CHARACTERIZATION OF ABRASIVE WATER

JET MACHINING PARAMETERS ON AA6351

COMPOSITE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

AJAI R 420419114001

BALAVIGNESH P 420419114004

SUBASHCHANDRABOSE R 420419114313

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ADHIPARASAKTHI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MELMARUVATHUR 603 319

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

MAY 2023
 ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “CHARACTERIZATION OF ABRASIVE
WATER JET MACHINING PARAMETERS ON AA6351 COMPOSITE” is the
bonafide work of “AJAI R (420419114001), BALAVIGNESH P (420419114004),
SUBASH CHANDRA BOSE R (420419114313)” who carried out the project work
under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.C.K.DHINAKARRAJ,M.E.,Ph.D., Mr.C.MANIGANDAN,M.E.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISIOR

PROFESSOR, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,

Department of Mechanical Engg, Department of Mechanical Engg,

Adhiparasakthi Engineering College Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,

Melmaruvathur – 603 319. Melmaruvathur – 603 319.

Submitted for the project work and viva-voce Examination held on…………………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Success is not a single person’s effort. It is a combination of so many people’s
co-operation, the satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the success of the people
who made it possible.
It is indeed a great pleasure and proud privilege to acknowledge the help and
support we received from the positive minds around us in making this endeavor a
successful one. The spiritual blessings of HIS HOLINESS PADMASHRI
ARULTHIRU AMMA and the divine guidance THIRUMATHI AMMA have
undoubtedly taken us to the path ofvictory in completing this project.
The infrastructure support with all kinds of lab facilities have been a motivating
factor in this completion of project work, all because of our CORRESPONDENT
Dr.G.B.SENTHILKUMAR,B.E., with great pleasure we taken this opportunity to
thank him.
From the academic side the constant support fromDr.J.RAJA,M.E.,Ph.D.,
Principal encouraged us to work hard and attain this goal of completing this project.
Our sincere thanks to Head of the Department
Dr.C.K.DHINAKARRAJ,M.E.,Ph.D., who has given us both moral and technique
support adding experience to the job we have undertaken.
We thank our Project Co-ordinator Mr.K,DHANDAPANI,M.E., Assistant
Professor who has led from the front questioning us at the right time and encouraging
usmost of the time, thereby extracting quality work from us.
We take enormous pleasure in thanking our Project Guide
Mr.C.MANIGANDAN,M.E., Assistant Professor who helped us in crossing
obstacles in the path to our glory.
I also wish my sincere thanks to all the teaching and non-technical staff
membersof Adhiparasakthi Engineering College, without whose co operation this
project would not be a success.

iii
 ABSTRACT

The present research works aim to study the process parameter of

Abrasive Water Jet Machining parameters while machining on AA6351- HBN

composites. The aluminum composite is fabricated through stir-casting

techniques. The fabricated composite under-go microstructure analysis, phase

analysis and hardness. The machining of composite carried out with varying on

process parameters such as stand-off distance, traverse speed, mesh size and

abrasive particles. The aluminium composite is fabricated successfully without

any casting defects and microstructure of composite reveals fine distribution of

reinforcements are found in and around the grain boundary. The phase analysis

of composite is conforming the presence of reinforcement particles and

precipitates in fabricated composites.. Further surface morphology of machined

samples will be examined through 2D surface topography to understand the

roughness parameters

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xi

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Metal Matrix Composite 1

1.2 Aluminium Alloy 2

1.3 Wrought Alloys 4

1.4 Aluminium Metal Matrix Composite 5

1.5 Addition of Reinforces 6

1.6 Composite Materials 7

1.6.1 Classifications of Composite Materials 8

1.6.2 Powder Blending and Consolidation 12

1.6.3 Stir Casting 13

1.7 Machining of Aluminium Composite 14

1.8 Non-Conventional Process 15

1.9 Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) 16

1.10 Major Influence of AWJ Machining Parameters 20

1.11 Surface Roughness 23

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CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 24

2.1 Introduction 24

2.2 AWJ Studies on Composite Materials 25

2.3 AWJ Studeis on Polymer Materials 26

2.4 Study of Machining – Turning 28

2.5 Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites 30

2.6 AWJ Studies on Various Materials 33

2.7 Effects of Abrasive Flow Rate 41

2.8 Surface Roughness 41

2.9 Process Variables in Stir Casting 42

2.10 Fabrication Methods of MMCS 43

2.11 Limitations of Existing Literatures 45

2.12 Optimization Studies on AWJ Parameters 45

2.13 Need for the Present Study 51

2.14 Numerical Studies on AWJ Parameters 51

2.15 Optimization Studies by Evolutionary Algorithm 54

2.16 Objective of the Study 58

2.17 Methodology 59

3 FABRICATION OF ALUMINIUM METAL 60

MATRIX COMPOSITES
3.1 Preparation of Composites 60

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CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

3.2 Testing and Methods 62

3.2.1 Micostructure Analysis of Composite 62

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 64

4.1 Optical Microstructures 64

5 PLATE MACHINING PROCESS 65

5.1 Abrasive Water Jet Machining 65

5.2 Plate Cutting by AWJM 67

6 OPTIMIZATION OF AWJM PROCESS 70

6.1 Background 70

6.2 Optimization Methodology 70

6.3 RSM Based CCD Approach 71

6.4 Desirability Function 75

6.5 Surface Roughness 76

7 CONCLUSION 83

8 REFERENCES 84

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Types of MMCs 1

1.2 Aluminium Alloy 3

1.3 Overview of Composite Materials 8

1.4 Fabrication of Alumiium Alloy Composite Materials 11

1.5 Stir Casting 13

1.6 Machining of Aluminium Composite 15

1.7 AWJM Machining 18

1.8 Representative Diagram of an Abrasive Water – Jet 20

Machining Process
1.9 Layout of the Injection Type AWJ Machining Process 22

1.10 Influencing Factors in the AWJ Machining Process 22

1.11 Factors Influencing Surface Roughness 23

2.1 AWJ Hole Profiles a) Conical b) Divergent c) Barrel 41

2.2 Line Diagram of Conventional Stir Casting 43

2.3 Flow of the Research Work 59

3.1 Stir Casting Aluminium Casting 60

3.2 Fabricated AA6351 Composites 62

3.3 Photography of Optical Microscope 63

4.1 Optical Microscopes of Fabricated Composites a) 64

AA6351 b) AA6351 / hBN
5.1 AWJM 65

viii
FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

5.2 Flow Chart 66

5.3 Plate Cutting 67

5.4 Workpiece After AWJM 68

5.5 Video Measuring System 69

6.1 a-c) Influence of Interaction between standoff Distance, 78

Pressure, Traverse Speed, Abrasive Flow Rate with
Respect to 2D Surface Roughness

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

6.1 Input Process Parameter for Machining Parameters 72

6.2 Detailed Description of Experimental Setup 73

6.3 Design of Experiments Order with Response Results 74

6.4 Analysis of Variance for Surface Roughness 77

6.5 ANOVA of Kerf Angle 80

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 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION

AMCs - Aluminium Matrix Components

AMMCs - Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites

AWJC - Abrasive Water Jet Cutting

ICR - Initial Cut Region

MMC - Metal Matrix Composites

PID - Proportional Integral Derivate

RCR - Rough Cut Region

Sa - Arithmetic Mean Height

SCR - Smooth Cut Region

SKU - Kurtosis

Sp - Maximum Peak Height

Sq - Root Mean Square Height

Ssk - Skewness

Sv - Maximum Pit Height

Sz - Maximum Height

XRD - X-Ray Diffraction

xi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) comprise an important structural

material due to its particular interest as lightweight materials for industries
possessing improved modulus, strength, fatigue and fracture resistance even at
elevated temperatures. MMCs are extensively used in major industries such as
automotive, aerospace, sleeves of engine cylinder, and frames of bicycle
because of its resistance to wear, high elastic modulus, and elevated strength
compared to specific weight, specific stiffness, low-density material or
lightweight, elevated thermal stability, and low electric-conductivity.

Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) have attracted many researchers

to study the physical, tribological, mechanical, thermal and electrical properties
of the composites. Aluminium is an encouraging matrix material over the other
due to its functional properties that can be monitored and controlled while
processing. AMCs are advanced materials with superior properties that make
them a potential choice in applications like sports, aerospace, high-temperature
materials, structural materials, defence and automotive industries.

Figure 1.1 Types of MMCs

1
 The use of several reinforcements like carbides, oxides, nitrides, fly ash,
graphite, argon wastes (groundnut shell, rice husk, bamboo leaf, sugarcane
bagasse, coconut shell, etc.) and hybrid reinforcements in aluminium matrix
have been reported by researchers. AMCs can be fabricated using different
methods which include powder metallurgy, stir casting, squeeze casting, and
spray deposition process, pressure infiltration, vacuum hot pressing, and 3D
printing.

The properties of AMCs depend on parameters like composition, grain

size, microstructure and the fabrication process. Certain characteristics of
MMCs play a vital role in determining the machinability of the composites. The
machinability of composite material needs to be established to improve the
economics of machining

1.2 ALUMINUM ALLOY

The aluminium, 7075-T6 as matrix material, the Zinc is the primary

constituent and other elements are silica, iron, manganese, titanium and
chromium. In Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites (AMMCs), the matrix
phase is aluminium / aluminium alloy. The advantages of aluminium 7075-T6
when compared with other conventional alloys are: higher hardness and elastic
modulus, better strength, good damping characteristics, low thermal shock,
superior temperature properties, low coefficient of thermal expansion, wear and
abrasion resistance. The applications of Al7075-T6 are marine, aerospace, hang
glider airframes, bicycle components and rock-climbing equipment. The weight
of engineering structures can be reduced effectively by the use of lower specific
weight materials. Aluminium alloys offer number of different thermal and
mechanical properties and hence are the most extensively used light-weight
metallic materials. Aluminium alloys are the easy to shape metal alloys,
specifically in the process of material removal and possess higher levels of

2
machinability. This property quantifies the performance characteristics and
application by various criteria such as chip evacuation, surface roughness, tool
life, material removal rate etc. Aluminium based in-situ metal matrix
composites have become most attractive due the advantages such as good bond
strength of matrix with reinforcement and uniform distribution of fine
reinforcement. The holding temperature being very high the change in
microstructure of composite prepared is negligible

Figure 1.2: Aluminium alloy

Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the

predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium,
manganese, silicon and zinc.

There are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and

wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-
treatable and non-heat-treatable. Alloys composed mostly of the two
lightweight metals aluminium and magnesium have been very important
in aerospace manufacturing since somewhat before 1940. Aluminium-
magnesium alloys are both lighter than other aluminium alloys and much less
flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of Selecting the right
alloy for a given application entails considerations of its tensile strength,

3
density, ductility, formability, workability, weld ability, and corrosion
resistance.

Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa,

which is about one-third of the elastic modulus of most kinds of steel and steel
alloys. Therefore, for a given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium
alloy will experience a greater elastic deformation than a steel part of the
identical size and shape. Though there are aluminium alloys with somewhat-
higher tensile strengths than the commonly used kinds of steel, simply replacing
a steel part with an aluminium alloy might lead to problems.

Aluminium alloys are widely used in automotive engines, particularly

in cylinder blocks and crankcases due to the weight savings that are possible.
Since aluminium alloys are susceptible to warping at elevated temperatures, the
cooling system of such engines is critical.

1.3 WROUGHT ALLOYS

The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted

naming scheme for wrought alloys. Each alloy is given a four-digit number,
where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements.

 1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99%

aluminium content by weight and can be work hardened.

 2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to

strengths comparable to steel. Formerly referred to as duralumin,
they were once the most common aerospace alloys, but were
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced
by 7000 series in new designs.

 3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work hardened.

4
  4000 series are alloyed with silicon. They are also known as sliming.

 5000 series are alloyed with magnesium.

 6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon, are easy to
machine, and can be precipitation hardened, but not to the high
strengths that 2000 and 7000 can reach.

 7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened
to the highest strengths of any aluminium alloy.

 8000 series is a category mainly used for lithium alloys

1.4 ALUMINUM METAL MATRIC COMPOSITE

Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) have attracted many researchers

to study the physical, tribological, mechanical, thermal and electrical properties
of the composites. Aluminium is an encouraging matrix material over the other
due to its functional properties that can be monitored and controlled while
processing. Aluminium matrix composites are advanced materials with superior
properties that make them a potential choice in applications like sports,
aerospace, high-temperature materials, structural materials, defence and
automotive industries. The use of several reinforcements like carbides, oxides,
nitrides, fly ash, graphite, argon wastes (groundnut shell, rice husk, bamboo
leaf, sugarcane bagasse, coconut shell, etc.) and hybrid reinforcements in
aluminium matrix have been reported by researchers. Aluminium metal matrix
nanocomposites can be fabricated using different methods which include
powder metallurgy, stir casting, squeeze casting, spray deposition process,
pressure infiltration, vacuum hot pressing, and 3 D printing. The properties of
aluminium matrix composites depend on parameters like composition, grain
size, microstructure and the fabrication process. Certain characteristics of
MMCs play a vital role in determining the machinability of the composites. The

5
machinability of composite material needs to be established to improve the
economics of machining.

