺔ‬

‫ﻭﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﻛﻴﻤﺎﻭﻱ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ‪ ،‬ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻲ ﻭﻛﻴﻤﺎﻭﻱ ﰲ ﺁﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‬

‫ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻨﺎ ﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ )ﺛﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻲ(‪.‬‬

‫ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺳﻮﻑ ‪‬ﻧ ‪‬ﺮﻛﱢﺰ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺘﻨﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪﺓ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺛﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‬

‫ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻲ ﺻﻐﲑ ﹰﺓ ﺟﺪﹰﺍ ﻭﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﳘﺎﳍﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪Processes‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪8-1‬‬

‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻔﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪1-8-1‬‬

‫ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺰﻭﻝ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻓﺮﻭﻕ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﲔ ﺃﺟﺰﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬

‫ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﰲ ﲨﻴﻊ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﻭﻧﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪22 -‬‬ ‫‬

 ‫א‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻛﻨﺔ ‪ :quasistatic process‬ﻭﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﺒﺘﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻻﻣﺘﻨﺎﻫﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻭﺿﻊ‬

‫ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ‪ .‬ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻛﻨﺔ ﻭﻛﺄﻧ‪‬ﻬﺎ ﺳﻠﺴﻠ ﹲﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻏﲑ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻛﻨﺔ ‪ :nonelastic process‬ﻭﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﺒﺘﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﲤﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫ﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺎﺭﺗﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺘﻴ‪‬ﻦ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺄﺧﺬ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ‪ :‬ﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﻏﺎﺯﹰﺍ ﳏﺼﻮﺭﹰﺍ ﰲ ﺃﹸﺳﻄﻮﺍﻧﺔ ﻣﺰﻭ‪‬ﺩﺓ ﲟﻜﺒﺲ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﻙ )ﺁﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺮﺍﻕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ(‪ .‬ﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻷُﺳﻄﻮﺍﻧﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻜﺒﺲ ﻳ‪‬ﺸﻜﱢﻼﻥ ﺣ ‪‬ﺪﹰﺍ ﺃﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﺗﻴﹰﺎ ﻭﻟﻨﻬﻤﻞ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ‪ .‬ﻳﻜﻮﻥ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﰲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﰲ ﲨﻴﻊ ﻧﻘﺎﻃﻪ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺿ‪‬ﻐﻂ ﺍﳌﻜﺒﺲ ﻓﺠﺄﺓ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺑﺎﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻨﺘﻬﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻏ ‪‬ﲑ ﺳﺎﻛﻨﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺳﺎﻛﻨﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺿ‪‬ﻐﻂ ﺍﳌﻜﺒﺲ ﺑﺮﻓﻖ ﻟﻜﻲ ﻳﻜﻮ ﹶﻥ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺔ ﻭﲣﻤﻴﺪ ﺍﳌﻴﻮﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻱ‬

‫ﺚ ﲡﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ‪.‬‬

‫ﲝﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﺧﺮ‪ :‬ﺗﺴﺤﲔ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ T1‬ﺇﱃ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ .T2 > T1‬ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﰲ‬

‫ﳏﻴﻂ ﻏﲑ ﻛﺎﻇﻢ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ ‪ .T2‬ﺇ ﱠﻥ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺴﺨ‪‬ﻦ ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﺎﻃﻪ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﻻ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺧﻀﻊ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺟﻌﻠﺘﻪ ﳝ‪‬ﺮ ﰲ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻲ‬

‫ﻓﺎﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻏﲑ ﺳﺎﻛﻨﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺑﺪﺃﻧﺎ ﺑﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ ‪ T1‬ﰲ ﳏﻴ ٍ‬

‫ﻂ ﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ ‪ T1‬ﺃﻳﻀﹰﺎ ﻭﺑﺪﺃﻧﺎ ﺑﺘﺴﺨﲔ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﺑﺒﻂﺀ‬

‫ﺚ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ ﺗ‪‬ﺼﺒﺢ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺗﺼﺒ ‪‬ﺢ ﺷﺒ ‪‬ﻪ ﺳﺎﻛﻨﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﲝﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﺕ ﺗﺘﻤﻴ‪‬ﺰ ﺑﺄ ﱠﻥ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺱ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎ ٍ‬
‫ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺪﺭ ‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﰲ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻷﻳﺰﻭﺣﺠﻤﻴ‪‬ﺔ ‪ isochoric‬ﺃﻭ ‪.isovolumic‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﲢﺖ ﺿﻐﻂ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻷﻳﺰﻭﺑﺎﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ‪.isobaric‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬

‫ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﲢﺖ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻷﻳﺰﻭﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ‪.isothermal‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪23 -‬‬

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‫ﻳ‪‬ﻤﺜﱢﻞ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ 9-1‬ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﳜﻀﻊ ﳍﺎ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺛﲑﻣﻮﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﻲ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﺛ‪‬ﻴﺎﺕ‬

‫ﺛﻼﺛﻲ ﺍﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪ :1-9‬ﲤﺜﻴﻞ ﺑﻴﺎﱐ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﺛﻴﺎﺕ ﺛﻼﺛﻲ ﺍﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺃﻳﺰﻭﺣﺠﻤﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﺘﺒﻮﻋﺔ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺃﻳﺰﻭﺑﺎﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﻓﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺃﻳﺰﻭﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪Adiabatic Processes‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﺗﻴ‪‬ﺔ‬ ‫‪2-8-1‬‬

‫ﺗ‪‬ﺴﻤ‪‬ﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﳜﻀﻊ ﳍﺎ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺃﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﰐ ﻋﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺃﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﺗﻴ‪‬ﺔ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﻛﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺒﺲ ﰲ ﺁﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺮﺍﻕ‬

‫ﺚ ﺃﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﻻ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺇﱃ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺃﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﺗﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻷ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﲢﺪﺙ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺯﻣﻦ ﻗﺼﲑ ﺟﺪﹰﺍ ﲝﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ‪.‬‬

‫ﺚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﺟﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃ ﹾﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﺗﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻀﺒﻂ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﲝﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻜﺲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ‬ ‫‪3-8-1‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪24 -‬‬

 ‫א‬

‫ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻜﺲ ‪ ، reversible‬ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﰲ "ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺲ" ﻭﺳﻮﻑ ﻧ‪‬ﺴﻤﻴ‪‬ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ‪ ،‬ﰲ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬

‫ﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﺘﺰﻧﹰﺎ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻳﹰﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﳊﻈﺔ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﹸﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺑﺒﻂﺀ ﲝﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﺃ‪ -‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺴﺮﺏ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﻘﺘﺼﺮﹰﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﳍﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪.‬‬

‫ﻱ ﺷﻐﻞ ﻣ‪‬ﺒ ‪‬ﺪ ٍﺩ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺷﻐﻞ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻜﺎﻙ‬

‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﹾﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺃ ‪‬‬

‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﻭﺑﻌﻜﺲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﻋﻜﺲ "ﺍﲡﺎﻫﻬﺎ" ﺑﺘﻐﻴﲑ ﻻﻣﺘﻨﺎﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﺮ ‪ ε‬ﰲ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‪ .‬ﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﹰﺎ‬

‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ ‪ T1‬ﻳﻨﺘﻤﻲ ﺇﱃ ﳏﻴﻂ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻪ ‪.T2‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺴﻴﺎﺏ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺇﱃ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ‬

‫‪ T1 > T2‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺴﻴﺎﺏ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ‪ T2 > T1‬ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﻭﺷﺒﻪ‬

‫ﺳﺎﻛﻨﺔ ﺃﻳﻀﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﺩﺭﺟﱵ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ‪ T1‬ﻭ ‪ T2‬ﳏﺴﻮﺳﹰﺎ ﻓﺈﻧ‪‬ﻪ ﻻ ﻳ‪‬ﻤﻜﻦ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻧﺴﻴﺎﺏ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ‬

‫ﺑﺘﻐﻴﲑ ﻻﻣﺘﻨﺎﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﺮ ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﻭﻏﲑ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﱢﺮﺓ‪.‬‬

‫‪T2‬‬ ‫ﺚ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻨﺴﺎﺑﺔ ﺻﻐﲑ ﺣﺘ‪‬ﻰ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑ‪‬ﻴ ‪‬ﻦ ‪ T1‬ﻭ‬
‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺿﻨﺎ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﺍﳊ ‪‬ﺪ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺃﺩﻳﺎﺑﺎﰐ ﲝﻴ ﹸ‬

‫ﳏﺴﻮﺳﹰﺎ ﻓﺈ ﱠﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﰲ ﺃﻳ‪‬ﺔ ﳊﻈﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺳﺎﻛﻨﺔ ﻭﻏﲑ ﻣﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ‪ .‬ﻳﺘﻀﺢ ﳑ‪‬ﺎ‬

‫ﺲ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﹰﺎ‪ .‬ﺳﻮﻑ ﻧﺮﻯ ﺃﳘﻴ‪‬ﺔ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ‬

‫ﺲ ﻟﻴ ‪‬‬
‫ﺳﺒﻖ ﺃ ﱠﻥ ﻛ ﱠﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺳﺎﻛﻨﺔ‪ ،‬ﻟﻜ ‪‬ﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻜ ‪‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴ‪‬ﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﻭﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺘﻨﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﻳ‪‬ﺔ‪.‬‬

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