1.5 ADDITION OF REINFORCES

The reinforcement in aluminium matrix composites improves

tribological properties, corrosion resistance, and mechanical strength. The
different reinforcement materials used in development of AMCs is classified
into three different types (a) ceramic particles, (b) industrial waste and (c) agro
waste products. In order to obtain the desired property of aluminium composites
is depends upon following factors

 Level of composition, (Wt. % or Vol. %)

 Inherent properties

 Fabrication methods,

 Surface chemistry

 Particle size,

 Shape of reinforcement particles,

 Impurities

 Processing routine

 Structural defects

The most utilized reinforcement is ceramic reinforcement in MMCs, this

ceramic reinforcement classified into two major classification (i) continuous
and (ii) discontinuous. The continuous reinforcement is mainly used fibres as
long size and monofilament wires. The results obtained through fibre matrix are
anisotropic structure based on their alignment of materials, and the dimensions
of fibre reinforcement determine its capability of strength of composites.

6
Discontinuous reinforcements are particles and short fibres as whiskers. The
progress in production of AMCs through many researchers with various
carbides (B4C, SiC, WC, TaC), oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, ZrO2, MgO2) borides
(TiB2, ZrB2, TaB2), nitrides (AlN, TaN, TiN, Si3N4) are mostly used ceramic
particles in AMCs.

1.6 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials are macroscopic mixtures of two or more

dissimilar materials having a dispersed and noticeable interface separating
them. So composites are called heterogeneous materials and several natural
materials are having this nature like wood. The composites of interest in this
study focus on the synthetic, man-made materials, retaining high strength
and/or stiffness proportional to weight, which are attracted by the use of high-
performance structural components due to their new properties. Composites
can be identified in many applications, i.e., straw in bricks, metal rod-
reinforced concrete and lightweight aerospace structures.

The important mechanical and physical properties of the composite

materials are mostly developed by the influence of the discontinuous phase
that is called the reinforcement phase. The reinforcement volume fraction is
the major factor for enhancing the basic material properties because it carries
the load applied to the composite materials. Composite materials are structured
by the two phases such as:

a) Matrix phase,

b) Reinforcement phase.

7
 Figure 1.3 Overview of composite materials

Matrix is a binding material, which holds the reinforcement materials

in a composite system. It is the primary continuous phase with softer and more
ductile characteristics. The reinforcement material is a secondary phase, which
is implanted in the matrix phase as discontinuous form. It should be hard and
strong characteristics which enhance the compressive strength of the matrix
phase. Figure 1.3 displays the overview of composite materials.

1.6.1 Classifications of Composite Materials

The classifications of composite materials are made based on:

(a) Matrix material used, and

(b) Reinforcement materials used.

(a) Matrix material used

i) Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

The metals and their alloys are used as the matrix phase in metal matrix
composites. For example aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper,
titanium, etc. are impeded by ceramic and metallic materials like carbides,
nitrides and oxides.

Example: Al/Al2O3, Al/SiC, Al/TiC Mg/Y2O3 composites.

8
ii) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

Polymers are used as a matrix phase to produce polymer matrix

composites. These are comprised of a matrix from thermoset unsaturated
polymer such as polyester, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride(PVC), nylon, polystyrene,
etc., which are embedded with fibersmade from glass, carbon, steel and kevlar.

Example: Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics (GFRPs), boat hulls, tyre etc.

iii) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

Ceramic materials are used as a matrix phase in a ceramic matrix

composite. Both primary and secondary phases are made with ceramic
materials. The ceramic matrix composite is most suitable for use in
lightweight, high-temperature components, such as parts for airplane jet
engines.

Examples: Borosilicate glasses are reinforced within the silicon carbide

fibers.

The purpose of the reinforcing constituents in composites gives high

strength and other additional purposes like resistant to corrosion, thermal
conduction, heat resistance, and low weight density of the metal matrix
composite. Reinforcement for the composite can be particles, fibers or whiskers.
Fibres are basically characterized by long axis with other two axes either often
circular or almost circular. The particles have not preferred orientation and their
shape too. Whiskers have a preferred shape, but they are small in diameter and
length as compared to fibres according to Sharma, Yoshiro Iwai et al. In metal
matrix composite, mostly ceramic particulates are combined into the matrix as
reinforcements. The selection conditions for the ceramic reinforcements include
the following factors: (i) compatibility with the matrix (ii) modulus of elasticity

9
(iii) tensile strength (iv) thermal stability (v) melting point (vi) density (vii) size
and shape of the reinforcing particle and (viii) cost. The most commonly used
reinforcement in aluminium is SiC and Al2O3.

MMC reinforcements can be divided into five major categories:

continuous fibers, discontinuous fibers, whiskers, particulates, and wires. With
the exception of wires, which are metals, reinforcements generally are ceramics
(Kainer 2006). The parameter that allows us to distinguish between these
different forms of reinforcements is called the aspect ratio (Kumar and
Balasubramanian 2008). Aspect ratio is nothing but the ratio of the length to the
diameter of the fiber, particle, or whisker. Thus, continuous fibers have an
aspect ratio approaching infinity, while perfectly equiaxed particles have an
aspect ratio of around one. Key continuous fibers include boron, graphite
(carbon), alumina, and silicon carbide. Among all the leading discontinuous
fiber reinforcements, alumina and silica are the most popular. Both were
originally developed as insulating materials. The major whisker material is
silicon carbide. Silicon carbide and boron carbide, the key particulate
reinforcements, are obtained from the commercial abrasives industry. Silicon
carbide particulates are also produced as a by-product of the process, used to
make whiskers of this material (Bobic et al. 2009). 31 4 A number of metal
wires including tungsten, beryllium, titanium, and molybdenum have been used
to reinforce metal matrices. Currently, the most important wire reinforcements
are, tungsten wires in super alloys and superconducting materials, incorporating
niobium-titanium and niobium-tin in a copper matrix. The reinforcements cited
above are the most important at this point in time. Many others have been tried
over the last few decades, and still others undoubtedly will be developed in the
future. Red mud is the major waste material obtained during the production of
aluminum from bauxite, by the Bayer’s process. It contains alumina, silica, and
oxides of iron along with some other minor constituents. Till now, storing and

10
disposal of red mud has been biggest problem (Prasad 2006). Most of the red
mud is released into the sea, and it contaminates the sea water. The storage of
red mud in wetlands causes serious environmental problems, owing to the high
pH scale resulting in soil alkalization and pollution. Furthermore, dry storage
can produce dust and pollute the atmosphere. Hence, it is necessary to devise
sensible strategies which may effectively utilize the red mud material
(Satapathy and Patnaik 2008). Red mud particulate contains oxides of silica,
ferric, and alumina. So, it may be used as reinforcement to fabricate MMCs.
The advantages of red mud have attracted many researchers to study the
functional features, such as high strength, wear resistance, and increased
mechanical properties, that are specifically required for aerospace and
automobile applications (Coruh and Ergun 2010), (Bhat et al. 2012).

Figure 1.4: Fabrication of Aluminium alloy composite material

The choice of the primary manufacturing process for the fabrication of

any MMC is dictated by many factors, the most important of which are:

 Preservation of reinforcement strength

 Minimization of reinforcement damage

11
  Promotion of wetting and bonding between the matrix and
reinforcement

 Flexibility that allows proper backing, spacing and orientation of

the reinforcements within the matrix

These primary industrial manufacturing processes can be classified into

liquid phase and solid state processes. Liquid phase processing is characterized
by intimate interfacial contact, and hence, strong bonding, but can lead to the
formation of a brittle interfacial layer. Solid state processes include powder
blending followed by consolidation, diffusion bonding, and vapor deposition.
Liquid phase processes include squeeze casting and squeeze infiltration, spray
deposition, slurry casting, and reactive processing.

1.6.2 Powder Blending and Consolidation

Powder blending and consolidation is a commonly used method for the

preparation of discontinuously reinforced MMCs. In this process, powders of
the metallic matrix and reinforcement are first blended and fed into a mold of
the desired shape. Blending can be carried out dry, or in liquid suspension.
Pressure is then applied to further compact the powder. The compact is then
heated to a temperature which is below the melting point, but high enough to
develop significant solid state diffusion. After blending, the mixture can also be
consolidated directly by hot pressing or hot isostatic pressing, to obtain high
density. The consolidated composite is then available for secondary processing.
Achieving a homogeneous mixture during blending is a critical factor because
the discontinuous reinforcement tends to persist as agglomerate with interstitial
spaces too small for the penetration of the matrix particles.

12
1.6.3 Stir Casting

It involves the incorporation of a dispersed phase into a molten matrix

metal, followed by its solidification. In order to provide high level mechanical
properties of the composite, good interfacial bonding (wetting) between the
dispersed phase and the liquid matrix should be obtained. Wetting improvement
may be achieved by coating the dispersed phase particles (fibers). Proper
coating not only reduces the interfacial energy, but also prevents the chemical
interaction between the dispersed phase and the matrix. The simplest and the
most cost effective method of liquid state fabrication is stir casting (Rajan et al.
2007).

It is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a

dispersed phase (ceramic particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten metal
matrix, by means of mechanical stirring. The liquid composite material may
then be cast by conventional casting methods, are processed by conventional
metal forming technologies.

Figure 1.5: Stir casting

13
1.7 MACHINING OF ALUMINIUM COMPOSITE

Particulate metal-matrix composites are of particular interest, since they

exhibit higher ductility and lower anisotropy than fiber reinforced MMCs.
While many engineering components made from particulate metalmatrix
composites are produced by the near net shape forming and casting processes,
they frequently require machining to achieve the desired 34 7 dimensions and
surface finish (Ramesh et al. 2008). The machining of particulate metal-matrix
composites presents a significant challenge, since a number of reinforcement
materials are significantly harder than the commonly used high-speed steel
(HSS) and carbide tools; the reinforcement phase causes rapid abrasive tool
wear, and therefore, the widespread usage of particulate metal-matrix
composites is significantly impeded by their poor machinability and high
machining costs. It becomes important that certain issues are addressed in order
to increase the usage of MMCs in different engineering as well as recreational
industries (Kannan et al. 2008).

The inherent abrasiveness of the ceramic reinforcement causes severe

tool wear during the cutting of MMCs, thus resulting in high tool and machining
costs. The premature failure of the cutting tool leads to frequent tool changes,
and hence, increased production time and cost. During the machining of MMCs,
the reinforcement particles are fractured by the cutting tool and pulled out of the
matrix. This mechanism of particle pull out results in severe sub-surface damage
and micro crack propagation, which affects the fatigue and creep performance
of the machined component, when put into service (Kok 2011). The engineering
usage of this material can be increased only if the problems encountered during
the secondary and tertiary processing stages can be solved.

14
 Figure 1.6: Machining of aluminium composite

1.8 NON-CONVENTIONAL PROCESS

Non-Conventional process also called Non-Traditional Machining

process is employed where traditional machining is not feasible or economical.
The machining of materials which are brittle in nature is very difficult in
traditional machining processes (Turning, Drilling, Milling and Shaping). Non-
traditional machining provides a solution to these problems with absence of
sharp cutting tools. The non-conventional process is mainly divided into four
main categories. Among the various processes involved in non-traditional
machining process, Water Jet Cutting can minimize the cost and increases the
speed of cutting eliminating the need for any secondary machining process. As
there is no heat induced in the material, cutting edges are produced with
negligence of burrs. Hence, the problems faced due to cutting such as
crystallization, cracked edge defect and hardening are drastically minimized. In
the current scenario, Abrasive Water Jet Cutting (AWJC) is widely used which
is an extended version of Water Jet Cutting for high increase in material removal
rate. During cutting, particles of aluminium oxide or silicon carbide is used for

15
enhancing defect free removal of metals with most accurate shapes. From
materials such as glass and ceramics to much softer materials like rubber or
foam can be easily removed using AWJC. Since AWJC process is specially
made ideal for cutting materials, materials of metallic, non-metallic and
composite nature of varying thickness can easily be processed. Also, AWJC has
many benefits which includes negligence of thermal distortion during cutting,
minimized cutting force on jobs and feasibility of cutting any materials with
absence of cutting tool. Due to these benefits, AWJC is widely used in
automobile, marine, mining and aerospace industries.

1.9 ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING (AWJM)

Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) removes material from the

surface by erosion of fine-grained abrasive particles striking the surface at a
high velocity. The kerf width of composites increased with an increase in
pressure and standoff distance, while kerf width decreased with increase in feed
rate. Observed that the holes made by AJM became highly non uniform at larger
depths along the jet alignment direction. Naser Haghbin et al. reported that the
erosion rate of composites decreased with increase in channel depth. Nouraei
et al. reported that the ductile erosion during AWJM plays a major role in
reducing the SR and waviness of the channels. Naser Haghbin et al. reported
that the erosion rate of high-pressure slurry jet micro-machining was lower due
to the smaller width of micro-channels. Ulas Caydas and Ahmet Hascalik
observed three distinct regions along the machined wall surface namely initial
damage region, a smooth cutting region and a rough cutting region during
microstructure evaluation of AWJM. Haj Mohammad Jafar et al. reported
deeper and rougher channels at higher kinetic energy jets while machining
borosilicate glass using abrasive slurry jet machining. Naresh Kumar and Mukul
Shukla observed that the depth of cut is higher for larger impact angles and
maximum at an angle of 90°. Vishal Gupta et al. revealed that at higher water

16
pressure the kerf angle and top kerf width is primarily influenced by the nozzle
transverse speed. Sasikumar et al. suggested that minimum Kerf angle and good
surface finish of aluminium composites by AWJM can be achieved at higher
water jet pressure, low transverse speed and less standoff distance. Ajit and
Shailendra et al. found that delamination of composites decreases with increase
in abrasive mass flow rate, pressure and decrease in traverse rate, while decrease
in stand-off distance decreases the Kerf width of composites.

The AWJM-machined Al7075 MMC surfaces were studied with help of

SEM after cleaning to examine the machined surface characteristics. A small
damaged region was made by the initial jet impact where an indentation was
created on the edges of the top kerf by the water jet. Below this, the cutting
marks can be seen. This may have been due to the two erosion stages (cutting
wear and deformation wear) as proposed by other workers for ductile material
cutting. The machined surface contains three regions, namely, initial cut region
(ICR), smooth cut region (SCR) and rough cut region (RCR). Abrasive particles
have sufficient kinetic energy during entry period to erode the material.

Water jet machining is one of the machining processes that can machine
hard materials, complicated components involving precision in automotive
engineering, renewable energy, aerospace, medical equipment, etc. Abrasive
Water Jet Machining (AWJM) with superior cutting-edge technology is paying
attention among researchers. The abrasive jet manufacturing process also
accounts for its limitations such as secondary erosive wear, abrasive
contamination, taper profile, jet diffusion, poor kerf geometry, etc. The major
parameters influencing abrasive jet machining include water jet pressure, water
jet attack angle, impinging angle, traverse feed velocity, abrasive particle
density, machining time, mass flow rate of abrasive particles and standoff
distance.

17
 Water jet machining is one of the machining processes that can machine
hard materials, complicated components involving precision in automotive
engineering, renewable energy, aerospace, medical equipment, etc. Abrasive
Water Jet Machining (AWJM) with superior cutting-edge technology is paying
attention among researchers. The abrasive jet manufacturing process also
accounts for its limitations such as secondary erosive wear, abrasive
contamination, taper profile, jet diffusion, poor kerf geometry, etc. The major
parameters influencing abrasive jet machining include water jet pressure, water
jet attack angle, impinging angle, traverse feed velocity, abrasive particle
density, machining time, mass flow rate of abrasive particles and standoff
distance. AWJM of aluminium composites reinforced decreases the kerf width,
while the surface roughness and kerf angle increase with increasing traverse
speed. AWJ machining carried on Nimonic C263 indicated numerous surface
textures and very little heat-affected zone along the depth of the workpiece.

Figure 1.7: AWJM Machining

18
 In today’s scenario, manufacturing industries primary target is to
produce products with high quality. Products that possess important properties
such as high hardness, wear resistance and toughness are in high demand for
various applications say marine, aeronautical or nuclear industries. The quality
of making products that meet these requirements using conventional process is
quite complicated.

Abrasive water jet (AWJ) has been finding extensive use in the
manufacturing industries for machining wide range of materials such as metals
and non-metals. Figure 1.11 Representative diagram of an abrasive water-jet
machining process. The reason behind the selection of AWJ machining process
is that does not generate heat at the cutting zone, but the heat is less while
machining hard materials; ability to cut all kinds of materials such as metals,
non-metals, composites, ceramics; a higher material removal rate than the Wire
EDM process, and production of a better surface integrity than the laser
machining process; cutting thick components in the range of 250mm (depends
on materials); absence of thermal distortion to work materials but ability to cut
intricate shapes; existence of minimum cutting force on the work materials and
yield of better dimensional accuracy due to insignificant deformation; rock
drilling and surface cleaning.

19
 Figure 1.8 Representative diagram of an abrasive water-jet
machining process

1.10 MAJOR INFLUENCE OF AWJ MACHINING PARAMETERS

a) Water jet pressure: This is an important process parameter in the AWJ

machining process. Kinetic energy of the AWJ depends on the pressure
level of water. Pressure is less than the threshold pressure range when no
material removal takes place. Similarly, the pressure equal to the critical
pressure range represents the limit indicated for effective cutting. The
machining process becomes ineffective if ex- tended beyond this stage.
Water jet pressure is directly proportional to the penetration depth and
the material removal rate. It has influence on the distribution of water as
well as abrasive particles in the jet. It is frequently denoted by MPa or
bar or PSI.

20
b) Traverse rate: It determines the quality of the cut surfaces produced by
the AWJ process. The major influence on the traverse rate on the AWJ
machining process is the determination of the exposure time. A Lower
traverse rate increases the surface quality by allowing a larger number
abrasive particles to impinge on the target material surface. It also
impacts on the cutting rate of the process. The traverse rate is indicated
by mm3/min.

c) Abrasives: Various types of natural (garnet) and artificial abrasives

(silicon carbide, aluminium oxide) are used in the AWJ machining
process. A typical shape of the garnet abrasive used in the machining
process. The abrasive particle size, shape and hard- ness have a
significant influence on the AWJ cutting performance. The higher the
hardness of the work material, the harder should be the abrasives to be
used. An increase in the size of the abrasive particle increases the particle
disintegration. A decrease in the depth of penetration and material
removal rate is seen following an increase in the limit of the size of the
abrasive particles, which happens due to are duction in the impingement
frequency on the target material surface. The range of the abrasive size
is universally indicated by mesh size (#).

d) Abrasive mass flow rate: The flow rate of the abrasives alongwith the
water jet pressure has an influence on the AWJ material removal rate. An
optimum supply of abrasives yields a higher cutting performance with a
better surface finish. The flow rate of the abrasives depends on the
diameter of the focusing nozzle used in the AWJ machining process. A
transformation of the jet momentum is required for ensuring effective
acceleration of the abrasive mass flow rate. The rate of abrasive mass
flow is usually expressed as kg/min. The Layout of the injection type
AWJ machining process and process parameters influencing factors in
the AWJ machining process are shown in Figure 1.9 and 1.10.

21
 Figure 1.9 Layout of the injection type AWJ machining process

Figure 1.10 Influencing factors in the AWJ machining process

The influence of various factors such as hydraulic, cutting, mixing and

abrasive parameters on the AWJ performance of various characteristics
including performance (depth of penetration, material removal rate, taper angle,
kerf taper ratio and surface roughness) and surface integrity characteristics
(surface topography and surface me- tallurgy) of AWJ process is discussed in
the following section in the light of research findings on record. Figure 11 shows
the influencing factors in the AWJ machining process.

22
1.11 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Surface roughness often shortened to roughness, is a component

of surface texture. It is quantified by the deviations in the direction of the normal
vector of a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations are large, the
surface is rough; if they are small, the surface is smooth. Roughness is typically
considered to be the high-frequency, short-wavelength component of a
measured surface (see surface metrology). However, in practice it is often
necessary to know both the amplitude and frequency to ensure that a surface is
fit for a purpose

Figure 1.11 Factors influceing Surface reoughness

23
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

It encompasses a complete survey of literature pertaining to the topic of

research including fabrication of AMCs by showing a specific emphasis on
insitu method and microstructure (OM, XRD, EBSD, EDAX, FESEM) analysis
of in-situ AMCs. A survey has been conducted on machining (drilling and
turning) characteristics of the in-situ AMCs and the empirical relations of
several parameters.

In recent years, a large number of researchers have been carried out in

the area of metal matrix composites albeit many metals or alloys are employed
as matrix materials, aluminium and its alloys have a dominant role. Aluminium
matrix composites (AMCs large variety of mechanical properties depending on
the chemical composition of the Al-matrix. Number of researchers have been
conducted in the area of AMC and some of them concentrated on the hybrid
composites. The non- traditional machining processes are needed to machine
the difficult to cut materials. The machining of ceramic reinforced composites
is difficult and non-viable using conventional machining because the addition
of ceramic particles increases the hardness of composite and also the presence
of ceramic particles reduces the tool life. Since AWJM is a broadly existing
method, the process is researched a lot in the features of innovative methods,
process performance enhancement, process parameters optimization etc. Many
research works have been conceded out for machining the MMCs using AWJM.
In the AWJM machining process, many of the machining performance are
interrelated with a huge number of factors, hence inhibiting high process
performance from being achieved. To overcome these problems, the researchers

24
propose models which might try to simulate the settings during machining and
create cause and result interactions among various factors and preferred product
characteristics.

Among the non-traditional cutting processes, AWJC has found

significant importance over recent years in various engineering applications.
Due to its emitting high pressurized water through a small nozzle mixed with
different abrasives, materials possessing different properties can be easily
machined. The major issues faced in AWJC are the material removal rate, depth
of cut and surface roughness which reduces to a great extent. The input
parameters under AWJC such as jet angle, feed rate, stand-off distance, abrasive
flow rate and water pressure collectively decrease the output responses. Due to
several parameters included under this technique, there is difficulty in
effectively controlling cutting operations. The investigations into AWJ is
progressively reviewed, the results are studied and their research methodology
addressed

2.2 AWJ STUDIES ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The combination of both traditional and non-traditional cutting process

is studied on a composite material related to the tool wear, sensitivity to heat
and damage is discussed by Abrate et al. (1992). CFRP laminate material is
investigated by Unde et al. (2005) by studying the process parameters based on
the measurements made from its performances. The most significant factor
obtained in this research is standoff distance and feed rate while measuring
metal removal rate, kerf taper and delamination factor. However, the surface
roughness gets affected by the orientation of fiber and jet pressure.

The study on delamination mechanism on epoxy composite material is

done by Shanmugam et al. (2008) and noted that, the shock wave impact on

25
water jet is a crucial and leads to propagation of cracks between matrix and fibre
resulting in delamination. Similar research is also conducted for delamination
with effect to impact jet by Hashish (1993) and Paul et al. (2002).

The study of surface topography based on input parameters of AWJ

technique is investigated by Hutyrova et al. (2016) on wood plastic composite.
A method of optical profilometry was used for solving the problem while
melting polymer matrix. Ibraheem et al. (2015) used GFRP material to study
the AWJC parameters and evaluated the optimal values to determine the
predictions and confirmations through responses obtained.

Studies were carried out on composite materials by Lima et al. (2016),

Jani et al. (2016), Naresh et al. (2014) and Uthayakumar et al. (2016), on AWJ
technique in terms of analyzing Ra and kerf geometry. The effect of Ta and
surface roughness with respect to control factors is reported by Venkateshwara
et al. (2010). It shows that, many combinations under different output
performances are well suitable under AWJ technique which gets affected with
the tedious parts [Hu et al. (2017) and Kartal et al. (2017)].

2.3 AWJ STUDIES ON POLYMER MATERIALS

Getu et al. (2008) focused on enhancing the material removal rate in

elastomers and polymers (PTFE, ABS and PDMS) for use in AJM process. By
injecting liquid nitrogen with sufficient cooling causes brittle erosion
particularly in PDMS and increase in erosion rate. Subsequently the author also
studied the effect of embedded particles of Al2O3 along with ABS, PTFE and
PMMC under room and cryogenic temperatures. The particle covered under the
cryogenic temperature covered by fractional area has been found to be
drastically reducing when compared to AJM. The removal of particles is studied
and found to be satisfactory with the cryogenic use of AJM Getu et al. (2011).

26
 In order to achieve high surface quality on hard materials, composite
abrasives in the form of thermoplastic polymer with polystyrene is used as a
base material during AJM process. Based on this novelty on development of
abrasives, the surface roughness is highly improved however there is a
formation of shallower cracks occurring during machining Ke et al. (2012). For
the machining parameters such as stand-off distances, MRR and concentration
of chemicals, the author has studied the effect of different chemicals in AWJC.

Prabhuswamy et al. (2018) carried out research on aluminium alloy

based matrix metal composite and examined the ability of cutting feasibility
using AWJ process. The samples selected were in the form of trapezoid and
analyzed the depth of cut based on the traverse speed, abrasive mass flow rate
and water jet pressure. The removal of material from the composite was also
analyzed under SEM and the observations were discussed.

Kartal et al. (2017) had undertaken the study on AA6082 T6 material

using AWJ process and examined the surface roughness and characteristics of
macro surface. The influence on MRR is analyzed from the input parameters
such as spindle speed, abrasive flow rate and stand-off distance. The study
showed that, the parameters from spindle speed, abrasive flow rate and is
increased with decrease in nozzle feed rate and stand-off distance.

Kartal (2016) discussed an overview of abrasive water jet turning process and its
importance, necessities and recommendations on machining of samples. The input parameters
considered were pump pressure, abrasive size, abrasive 16 flow rate, nozzle feed rate, stand-
off distance and spindle speed. It was shown that, the use of materials with a cylindrical shape
is scarce and can be analyzed for measuring the outputs from machining depth, material
removal rate and surface roughness. Li et al. (2015) work deals with the study on Ti-6Al-4V
alloy material using AWJ process. The work studied the effect of drilling time and water
pressure based on the cutting operation. The removal time from drilling operation on diameter
and depth of hole is increased with decreasing speed rate. Also, through the cutting slot, the
effect of traverse speed and water pressure is examined. An analysis was done, top and bottom

27
kerf geometry were studied. Rishi et al. (2019) investigated the cutting of carbon foam in AWJ
process by varying input parameters with three different levels. The output response on kerf
surface topology was examined and discussed. The method proposed under discrete wavelet
analysis was used to discuss the surface topology and removal rate mechanisms. Palleda et al.
(2007) have stated that, the taper of drilling operation is much reduced on a polymer material.
The efficient and feasible work is suggested by Wang et al. (1999) for better improvement on
quality of performance on cutting in polymer materials. Abrasive jet micro-machining of
polymers was investigated by Getu et al. (2012) for determining the particles embedded with
spherical and angular abrasive features.

2.4 STUDY OF MACHINING – TURNING

Anil et al. (2017) produced reinforced aluminium soil with Graphite

which is manufactured by applying the process of stir casting and surface fining.
The machining property of the created composite is studied by employing the
tool dynamometer enclosed with Lathe named BANKA and by changing the
machining parameter such as depth of cut, spindle speed and feed rate at 3
levels. The average Roughness (Ra) of the machined surface is evaluated by
applying surface Roughness Tester (Mitutoyo SJ201). It is evident that the
composites mechanical properties increase by adding Graphite and the cutting
force minimized the percentage of reinforcement and it results in increase of
composites machinability property and paves way for increased surface finish.
Maximum cutting speed with minimum depth of cut and lower feed rate as one
good surface finish in comparison to minimum cutting speed and maximum feed
rate and depth of cut producing cutting force was more and the surface quality
was also poor.

Tomadi et al. (2017) observed the parameters impact of cutting (turning)

operation and its related prediction model over machining surface roughness of
A1Si/AIN matrix composite. The newer composite material got synthesized by
strengthening smaller sizes of AIN particles at 10%, 15% and 20% volume

28
fraction with AISi alloy. The experiments in machining included carbide tool
which is uncoated and PVD TiAIN carbide tool which is coated. These
experiments had been carried out on various parameters of cutting operation
with cutting speed (240-400 m/min), feed rate (0.3-0.5 mm/tooth) and depth of
cut (0.3- 0.5 mm). Orthogonal arrays approach got applied in deciding about the
suitable cutting parameter by applying a signal–to-noise ratio as per the
stipulation of the smaller–the-better. The cutting tool tents exhibited that their
nature of contribution matched to the machined material surface roughness. The
surface roughness has been improved by a mathematical model and by
employing regression analysis as a function of all parameters with an average
error of 10% noticed between predicted and experimented value. Moreover, the
optimum cutting parameter had been identified as A1 (uncoated carbide), B2
(cutting speed: 320m/min) C2 (feed rate: 0.4mm/tooth), D2 (axial depths:
0.4mm/tooth) and E1 (10% reinforcement) and E1 (10% reinforcement) and the
experiment results having reliability.

Sadilek et al. (2016) studied about problems pertaining to efficiency of

turning cycles. Their research work described and suggested about the
opportunities for their application and the effective strategies in the
programming CNC turning centre. These centres propose a fresh roughening
cycle in which the variable cut is employed. The roughing cycles are suggested
with the usage, the depth cut is varied which will confirm about the increase of
durability of the cutting tool and its turning efficiency. This makes a comparison
on turning where standard roughing cycle is employed and the turning where
the suggested roughing cycle has been applied in several depth cuts.

Basavarajappa et al. (2013) carried out a deep research on the surface

roughness and chip for matrix in turning of Al 2219/15SiCp and Al
2219/15SiCp3 Gr (hybrid) composition. These experiments were carried out for
several cutting conditions by applying carbide, coated carbide and Poly

29
Crystalline Diamond (PCD) tools. The result surface roughness values showed
the level for coated carbide tools than carbide and PCD tools are minimum. The
surface roughness was enhanced by incorporating graphite in Al 2219/15 SiCp
composite. It is because of smearing and extremity of softer and amorphous
graphite particles on surface specimen by creating pits on the machined surface
which maximizes the roughness values of the surface. The graphite composites
create discontinuous chips leading to machining PCD tools. In comparison, it
performed better than carbide and carbide tools which are coated. The formation
of chips varied for both composites during machinery of Al 2219 at a constant
distance of 50mm, cutting speed of 110m/min, feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev, depth
cut as 0.3mm for carbide tool, carbide coated tool and PCD tool.

2.5 ALUMINIUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Logsdon (1986) examined the ductility, fracture toughness and crack

growth resistance of SiCw/6061 Al (T6) metal matrix composites with varying
reinforcement volume fraction. Compared with wrought aluminum alloys,
metal matrix composites established increased yield and ultimate strengths,
substantially inferior ductility and fracture toughness, a lower crack propagation
resistance.

Surappa (1997) reviewed the researchers carried out in the area of metal
matrix composites which are widely applied in the automotive and aircraft
structural components. Albeit, many metals or alloys are employed as matrix
materials, aluminium and its alloys have a dominant role because of its
lightweight, ductility, good thermal and electrical conductivity and cost
effective.

30
 Albiter et al. (2003) produced Al2024 composites reinforced with TiC
with pressureless infiltration process and heat treated with different conditions
to study the structure of the precipitates in the composites.

Hunt et al. (2004) discussed that reinforcement morphology is

continuous fiber, chopped fiber or whisker, and particulate. The reinforcement
morphology is selected based on desired property/cost combination. Continuous
reinforced MMCs offered highest properties in the direction of the fiber
orientation however they are the most expensive whereas chopped fiber and
whisker reinforced materials can create substantial property improvements in
the plane or direction of their orientation.

Prasad & Asthana (2004) have overviewed the tribological behavior of

AMMCs reinforced with hard particles, short fibers, and solid lubricants and the
technologies for fabricating automotive parts from these novel materials were
investigated.

Kok & Ozdin (2007) have developed an AMMC reinforced with Al2O3
using vortex method. The increase in Al2O3 particles content and size increases
the wear resistance of the composites and was significantly higher than that of
the aluminium alloy. The particle size has more influence on the wear
resistance.

Akhlaghi & Bidaki (2009) have investigated graphite reinforced with

AA2024 using powder metallurgy method by and the wear tests were carried
out on the composite samples. The increase in graphite content enhances the
wear resistance of the material.

Xiu et al. (2011) discussed the AMMC reinforced with Si3N4 employing
pressure infiltration technique and tested the composite of various compositions

31
for their bending strength. The results indicated that bending strength decreased
with increase in reinforcement.

Mazahery & Shabani (2012) have made Al2024-B4C samples by

applying squeeze casting process and tested the samples for wear resistance.
The increase in B4C reinforcement content increased the wear resistance.

Sharma et al. (2014) have studied that, a wide variety of ceramic

particulates like SiC, Al2O3, B4C, TiN, TiO2, and TiC are used as
reinforcement in aluminium metal matrix composites to get an improved
mechanical and tribological properties. AA 2024 is an aluminium alloy with
copper as the primary alloying element. As the alloy has high strength and
fatigue resistance, it is widely used in aircraft structures, fittings, hydraulic
valve bodies, missile parts and munitions. Recent years, researchers concentrate
on hybrid AMMCs having two or more reinforcement since the second
reinforcement further improves the mechanical and tribological properties of
hybrid composites.

Emad Omrani et al. (2015) developed Al/Gr composites for self

lubricating materials due to the superior lubricating effect of graphite during
sliding. The effect of several factors such as material, graphite size and volume
fraction, mechanical applied load and sliding speed on the tribological
properties of self-lubricating aluminum composites was discussed.

Venkatachalam & Kumaravel (2017) have engrossed the

characterization study of A356 composite reinforced with fly ash and basalt ash
produced by stir casting method. Stir casting is the cost-effective method
through which the attractive properties of AMCs enhancement. Hybrid AMCs
are prepared by varying the weight fraction of the reinforcements (3% basalt +
7% fly ash, 5% basalt + 5% fly ash, 7% basalt + 3% fly ash).The addition of fly

32
ash and basalt ash increases the hardness, tensile, compressive and impact
strength of composites.

David Raja Selvam et al. (2017) has investigated tribological behaviors

of compocasting process AMC. The effect of fly ash particulate content (0, 4, 8
and 12 wt.%) improve the wear resistance of the compocast AMC. The
temperature (40, 80, 120, 160, 200 and 240 °C) effect on wear rate and SEM
micrograph of the worn surface of the AMCs were also studied.

However a number of techniques have been developed, most of the

researchers find stir casting as a suitable method for metal matrix composites.
A numerous of fabrication methods are existing for particulate or discontinuous
rei66nforced metal matrix composites but Stir casting process is simplest
fabrication route, low cost and most effective method. In case of mass
production, stir casting is the best suitable method because of low cost and
effectiveness and also greatest viable and prevalent method. It is considered to
be a possible method for manufacturing application in terms of fabrication
capacity and cost-effectiveness

2.6 AWJ STUDIES ON VARIOUS MATERIALS

Barletta et al. (2006) focused on studying the fluidized bed machining of

AA2024 O and AA2024 T3 materials. The main purpose of this work is to
remove scratching of surface, air flowing through equipment and abrasive solid
emulsions. Fluidized bed machining produces more accurate finishing of

surfaces and more complex passages which is not possible in traditional

methods. It also produces narrow geometrical tolerances with proper surface
finishing. Barletta et al. (2007) studied fluidized bed assisted abrasive jet

33
machining system with an AA6082-T6 material made of tubular components.
For monitoring the surface morphology on machined jobs, 3D profile based
SEM analysis is used. The precision machining and circumferential uniformity
of work-piece were tested for evaluating the surface roughness parameters in
different circumferential locations. It was found to be more predominant in use
of FB-AJM for producing smooth and regular finishing. The accuracy of
machining as well as circumferential uniformity on ductile materials is ensured
for industrial components.

The evolution of models surface is applied by Ally et al. (2012) on stainless

steel, aluminium alloy with average velocity using alumina powder as abrasive.
When the erosion data is incorporated in surface evolution model, it was found
that, there is a reasonable agreement made with profiles measured. The effect
of velocity, angle and size of the particle is investigated by Jafar et al. (2012)
for determining the erosion rate and roughness on borosilicate glass using
alumina particles. For improving erosion rate and roughness, single impacting
particle damages were quantified and predicted.

The importance of machining parameters in AWJ is studied by Kartal et al.

(2017) and presented the various materials performance under different input
and output parameters. Folkes et al. (2009) has demonstrated the versatility of
AWJC in different cutting processes such as drilling, milling, cleaning, peening,
forming and coating removal in eco-friendly situations.

Patel et al. (2013) stated on AWJ technique as a well-deserved method for any
materials with quick cutting process when compared to other machining
processes. Lima et al. (2016) approach was to study the agates with different

plate thickness of surface finish by abrasive water jet technique controlling the
abrasive mass flow rate and transverse speed. The input parameters varied with

34
respect to agates plate and results showed that, there is a variation on surface
finisCarach et al. (2016) investigated the impact of transverse when using AWJ
technique on Incoloy alloys 925 with respect to the formations of
microstructure. The experiment based on turning operations was determined
using laser confocal microscope. Also, this study suggested that, for rough
machining this is one of the more effective tools for cutting hard materials which
are not easily machinableh relating to the depth from the surface of abrasive jet

Based on the CCD, an experiment has been carried out by Sooraj et al. (2014)
in tubular specimens and studied its internal surfaces using elastic abrasives.
This is one of the least cost effective and simple methods for ultra-fine finishing.
Along the nozzle in AJM, chipping reduction is observed by Schwartzentruber
et al. (2015) on studying the piercing operation and work on borosilicate glass
with stand-off distance, dwell time and pressures as control parameters.

A comparative study done on glass, silicon and aluminium oxide by Khan et al.
(2007), shows that, a garnet abrasive produces narrow taper angle when
compared to other oxides. Also, he concludes that when the stand-off distance
increases, the taper cut also increases. Ahmed et al. (2016) monitored the kerf
angle under depth of cut and changes in cutting profile for studying the cutting
performances. It is noted that, impact angle and abrasive particle velocities are
mainly significant with respect to the cutting performances.

A theoretical analysis is presented by Li et al. (2009) and they analyzed the

particle velocities in micro-abrasive air jet with the particle velocitiesassociated
with the models based on particle mean diameter, particle density, air flow
velocity and nozzle length. The analytical model was used for determining the
particle velocities by dividing jet air flow into many segments through axial
direction. It was then verified through the developed model and compared with
the particle velocities from a measurement of particle image velocimetry. A

35
good agreement was made with the modeled calculations from experimental
results.

Analytical model is investigated by Ghobeity et al. (2009) and work was done
with different sizes of aluminium oxide abrasives using AJM substrates with
spatial distribution across the mask opening. An excellent agreement is noticed
between the measured and predicted profiles. From the previous models
developed, this analytical model was seen to be a major improvement

Burzynski et al. (2012) work was focused with glass and PMMA material.
Modeling was developed on a mask erosive wear under AJM process and
predicted the evolution of surface. A comparison is made between eroded mask
profiles at oblique and normal incidence. There is a good agreement made
between the measured profiles with the predicted values when it is used with
tempered steel.

Animesh kumar et al.(2021) developed an analytical model and CFD model of

abrasive water jet slurry machining. (AWJ) machine with a setup for injecting
polymer (Gelatin) solution into the AWJ nozzle is formed, which leads to
effective energy transfer, improved cutting efficiency, and increase in metal
removal rate. The analytical model was developed to calculate the total depth
of jet penetration which correlates quite well with the experimental data. It is
also observed that the maximum error predicted by the analytical expression
and the simulation model for velocity and energy are within 12%

A novel approach was made by Shafiei et al. (2007) and simulation study was
conducted for the prediction of eroded profiles using abrasive jet machine with
process parameters such as particle velocity, target distance and abrasive nozzle.
For determining the target surface, grid surfaces of cubic cells were represented
by assigning damaged parameter. The experimental values measured are

36
compared with simulated eroded profiles and found to be in good agreement at
low particle flux and reasonable with high particle flux.

To simulate the brittle erosion process, Jafar et al. (2013) have developed the
model for creation of unmasked channels with a function of dose, target
material, particle size and velocity for determining edge chipping and crater
removal. Based on the results, it was concluded that, the erosion mechanism in
borosilicate glass under AJM process were produced by lateral cracking and
contributed to profile smoothing.

An empirical equation has been derived by Balasubramaniam et al. (2002) for

the study of AJM surface to identify parameters for obtaining the required shape
of the surface. The parameters like stand-off distance, peripheral velocities and
particle size on the surface generated were also investigated.

Using two-phase flow system, abrasive particle velocity was estimated by

Verma et al. (1996) and theoretical analysis was performed. The value of MRR
was predicted and compared with the experimental results using the relationship
on quasi-static indentation and semi-empirical fracture mechanics approach.

Aydin et al. (2014) has suggested and stated that, the recycling of abrasives is
most free from environment impact and cost-effective in AWJ process.
However, cutting natural stones by AWJ was found to be much expensive. The
process parameter of machining glass surfaces with a 25mm diameter is

studied by Zhong et al. (2006) using AWJ technique. This study concludes that,
when transverse rates and material removal rate is higher, surface roughness
value is increased simultaneously. Hascalik et al. (2007) had undertaken
research and stated that, transverse speed is a significant factor in AWJ based
on studying surface morphology and features of different regions. In addition to

37
that, when transverse speed is high, surface roughness and kerf taper ratio is
also increased

Similar to mask opening from other literatures, Dehnadfar et al. (2012)

measured the size distributions and particle velocity using shadow graphic
method under spherical and angular abrasives in a free jet under AJM process.
Based on the experiment, they observed a significant effect through powder
shape, mask opening shape and size based on the velocity and particle mass flux
distribution through distribution in mask using shadow graphic method. It was
also noted that, there is a good concurrence noted with mass flux distributions
against previous analytical models considered.

For a better understanding of erosion mechanisms, ASJM technique was used

by Nouraeia et al. (2012) and compared with AWJC for the validation of results
by incorporating channels and micro-machining holes in borosilicate glasses.
This system developed can be successfully used for blind hole cuttings and
smooth channels.

The mechanism of material removal in abrasive jet micro-machining is studied

by Basaka et al. (2010) for obtaining different impressions including: scratches;
microdents and craters. He also stated that, there is possibility of decreasing
strength of material when crack network is formed with scratches. Also there is
a formation of material spalling developed in regions on surface and sub-
surfaces. Moreover, the parameters such as particle size, velocity and erosion
angle were increased; there is a higher possibility of crater impressions.

Lin et al. (2012) study deals with the study on hybrid process of both AJM and
EDM by studying its different cutting parameters. For conducting study on
hybrid machining, abrasives in proper ratio is passed using high speed gas often

38
termed as carrier gas on EDM and AJM. Due to the high speed passing, surface
roughness is reduced to a great extent and increase in MRR is noted.

By using particle velocimetry technique, Fan et al. (2011), has studied particle
velocities. There is a formation of downstream with linear expansion when
particle jet flow is used. As the velocity of particle increases with air pressure,
the nozzle diameter also increased. Model was developed by the researcher
based on particle velocity and denoted with good agreement when compared to
experimental data with respect to the radial and axial directions.

Chandra et al. (2011) study was to evaluate the AJM process influence with hole
diameters and MRR on glass plates on both bottom and top surfaces using
Al2O3 as abrasives. It denotes that, when there is increase in NTD, there is
increase in pressure and MRR. A drilling study on different thickness in glass
sheets is studied by Domiaty et al. (2009) using AJM process. The machinability
is determined under different controlling parameters with the help of
mathematical model and results are compared.

The detection of electro-osmotic flow limit is measured by Getu et al. (2008)

and efficiency of glass channels is studied using AJM process. The types of
chips are roughly analyzed and comparison is made between wet-etched
channels and electro-osmotic mobility AJM channels. The value of surface
roughness is discussed for better surface quality in AJM. Ghobeity et al. (2008)
conducted an experiment based on masked and unmasked channels in

glass using AJM technique. The velocity and spatial distributions of particles in
abrasive jet setup is linearly decreased from the centerline of the jet to the radial
distance. The distribution of net erosive power across a cross-section is
demonstrated using time dependent particle with the effect of modeled nozzle.

39
Lee et al. (2008) deals with micro stereolithography technique for micro AJM
process to solidify small area of UV photopolymer by focusing UV beam of few
microns. The micro-mask pattern is fabricated and modified with laser beam
scanning. Ghobeity et al. (2007) study focused on fabrication of holes and
channels in micro-fluidic and electronic devices using AJM process with high
degree of accuracy. The uncontrolled variation in abrasive particles were traced
under pressure feed system by analyzing the poor repeatability of erosion rates.
Through the pressure reservoir, the mixing device is introduced and flowed
through the orifice significantly with continuous improvement. The factors such
as level of powder, particle size stratification and erosion repeatability were also
examined by the researcher.

Barletta et al. (2006, 2007) developed the hybrid technology of FB-AJM by

conducting experimental approach on polishing of circular tubes. The flow of
abrasives is designed to be in a randomly stabilized manner along with the
fluidized bed. Using design of experiments, a systematic approach is followed
to investigate the operative variables. Then evolution of roughness and
waviness profile were analyzed to increase the uniformity, repeatability and
machining efficiency. Subsequently the author also focused on studying the
Inconel 718 components using FB-AJM technique with the effect of jet
pressure, machining cycle and abrasive size. The abrasive cutting edges are
evaluated against the removal of material. Due to abrasives, finished surface is
highly depending on jet pressure and this study improves the smoothing inner
surface of Inconel 718 tubes

Wakuda et al. (2003) performed study on three kind of abrasive particles (silicon
carbide, synthetic diamond and aluminium oxide) to identify the impact on
materials response using AJM process. Based on the machining on these
materials, there is rough surface produced due to soft abrasive particles in
aluminium oxides and synthetic diamond abrasives.

40
2.7 EFFECTS OF ABRASIVE FLOW RATE

Junkar et al. have investigated the effect of abrasive particle rotation on

the erosion process using the finite element analysis (FEA). AISI 304 stainless
steel was chosen as the work material. They observed most of the abrasive
grains getting disintegrated during their acceleration process.

The particle disintegration in the acceleration process was theoretically

analyzed later by Hlaváč et al. They have reported supply of the inlet abrasive
particle perpendicular to the water jet axis causing a larger particle
disintegration and yielding a particle size reduction, with the employment of the
jet impingement angle of 90° and the coarse abrasive particles. Their physical
modeling indicated an increase in the stress of the abrasive particle as the result
of the collision taking place in the mixing and acceleration process.

Figure 2.1 AWJ hole profiles a) Conical b) Divergent c) Barrel

2.8 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Roughness plays an important role in drilling, determining how a cutting

surface will interact with its assembly. Roughness is often a good predictor of
the performance of a mechanical component, since irregularities in the surface
may form nucleation sites for cracks or corrosion. Roughness Erol Kilickap
observed that the increase of cutting speed and feed rate increases the surface

41
roughness alternatively the surface roughness decreased at the same cutting
parameters with increasing point angles.

Basavarajappa et al. evidently proposed that the surface roughness

values for metal matrix composites increase with the increase in feed rate and
decreases with increase in spindle speed. But the increment of feed rate is
responsible for surface roughness compared with the increment of spindle
speed.

2.9 PROCESS VARIABLES IN STIR CASTING

The selection of casting parameters play a major role in stir casting to

attain a sound casting in which few variables are

(a) Rotation speed,

(b) Stirring speed,
(c) Stirring temperature,
(d) Pre-heating of reinforcement particles,
(e) Stirring time,
(f) Pouring temperature and
(g) Mould temperature.

Improper selection of the process/technique may lead to degradation of

the properties of the composites. Few casting defects are porosity, particle
clustering, oxide inclusions, and interfacial reactions. Many research works
reported the effect of stir casting on aluminium composites. Prabu et al. (2006)
reported that the effective distribution of particles is based on stirring speed and
stirring duration and found that the optimal stirring time is 10 to 15 minutes

42
 Figure 2.2 Line diagram of conventional stir casting

2.10 FABRICATION METHODS OF MMCS

In modern years several fabrication techniques have been developed to

fabricate metal matrix composites.

Hashim et al. (1999) recommended the stir casting process as a simple,

viable, effective and low-cost method to produce MMCs. When compared to
other processing techniques, liquid processing is the most economical method
to produce MMCs.

Jasmi Hashim (2001) has prepared cast MMC through stir casting
technique. The mechanical properties such as hardness and tensile strength are
comparable with earlier data produced by other researchers.

Lee et al. (2001) has fabricated Al/B4Cp composite through pressureless

infiltration method and examined the composite by XRD, SEM, EDS, AES, and
TEM. It was found that AlB2 -AlB12, AlB10 and Al3BC were formed as
interfacial reaction products.

43
 Balasivanandha Prabu et al. (2005) synthesized Aluminium Alloy10%
SiC carbide MMC through stir casting with different stirring speeds and stirring
times. Microstructure analysis revealed that more clustering the particle at lower
stirring speed with lower stirring time whereas an increase in stirring speed and
stirring time caused by better distribution of particles. The stirring speed and
stirring time have their effect on the hardness of the composite and the uniform
hardness values were achieved at 600 rpm with 10 min stirring.

Tjong & Lau (2005) has fabricated Al-4 wt% Cu alloy - TiB2 particles
composites with 5, 10, 15 and 20 volume percentages through hot isostatic
pressing. Increasing TiB2 up to 15% particles addition which increases the
density, tensile strength, hardness, yield strength and wear resistance of MMCs
and 20% led to a slight reduction in the density of composites due to higher
porosity.

Naher et al. (2005) have examined the effect of viscosity during AlSiC
MMC production with varying processing periods, stirring speeds, and
reinforcement sizes for two different viscosity levels. The uniform
reinforcement distribution was obtained at stirring speed of 200 rpm for the
lower viscosity system and higher viscosity fluid. Computer simulations, room
temperature antilog fluid simulations and MMC castings were carried out and
the modelling approach chosen was established to predicting the settling
behaviour in the semi solid.

Aguilar et al. (2002) discussed the wetting behavior of TiC substrates.

The wetting behaviors of TiC substrates by commercial aluminum alloys such
as AA1010, AA2024, AA6061, AA6351 and its relation to phase formation at
the metal-ceramic interface. The wettability of TiC by pure AA1010 was better
than the other aluminium alloys and AA7075/TiC and AA6061/TiC composites
exhibited poor wettability. Albite et al. (2003) have prepared AA2024-TiC

44
MMC by using pressureless melt infiltration route under argon atmosphere.
Different precipitate such as CuAl2, Al3Ti, Ti3AlC and Ti3A are found and
distributed uniformly in the matrix and some region shows the presence of
Ti3Cu particles.

2.11 LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING LITERATURES

Based on the above discussion, it can be found that the perform based on
liquid metallurgy is an effective methods on fabricating the aluminium metal
matrix composites. The research articles with variations in addition of dual
reinforcement particles, fabricated using squeeze cast technique are fewer. Few
researchers have attempted to compare the composite properties fabricated by
stir cast method and squeeze cast method. Reasonably fewer studies are found
on the self-lubricated wear characteristics of lightweight aluminium-based
composites. However, studies on the self-lubricated Al hybrid composites are
scanty in the literature. Therefore, in the present study, aluminium hybrid
composites on the machining characteristics through unconventional machining
properties are investigated.

2.12 OPTIMIZATION STUDIES ON AWJ PARAMETERS

Many researchers have worked on AJM to ascertain the influence of

carrier gas, jet velocity, stand-off distance, size and types of abrasive, nozzle
material, nozzle shape and wear on overall machining of both brittle and ductile
materials by considering some numerical models and statistical approaches with
proper design of experiment (DOE).

John et al. (2012) examined the influence on stand-off distance, sheet

thickness, traverse speed and nozzle diameter by using AWJ process. The
behavior of output response such as surface roughness and kerf geometry were
analyzed in transformation induced plasticity steel. Based on the Taguchi

45
design, the parameters were varied to study the response behaviors and the
output response. It was observed that, the experiment was well correlated with
the regression model generated from output response and found to be
satisfactory with the experimental results.

Naresh et al. (2017) investigated cutting mild steel material using AWJ
process and analyzed the kerf angle and surface roughness with varying input
parameters such as water pressure, stand-off distance, abrasive flow rate and
feed rate. The experiments were based on the Taguchi’s L27 array and predicted
the optimal parameter. Using Analysis of Variance, the most influencing factor
determining the response was observed. The study also focused on
understanding the surface textures using atomic force microscope and scanning
electron microscope

Vishal et al. (2014) investigated kerf characteristics using AWJC process

from an application oriented concept. Taguchi’s design was used to conduct the
experiment and the kerf geometry evaluated and its characteristics studied.
Based on the ANOVA result, the effect of nozzle transverse speed plays a major
contribution on the kerf geometries.

Yuvaraj et al. (2020) has undertaken study on injection type abrasive

water jet process and analyzed the various researchers in measuring the outputs
with various materials. The optimization techniques used by many researchers
are also stated and suggested the need for conducting the research for future
needs as well in terms of use in manufacturing operations.

Parikshit et al. (2018) examined the cutting performance of mild steel

material from AWJ process with varying input parameters of abrasive flow rate,
traverse speed and stand-off distance using Taguchi’s L9 orthogonal array. An
optimal parameter is predicted based on the response achieved from kerf taper

46
angle and surface roughness. RSM technique was used to predict further optimal
results in terms of multi-objective optimization based on the composite
desirability value. The confirmation test was further conducted with this
predicted parameter, the kerf taper angle and surface roughness were evaluated.

Muthuramalingam et al. (2018) had conducted trial experiment using

Taguchi technique and analyzed the effects of abrasive flow rate, water pressure
and stand-off distance. The performance was measured through material
removal rate and surface roughness using multi response decision making

Radovanovic et al. (2016) approach was focused on monitoring the

performance of surface roughness, productivity and perpendicularity deviation
through multi-objective optimization in EN S235 steel using AWJ process. The
optimal parameter prediction was analyzed and further compared with the
genetic algorithm based on the optimal points

Zhengrong et al. (2018) made an approach to compare the theoretical and

general analysis from the wear rate and kinetic energy model under AWJ
process. It was then carried out with multi-objective cuckoo algorithm for
analyzing the optimized parameter based on maximizing output energy and
minimizing nozzle erosion rate. A model was developed and its results
compared with the experimental data. They analyzed the performance value
based on the wear rate and outlet power. The author suggested this technique as
one of the systematic approaches for better prediction.

Jagadish et al. (2016) had experimentally investigated the green

composite material using AWJ process. The use of Box-Behnken design was
suggested to identify the optimal parameter among varying input parameters
considered for the measurement of process time and surface roughness. The

47
determination of influencing factor was also identified using ANOVA. The
error in response prediction and confirmation experiment was compared.

Liu et al. (2016) work deals with the analytical method for estimating the
volume of material. For this analysis, finite element concept is applied to predict
the penetration depth under different AWJ parameters. This method made a
good agreement with predicted results and model from experimental values.

Subsequently, Azmira et al. (2008) developed a mathematical model and

predicted the surface roughness of AWJ parameters. The regression analysis

was done to predict the results which showed good correlation with the
experimental values obtained from AWJ cutting of composite materials. The
researcher studied surface roughness and kerf angle by means of DoE. Based
on this Taguchi’s prediction, the quality of cut is compared with predicted
values and there is found to be an increase of kinetic energy in abrasive jet
cutting.

Bhowmik et al. (2016) had experimented on green composites by

BoxBehnken design under RSM approach. The model is developed and process
parameter is optimized which is very essential for the manufacturing industry.
The study on machinability parameters is investigated by Srikanth et al. (2014)
and conducted experiments based on orthogonal array for determining the MRR
and Kerf effectiveness for AWJC process.

For determining the performance on AJM, Moridi et al. (2010) has

conducted a study using quartz crystals. The process parameters were evaluated
and predicted models were developed for estimating the quantitative values. The
predicted values were compared with experimental values and found to be in
good agreement with the results.

48
 The erosion rate on glasses for channel and hole cutting is investigated
by Fan et al. (2009) using dimensional technique in abrasive air jets. By using
Taguchi’s technique with full factorial design, regression equation is formulated
to predict the constants. It was then compared with experimental data and
verified with process parameters.

Balasubramaniam et al. (1998, 2000) has evaluated the edge radius and
edge quality of abrasive jet deburred components by varying input parameters
of nozzle diameter, abrasive grit size, stand-off distance, mixing ratio and
thickness of the specimens using plaster of paris as a material. By using
optimization techniques such as Taguchi’s array with full factorial design, the
variation in diameters at entry and exit were investigated. Using ANOVA
method, the result was found that, burr removal was not effective when jet
height is increased.

Tsegaw et al. (2015) proposed a novel study for ultra-precision polishing

process using self-propelled multi-jet abrasive fluid polishing technique. The
study was conducted with a high swirling velocity at outlet for polishing energy.
For analyzing the turbine blades, CFD tool is used for flow simulation. Based
on the investigation for surface roughness improvement, an optimal polishing
parameter is obtained from Taguchi L18 orthogonal array. The study was also
performed on cutting of alumina ceramics using AWJ turning by conducting the
experiments and compared with RSM predicted results Liu et al. (2014)

Bagri et al. (2014) has determined the predicted machining parameters

based on optimization considering varying cutting parameters such as jet
pressure, nozzle, mass flow rate and ratio of mixing.

49
 Based on the Taguchi’s design, Jagannatha et al. (2011) employed hot
air and determined optimal parameters in abrasive water jet machining. The
brittle failure and plastic deformation is found to be more at higher temperatures
with less surface roughness and high MRR.

Zohourkari et al. (2014) investigated the cutting parameters on rotational

speed, mass flow rate, water pressure with different combinations using central
composite rotatable design for estimating the metal removal rate. Based on the
statistical approach, it was concluded that, the most significant parameter in
abrasive water jet turning is cutting head transverse speed and depth of cut.
However rotational speed was found to be insignificant.

Su et al. (2016) proposed to fabricate the micro-grooves on the surface

using multi-phase abrasive jet technique. The experimental values are predicted
based on flow rate, jet distance and pressure and compared with confirmation
tests.

The effect of different variables on surface roughness, depth of cut and

MRR in AWJ turning is studied by Li et al. (2013). The researcher developed
an analytical method using dimensional analysis and made a model for the
development of depth of cut. The result based on model developed exhibited
good correlation with results from experiments.

50
2.13 NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY

The fabrication of aluminium composites is most challenging work due

to the complexity involved in it and selection of a better quantity level of
reinforcement level. As a result, a comparative study of varying wt. %
reinforcement level of hard ceramic and solid lubricant particles for studying
machining characteristics have considered for improving performance of
automotive surface finishing.

Cutting of stainless steel was performed by Selvan et al. (2011) using

AWJ by varying input parameters abrasive flow rate, water pressure, stand-off
distance and transverse speed. Using regression analysis, depth of cut is
predicted. AWJC was investigated by Gupta et al. (2014) by studying the
characteristics of kerf with variation of process parameters on nozzle transverse
speed, abrasive flow rate and water pressure using Taguchi’s design of
experiment. It was found that, most significant factor is nozzle transverse speed
in affecting the kerf taper angle and top kerf width. The multi-response output
prediction was also observed by Routara et al. (2011) with glass material using
AJM process and analyzed the optimal value on surface roughness and MRR
using GRA tool

2.14 NUMERICAL SIMULATION ON AWJ PARAMETERS

Getu et al. (2009) used FEA to optimize the cryogenic abrasive jet
micromachining to simulate a heat sink for investigating the cooling behavior
of masked and unmasked channels to influence the jet scanning speed. When
embedded thermocouples are used, there is a reasonable agreement with the
FEA predicted temperatures. A significant model was evaluated which showed
highly improved thermal strains with the predicted profiles.

51
An extensive work was carried out in AA5083-H32 material by Yuvaraj et al.
(2014) for the varying process parameters like abrasive flow rate, jet pressure
and transverse rate under AWJ cutting process with multiresponse
characteristics such as surface roughness, depth of penetration, cutting rate, top
kerf width and taper cut ratio as well. Through the TOPSIS method, AWJ
cutting process was enhanced as well and in addition to that, the most significant
factor was also evaluated using ANOVA.

The new combination of genetic algorithm and fuzzy logic principles is applied
by Chakravarthy et al. (2014) for determining the optimal parameters for cutting
granite material using AWJ process. The results were studied and validated with
experimental values obtained from machining of granite material.

Azizah et al. (2013) focused the surface roughness prediction using Cuckoo
algorithm. Using models, many predictions was done and observed the best
predicted value on surface roughness. For validating the results, sample t-test
were paired and examined. Based on the analysis, it was proven that the model
developed using Cuckoo algorithm improved the abrasive water jet
performance.

Shankar et al. (2018) dealt with the concept of hybrid machining process for
analyzing the machining performance based on the abrasive concentration, jet
velocity, nozzle tip distance, water pressure, for monitoring the output response
on surface roughness overcut, taper geometry and material removal rate. The
concept of grey wolf optimizer (GWO), a technique based on the hunting
behavior of grey wolves, is applied for finding the optimal parameters in AWJC
processes. The predicted response shows an effective improvement in response
values when compared to the other algorithms concerned.

52
An automated modeling algorithm is proposed by Kim et al. (2012) using
geometry in microabrasive jet machining. The workpiece geometry is used as
an algorithm and images captured are analyzed with computer topography. The
CAD mask generated is modeled from the mask and section images. This
developed software was verified with the algorithm and actual cases.

Mostofa et al. (2010) approach was to optimize the components by multiphase

approach using CFD tool in AWJ machining process. In mixing chamber
abrasives, air and water is mixed which was then predicted with the influence
of mixing abrasives and air at varying distances for monitoring the erosion rate
at nozzle wall. This study concluded that, there is an increase in length of the
nozzle when the body is higher at initial zone.

Burzynski et al. (2012) work was focused on implementing NB-LSM

methodology for the parameters such as curvature smoothing, particle size
effects, erosive wear using ray tracing algorithm. This model was further
extended to any other impact angle by verifying the measurements made from
previous model from micro-channels with less than value of one in aspect ratio.
In addition to that, computer simulations were also carried out from the existing
models. The effective utilization of abrasive machined process was investigated
by Jain et al. (2007) with four different machining processes such as AJM,
AWJC, WJM and USM and optimized the results using genetic algorithms.

Nauhi et al. (2016) used CFD modeling for the modification of existing surface
evolution models for channel profiles using AJM process. For the combination
of both ductile and brittle materials, the variations in divergence angle, nozzle
and stand-off distance of each particle is considered. Based on the analysis from
model, there is a divergence caused due conical divergence

53
in jet and erosion differences from secondary impacts of abrasive particles. A
model was also predicted by measuring machined surface profiles

2.15 OPTIMIZATION STUDIES BY EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHM

Pawar et al. 2018 identified the three quality factors, e.g. kernel taper, kernel
width, striation marks simultaneously, that can be controlled because of the
complex nature of abrasive water jet processes. Therefore, the aim of this work
is multi-objective optimization, with three objectives: minimizing the bucket
width, minimizing the bucket taper and maximizing the striation free surface
depth of the abrasive water jet process. Application of well-established meta-
heuristics established as an algorithm for artificial bee colony is extended by
integrating the idea of non-dominated sorting into multi-target optimization.

The experimental study for machining of the AA631-T6 content using Taguchi
technique is carried out by Rajkamal Shukla and Dinesh Singh (2017). In order
to influence performance measures top width and angle of the taper, parameters
such as cross velocity, standing distance and mass flow rate are considered.
Regression models to correlate the data produced with experimental findings
have been created. The proposed AWJC method would require seven advanced
optimization strategies, i.e. optimization of particle swarm, firefly algorithm,
artificial bee colony, virtual rinsing, black hole, biogeography and the non-
dominated genetic sorting algorithm. The effectiveness of such algorithms is
measured and it is known that the biogeographic algorithm performs better than
other algorithms. In comparison, a non-dominated implementation bundle is
obtained to provide a variety of AWJC solutions. The results are verified by
confirmatory tests using Taguchi process and optimisation strategies

In terms of the resulting material removal rate, Abdelnasser et al. (2016)

explores the impact of the process parameters such as the air pressure applied,

54
the standing distance, nozzle diameter, particle grain size and the effect angle
on the workmanship efficiency. The findings of the experiment show that MRR
relied heavily on abrasive particles' kinetic energy and the primary parameter
was applied strain. An artificial neural network (ANN) was used to more
accurately model the MRR, particularly to create a relationship between applied
and experimentally determined MRR machining parameters and achieve a
maximum error of just 5.3%. To refine the model and define requirements for
optimizing the MRR, a genetic (GA) algorithm has been applied. The findings
have been confirmed experimentally and the experimental outcomes reported
have been widely established, along with the ANN and GA projections.

Fuzzy logic dependent simulation and optimisation of AWJC processes and its
rule foundation, data base and resulting component utilizing a genetic algorithm
were implemented by Aultrin et al. (2012). In this study, a binary coded GA was
used. For various combinations of process parameters, such as water jet pressure
at the output diameter of a pin-water jet nozzle travers or the nozzle mass flow
rate of water and the amount of abrasion from the workpiece, the performance
parameters, namely Material Removal Rate and Surface Finish were calculated
during simulation.

Rao et al. (2012) proposed to overcome ongoing un demanded and close

optimization problems using an efficient optimization algorithm named
Teaching-Learning-Based Optimization (TLBO). The approach is focused on
the influence of a teacher's effects on the success of students in a class. It
explains in detail the fundamental philosophy of the method. The method is
evaluated using 25 unregulated benchmarking functions and 35 restricted
benchmarking functions. In contrast to other optimization algorithms, theTLBO
output is better than the results and the proposed algorithm is more efficient

55
Rao et al. (2013) developed a teaching–learning-based optimization algorithm
for optimizing the process parameters in modern machining processes (AJM,
EDM and Ultrasonic machining). The generated results from this machining
process were compared with the developed algorithm and the better
performance obtained was evaluated.

Teaching–learning-based optimization is recently developed to find the

optimum mix of process parameters in the processes in question. TLBO is a
review of the findings obtained by means of certain sophisticated optimisation
strategies such as genetic algorithms, computational rhino planking,
optimisation of particle swarm, harmony search, and an algorithm for artificial
colony bee. The findings show improved TLBO algorithm efficiency (Pawar,
P.J. and Rao, R.V. (2013).

Alok et al. (2019) has implemented teacher based optimization as TLBO. This
has been seen lately as a creative and reliable means of addressing the global
question of optimization driven by the concept of learning. At the other side the
PSO is one of the most used algorithms in the current scenario which
demonstrates appropriate performance. PSO (Particle Swarm Optimization).
Genetic algorithm is a useful metaheuristic factor used in various fields of
science. Within this report, 25 empirical check suites against other metaheuristic
algorithms, including PSO and GA, are tested for the efficiency of the TLBO
algorithm. The findings of the experimental analysis reveal that TLBO meets
the convergence approach of PSO and GA algorithms.

Wenwen et al. (2014) suggested a multi-target teaching-learning algorithm to

reduce carbon emissions and running period in revolving activities.
Thesuggested algorithm has improved the cutting parameters. Ultimately, the
theoretical hierarchy approach was used to break from the configuration of the

56
research system the optimal solution which has been considered more
ecofriendly than the cutting parameters

A multi-objective spur gear design problem, in which weight and power were
studied, was investigated by Edmund S and Rajesh Arora (2019) using dual
purpose learning-based optimization. The application issue is the continuation
of a previous literature analysis of different optimization strategies to an optimal
weight size problem.

57
2.16 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective is to study the surface characteristics of aluminium

composites fabricated through liquid metallurgy techniques.

 To fabricate hybrid composites through stir cast method

 Machining Characteristics of AA6351/WS2 composite

 Optimization study of the machined samples.

58
2.17 METHODOLOGY

The flow of the research work is represented in the form of methodology

flow chart as shown in Figure 2.3.

Fabricate of AA6351 Composites

Literature survey

Selection of Base matrix & Reinforcement

Base Matrix: AA6351
; Solid Lubricant: hBN

Stir Casting Stir Casting

AA6351
AA6351 + 5 wt.% HBN

T6 Heat Treatment

Microstructural Machining
Characterization Characteristics

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Figure 2.3 Flow of the research work

59
 CHAPTER 3

FABRICATION OF ALUMINIUM METAL MATRIX

COMPOSITES

3.1 PREPARATION OF COMPOSITES

The fabrication setup of bottom pour stir cast is shown in Figure 3.5 (a-
c). The two stage stir casting method is employed for fabrication of
AA6351/hBN composites, its mainly adpoted for fine mixing of reinforcement
particles and avoiding agglomeration of particles.

Figure 3.1: Stir casting Aluminium casting

The bottom pouring aluminium stir casting carried out in (Make: Swam
Equip, Chennai) as shown in Figure 3.1. The graphite curbile with a capacity of
2 kg with precisely controlled electric resistance furnace with Proportional
Integral Derivate controller (PID) upto maximum temperature 950 ºC. The
opening and closing of bottom pouring of molten melt is controlled through

60
electric geared motor. Variable stirrer in a range of 100-1500 rpm is controlled
though variable frequency drive. The lifting of stirrer in both X and Y direction
were processed through an motorized arrangement. Reinforcement particles are
pre heated in a separate pre heater furnace with maximum temperature range of
850 ºC. The melting of alloy and stirring process carried out in argon protective
environment to prevent oxidation.

The required amount of AA6351 in billet form were placed inside a

graphite crucible and it’s melted above a liquidious temperature of 850˚C. To
improve wettability of the matrix through preheating of hBN particles at 350 °C
for an hr in a separate furnace. Stirring the aluminium melt using a twin bladed
was coated with zirconia for protection of blade and to withstand temperature.
The two step stir casting process followed following steps.

(i) The pre-heated particles were transferred in to molten slurry

through drop feed mechanism during stirring constantly at 150
rpm and the liquid melt was allowed to cool upto a solidus
temperature.

(ii) After addition of reinforcement particles, the temperature of

molten slurry is increased and stirred at 350 rpm for 4-5 minutes
to attain a uniform distribution of particles due to vortex
formation.

(iii) The mild steel die as split die as shown in figure 3.6a with a five
figures of 15 mm diameter with 300 mm length of each rod and
connected with bottom plate. The die wall were coated with a
graphite lubricant for proceting the die and faciliating easy
ejection of the cast.

61
 (iv) The mixed molten alloy was then poured into a pre-heated die and
it’s allowed to cool down in room temperature.

Figure 3.2: Fabricated AA6351 Composites

3.2 TESTING AND METHODS

3.2.1 Microstructure Analysis of Composite

The fabricated composite was cut to pieces of 10 mm X10 mm square

and 8 mm thickness through a wire cut EDM process. The prepared specimens
were metallographically polished with SiC abrasive papers from 1000-2000
grades and etched using Keller’s reagent (1% HF, 1.5% HCL, and 2.5% HNO 3
and remaining water). The specimens were examined under an optical
microscope (OLYMPUS-BX51M) as shown in Figure 3.3.

62
Figure 3.3: Photography of Optical Microscope

63
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 OPTICAL MICROSTRUCTURES

Figure 4.1 (a-d) shows microstructure of alloy and composites, the

microstructure alloy as respected in figure 3a, represented clear grain
boundaries with intermetallic phases as effect of T6 heat treatment which forms
a countinous and discountinous grain boundaries and precipitates such as
MgZn2, Al6(FeCu), Mg2Si, Al2CuMg around the grain boundary without
coarsening. The microstructure of composites are shown in figure 3(b-d), its
reveals a uniform distribution of ZrB2/hBN particles in matrix material as
exbitis good interfacial bonding.

Figure 4.1: Optical microscopes of fabricated composites

(a) AA6351, (b) AA6351- hBN

64
 CHAPTER 5

AWJM

5.1 ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING

Figure 5.1: AWJM

65
 Aluminum AWJM
composite

Changing process
parameter

Transverse speed Abrasive flow Stand off

rate distance

2d surface roughness
& Kerf angle

Conclusion

Figure 5.2: Flow Chart

66
5.2 PLATE CUTTING BY AWJM

Fig 5.3 PLATE CUTTING

67
Figure 5.4 Workpiece after AWJM

68
Fig 5.5 video measuring system

69
 CHAPTER 6

OPTIMIZATION OF AWJM PROCESS

6.1 BACKGROUND
This chapter describes the optimization of various parameters to minimize the
surface roughness (Ra), kerf taper (Kt) and maximum delamination length
(Max. DLL) in machined samples. For design of experiment (DOE) response
surface methodology (RSM) based central composite design (CCD) approach
is used. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to analyse the defects
in machined samples. On basis of selected parameters (SOD, WP, TR and
AMFR), response surface methodology gives an array according to CCD using
design expert v13 software. For optimization, the desirability function is used.
Numerical optimization is performed by selecting the target for input
parameters and responses. To minimize the Ra, Kt and Max. DLL,
multiresponse optimization (MOO) technique for various process parameters is
performed. Another approach TM-GRA is also applied to optimize the pro

6.2 OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY

The use of optimization techniques in the machining process is essential for

continuous machining process improvement. Process parameter optimization
that recognizes and establishes the levels of key process parameters leading to
expected output or responses with acceptable variances ensuring a reduced
machining cost can result in a considerable increase in process efficiency (Deb,
2001). This study analysed three responses, Ra, Kt, and Max. DLL, to reveal
the optimum levels of parameters (SOD, WP, TR, and AMFR) for the AWJM
process. Different responses have different optimum process parameters, as a
result, it is very challenging to coordinate different parameters. The adjusted
processing parameters do not always yield the optimized ones. As a result, the
multi-objective optimization of the AWJM process requires a special approach

70
that can address several quality characteristics at once. To address the above
problem, the approach of RSM comprising with Desirability is used in this
research to integrate multi-response characteristics so that the optimum process
parameter combination can be get to achieve the goal of process optimization.
Afterwards, multi- 96 response optimization of parameters is executed by
applying the desirability technique to minimize the Ra, Kt and Max. DLL. cess
parameters for responses and compared with RSM-Desirability

6.3 RSM Based CCD Approach

A set of experiments are performed as per RSM design. RSM generates an array
according to the CCD on four process parameters namely SOD, WP, TR and
AMFR are considered to study their influence on response characteristics.
Generally, CCD consists of three different arrays of experimental runs:

i. An array with full factorial of two levels,

ii. An array of centre points, i.e. experimental runs with each factor at centre
value. This array is usually replicated to obtain precision in experiment results

iii. An array of axial points, i.e. experimental combinations similar to the centre
points but one factor will take values below and above the median. All factors
are varied in this array (Panneerselvam, 2012)

Two experimental design techniques such as Box-Behnken and CCD are mainly
used for performing the experiments. Box-Behnken designs are rotatable and
require 3 levels of each factor. This design does not contain any points at the
vertices of the cubic region created by the upper and lower limits for each
variable (axial points). This could be advantageous when the points on the
corners of the cube represent factor-level combinations that are prohibitively
expensive or impossible to test because of physical process constraints. But it
contains regions of poor prediction quality. However, CCD is a very efficient
design for fitting the second-order model. Table 5.1 lists the selected process

71
parameters for RSM based CCD approach, together with their respective alpha
and centre point values. Table 5.2 lists the experimental combinations
recommended by the design matrix. CCD is used for building a 2nd order
mathematical model to predict the response without a complete three-level full
factorial design. The experimental design consists of a total 30 experiments as
under

o 16 as factorial points in cubic vertex,

o 8 as axial points and

o 6 in the cubic centre as centre points

Table 6.1 Input process parameter for Machining Parameters

S.No Input Process Level 1 Level Level Level Level
Parameters 2 3 4 5
1 Abrasive flow rate 250 300 350 400 450
(AFR), g/min
2 Traverse Speed (TS), 70 85 100 115 130
mm/min
3 Stand of Distance (mm) 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
4 Pressure (MPa) 100 150 200 250 300

72
 Table 6.2 Detailed description of experimental setup
Item Description
AWJM Injection type nozzle
Power 22 Kw, 50 HZ
Maximum discharge pressure 3200 psi
Abrasive feeding method Vibratory conveyor
Abrasive particle Garnet
Shape of abrasive Random
Mesh Size 80
Jet Impact angle (º) 90
Sample Thickness 10 mm

The particle distribution of aluminum composite is studied through optical

microscope. Kerf with measurement is carried out through vision measurement
system with linear accuracy of 5 µm (model: Model VMS-2010 F), the
measurement of kerf angle is respected in equation 1. surface characteristics is
analyzed through 2D surface roughness using Talysurf surface roughness
measurement device.

Kerf taper angle θ = arctan [ Wt - Wb] / 2t ------ (1)

Where
t = Thickness of the material: 10 mm
Wt and Wb are the top and bottom kerf in mm
Evaluation of Experimental Data
The analysis of several machining characteristics, including surface
roughness (Ra), Kerf taper, and Material Removal Rate, is discussed in this
section. Response surface plots for variable pressure, standoff distance, traverse
speed, and abrasive flow rate are employed to analyze performance variation.
The parameter set of various conditions and their values for the machined

73
 composite are shown in table 3-6. The development of the response surface plot
and analysis of the variation components were studied.

Table 6.3 Design of Experiments order with response results

Response Response
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
1 2
B C D
A Surface Kerf
Std Run Standoff Traverse Abrasive
PRESSURE Roughness Taper
distance speed Flow rate
Unit MPa mm mm/min g/min Ra µm Degree
15 1 300 3 130 450 3.689 0.337
16 2 300 5 130 250 4.192 0.606
8 3 200 4.5 100 350 4.815 0.78
5 4 200 4 100 300 4.934 0.821
13 5 150 4 100 350 5.195 0.924
1 6 200 4 115 350 4.825 0.804
14 7 100 3 130 250 5.805 1.27
2 8 300 3 70 450 3.492 0.182
6 9 200 4 100 350 4.755 0.761
7 10 250 4 100 350 4.284 0.58
4 11 200 4 100 400 4.545 0.698
11 12 200 4 85 350 4.683 0.711
3 13 200 4 100 350 4.785 0.765
12 14 200 3.5 100 350 4.705 0.745
17 15 100 3 70 250 5.646 1.12
9 16 300 5 70 250 4.025 0.404
10 17 100 5 130 450 5.475 1.09
18 18 100 5 70 450 5.302 0.915

74
6.4 Desirability Function

Multi-response is converted to single response characteristics using Desirability

Function. All responses are transformed into a desirability function in this
method. This approach is a popular way of assigning a "score" to a group of
responses and selecting settings of factors to maximize the score. Industry uses
this approach extensively for optimizing various response characteristics.
Desirability is a mathematical technique for determining the optimum solution.
It's an objective function with a value of ‘1’ at the goal and ‘0’ outside of the
limits. It's predicated on the premise that a product or process with many quality
attributes, one of which is outside of some "desired" boundaries, is utterly
undesirable

The scale of desirability ranges from df = 0 to 1, with df = 1 denoting an

acceptable response and df = 0 denoting an undesirable result. Equation 5.1 is
used to assess each response's desirability.

For minimization
As per the response using weight field, desirability function is adjusted. The
range of 99 weight adjustments is 0.1 to 20. In this, weights below 1 give less
priority to the goal, while weights over 1 give it more priority. When the weight
value is 1, the desirability function varies linearly. In Design Expert v13, the
optimal values for SOD, WP, TR, and AMFR are determined using statistical
analysis. Optimum parameters of process give a combination of levels, which
at the same time fulfils each response’s optimization criteria

75
6.5 Surface Roughness

Table 6.4shows the ANOVA results Surface Roughness, the Predicted R²

of 0.7589 is not as close to the Adjusted R² of 0.9980 as one might
normally expect; i.e. the difference is more than 0.2. The response
surface graphs that are drawn to obtain the lowest surface roughness with
various combinations of AWJM process parameter during the machining
of composite are shown in the regression model for surface roughness in
figure6.1

Table 6.4 Analysis of Variance for Surface Roughness

76
 Sum of Mean
Source DF F-value p-value
Squares Square

Model 6.79 14 0.4851 601.21 < 0.0001

A-Pressure 0.4150 1 0.4150 514.31 0.0002

B-Standoff
0.0061 1 0.0061 7.50 0.0714
distance

C-Traverse Speed 0.0692 1 0.0692 85.78 0.0027

D-Abrasive Flow
0.0757 1 0.0757 93.78 0.0023
Rate

AB 0.0145 1 0.0145 17.91 0.0241

AC 0.0001 1 0.0001 0.1586 0.7171

AD 0.0020 1 0.0020 2.45 0.2158

BC 0.0000 1 0.0000 0.0397 0.8549

BD 0.0015 1 0.0015 1.91 0.2607

CD 0.0002 1 0.0002 0.2999 0.6220

A² 0.0004 1 0.0004 0.4767 0.5395

B² 0.0002 1 0.0002 0.2368 0.6599

C² 0.0000 1 0.0000 0.0202 0.8960

D² 0.0004 1 0.0004 0.4767 0.5395

Residual 0.0024 3 0.0008

Lack of Fit 0.0020 2 0.0010 2.19 0.4312

Pure Error 0.0005 1 0.0005 R² 0.9996

Adjusted 0.9980
Cor Total 6.79 17
R²

Predicted 0.7589
R²

Adeq
89.425
Precision

77
 figure 6.1 (a-c) Influence of interaction between Standoff distance, Pressure,
Traverse speed, abrasive flow rate with respect to 2D surface roughness

In spite of the condition of the material, more uniform degradation occurs

throughout the composite thickness direction with fewer hitches due to the
higher energy abrasive particles flowing in the machining zone. This causes an
adequate decrease in Ra (3.492 µm) as the water jet pressure increases. with
operating conditions of at operating conditions of pressure, standoff distance,
traverse speed, abrasive flow rate as (300, 3, 70 and 450 respectively). The
effect of WS2 as act solid lubricants which promotes as solid lubricants as hinder
the abrasive flow rate and as a result of the surface's slighter erosion and
rimming.
As a result, the target material is impinged with more abrasive flow rate.
Despite the presence of hard particles in the matrix, the target material had a

78
homogeneous cutting action with fewer surface imperfections, which increased
the surface roughness to 5.805 µm at operating
conditions of pressure, standoff distance, traverse speed, abrasive flow
rate as (100, 3, 130 and 250 respectively). A rise in water jet pressure may
enhance the kinetic energy of the water jet, pushing the abrasive particles to a
high energy state. Furthermore, Inconsistent abrasive particle distribution in the
water jet during AWJM and the presence of entrained air in the water jet's
tangential region both contribute to the increase in surface roughness.
Rethan Raj and Kanagasabapathy stated that Insufficient depth
machining was caused by the jet energy being pulled out by inadequate water
pressure. The increase in surface roughness is as effect of inappropriate
coordination impact with traverse speed at lower pressure, the cutting ability
was compromised, resulting in micro cutting and rough patches.
A uniform amount of abrasive cutting energy was generated by abrasive
particles when they reached their threshold energy during cutting operations at
a higher abrasive flow rate. Through the micro erosion process, this outcome
gave the machined surface a superior surface polish. The machining
nonuniformity and composite surface roughness both rise with an increase in
traverse speed.

79
 Table 6.5 ANOVA of Kerf Angle
Sum of Mean
Source DF F-value p-value
Squares Square
Model 1.26 14 0.0897 4431.97 < 0.0001 significant
<
A-Pressure 0.0592 1 0.0592 2922.19
0.0001
B-Standoff Distance 0.0006 1 0.0006 30.25 0.0118
C-Traverse Speed <
0.0624 1 0.0624 3083.62
(TS) 0.0001
D-Abrasive flow
0.0076 1 0.0076 373.60 0.0003
Rate
AB 0.0001 1 0.0001 4.24 0.1317
AC 0.0001 1 0.0001 6.32 0.0866
AD 0.0002 1 0.0002 10.99 0.0452
BC 0.0006 1 0.0006 32.00 0.0109
BD 0.0001 1 0.0001 4.72 0.1182
CD 0.0001 1 0.0001 2.99 0.1823
A² 0.0001 1 0.0001 6.61 0.0825
B² 0.0000 1 0.0000 1.53 0.3046
6.738E- 6.738E-
C² 1 0.3328 0.6045
06 06
4.436E- 4.436E-
D² 1 0.0219 0.8917
07 07
Residual 0.0001 3 0.0000
Lack of Fit 0.0001 2 0.0000 3.30 0.3629 R² = 1.000
8.000E- 8.000E- Adjusted R² =
Pure Error 1
06 06 0.99
Predicted R² =
Cor Total 1.26 17
0.971

Adeq Precision =
265.09

80
 Figure6.5 (a-c) Influence of interaction factors with Pressure, standoff
distance, Traverse speed, mass flow rate

The analysis of the experimental results on obtained taper angle is also

obtained through ANOVA as respected in table6.5. It is noted that the standoff
distance, or Factor B's p-value, is merely less than 0.05. Therefore, at the 95%
confidence level, these factors have a statistically significant impact on the taper
angle.
The Predicted R² of 0.9716 is in reasonable agreement with the Adjusted
R² of 0.9997; i.e. the difference is less than 0.2. Adeq. Precision measures the
signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 is desirable. The ratio of 265.090
indicates an adequate signal. This model can be used to navigate the design

81
space. The Model F-value of 4431.97 implies the model is significant. There is
only a 0.01% chance that an F-value this large could occur due to noise.
P-values less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. In this
case A, B, C, D, AD, BC are significant model terms. Figure6.5(a-c) shows the
various interaction set on machining parameters of AA6351/WS2 composite.
There is a 36.29% chance that a Lack of Fit F-value this large could occur due
to noise. The most significant influence of increased taper angle is 1.27º and the
minimum level of kerf taper angle is 0.182 º at level (100, 3, 130, 250) and (300,
3 ,70, 450) operating conditions of pressure, standoff distance, traverse speed,
abrasive flow rate respectively.
The kerf taper will be reduced when the jet energy is increased, and will
be increased if the cutting speed is increased. Uneven kerf profiles are prevented
in the machined aluminium composite due to the greater abrasive flow rate's
uniform penetration impact at the bottom cut surface . The hard reinforcement
particles enabled for a regular rate of material removal from the kerf wall
surface, and the maximum energy of this combination allowed it to hit over the
surface of aluminium composite. This result lead to a less narrow or larger kerf
taper profile, and it turned out that the kerf taper angle was lower. When
compared to garnet, WS2 was thought to have tougher and coarser particles. It
also managed to retain a jet profile with constant kinetic energy despite mixing
with a lot of air. This shows that the tougher abrasives' contact with the air phase
during cutting has been minimised, ultimately leading to a thin kerf profile.

82
.

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

The experimental analysis on abrasive water jet machining of

AA6351/WS2 composite was carried out and major conclusions are given
below.

1. AA6351/WS2 composite is successfully fabricated through stir casting

technique, without casting defects.
2. The optical microscope reveals a uniform distribution of WS2 particles
over the matrix material.
3. Better surface finish is obtained due to presence of WS2 particles, with
minimum Ra (3.42 µm). Increase in pressure level is most important
factor as increase the surface roughness and smaller bottom kerf.
4. The development of regression model yields an R2 value is 99.9 % was
most satisfactory to evaluate the surface roughness and taper angle.
5. The residuals between the expected and experimental values are validated
by a confirmation experiment to be a lesser than 5%.
6. These developed composite and machining study is mainly used for
automotive industries to obtain a smooth machining process.

83
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