MODULE 5: MODERN
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Classification of Modern Manufacturing Processes
Modern Manufacturing Processes or Non-traditional machining
processes is defined as a group of processes that removes the excess of
material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or
chemical energy or combinations of these energies, but do not use a sharp
cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing processes.
Needs of Non-traditional Machining
Conventional machining sufficed the requirement of the industries over the
decades. However, new exotic work materials, as well as innovative
geometric design of products and components put a lot of pressure on
capabilities of the conventional machining processes to manufacture the
components, with desired tolerances economically.
The major characteristics of non-conventional machining are:
Material removal may occur even no chip formation may take place. For
example, in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case of ECM
material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.
There may not be a physical tool present. For example in LBM, machining
is carried out by laser beam; however, in ECM there are tools very much
required for machining.
The tool needs not be harder than the work piece material. For example, in
wire EDM, copper is used as the tool material, to machine hardened steels.
Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to
provide material removal. For example, in USM, AJM, WJM mechanical
energy is used to machine material, whereas in ECM electrochemical
dissolution constitutes the material removal.
Examples of Non-traditional Machining Applications
The following examples below show where the NTM processes
are preferred, over the conventional machining process:
Intricate shaped blind hole – e.g., square holes of 15 mm x
15 mm with a depth of 30 mm;
Difficult to machine material – such as Inconel, Ti-alloys
or carbides;
Low stress grinding – Electrochemical grinding is
preferred, when compared to conventional grinding;
Deep holes with small hole diameters;
Machining of composites.
ABRASIVE JET
MACHINING (AJM)
Abrasive Jet Machining
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), also known as micro-abrasive
blasting, is a mechanical energy based – unconventional
machining process, used to remove unwanted material from a
given workpiece.
The process makes use of an abrasive jet with high velocity, to
remove material and provide smooth surface finish to hard
metallic workpieces.
Abrasive Jet Machining – Process
The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner
onto the work material, so that the distance between the
nozzle and the work piece and the impingement angle can be
set desirably.
The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by
micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work
material.
The process makes use of
an abrasive jet with high
velocity, to remove material
and provide smooth surface
finish to hard metallic
workpieces.
The jet of abrasive particles
is carried by carrier gas or
air.
Abrasive Jet Machining - Process
The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by
converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to a
kinetic energy and hence to a high velocity jet.
Fine particles (0.025 mm) are accelerated in a gas stream
(commonly air at a few times atmospheric pressure). The
particles are directed towards the focus of machining (less
than 1.0 mm from the tip). As the particles impact the
surface, they fracture off other particles.
In AJM, generally, the
abrasive particles of around
25 μm grit size would impinge
on the work material a
velocity of 150 to 300 m/s,
from a nozzle of I.D. of
0.3~0.5 mm with a standoff
distance of around 2 mm.
Abrasive Jet Machining – Parameters
Abrasives:
Material: Aluminum Oxide - Al2O3; Silicon Carbide
SiC; Glass beads;
Shape – irregular / spherical;
Size – 10 ~ 50 μm;
Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min;
Carrier gas – Air, CO2, N2;
Density – Air ~1.3 kg/m³;
Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s;
Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar;
Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 l/min;
Abrasive Jet Machining – Parameters
Abrasive Jet:
Velocity – 150 ~ 300 m/s;
Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas;
Standoff distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm;
Impingement Angle – 60 ~ 90°;
Nozzle:
Material – WC / sapphire;
Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm;
Life – 10 ~ 300 hours;
Abrasive Jet Machining – Parameters
Effect of nozzle tip distance on the size and shape of the cut
Abrasive Jet Machining
The most important machining characteristics in AJM are:
The material removal rate (MRR) mm³/min or gm/min;
The machining accuracy;
The life of the nozzle.
Applications:
For drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials;
For machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive materials;
AJM can be used for drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning and
etching;
Micro-machining of brittle materials.
Limitations:
MRR is low (~15 mm³/min for machining glasses);
Abrasive particles tend to get embedded particularly if the work
material is ductile;
Tapering occurs due to flaring of the jet;
Environmental load is rather high.
WATER JET
MACHINING (WJM)
Water Jet Machining
• Removes material through the erosion effects
of a high velocity, small diameter jet of water
• When the stream strikes a workpiece
surface, the erosive force of water removes
the material rapidly.
• The water, in this case, acts like a saw and cuts
a narrow groove in the workpiece material.
Water Jet Machining – Process Description
• Also known as Hydrodynamic
Machining
• WJM is a form of micro erosion. It
works by forcing a large volume of
water through a small orifice in the
nozzle.
• The key element in water jet
machining (WJM) is a water jet,
which travels at velocities as high as
900 m/s (approximately Mach 3).
• At the target, the kinetic energy of
the jet is converted spontaneously to
high-pressure energy, inducing high
stresses exceeding the flow strength
of target material, causing
mechanical abrasion.
Water Jet Machining – Process Description
• Water jet machining provides omnidirectional cutting
capabilities at very high speeds with a resulting edge
quality
• For machining softer materials such as plastics and fibers
simple water jet machining is used.
• Unlike conventional processes, downtime for the
replacement of worn or broken cutting tools is virtually
nonexistent with WJM because the “tool” never dulls or
breaks
• Additionally, the health hazards associated with cutting
materials such as asbestos and fiberglass are minimized
because almost no airborne dust is generated by this
process
Water Jet Machining – Parameters
Water Jet Machining – Parameters
• Standoff distance - Gap
between the jet nozzle (0.1–
0.3 mm diameter) and the
workpiece (2.5 – 6 mm)
• For material used in printed
circuit boards, it may be
increased up to 25 mm
• For larger standoff distance,
the depth of cut would be
smaller
• The increase in machining rate
and use of the small nozzle
diameter may increase the
width of the damaged layer.
Water Jet Machining – Parameters
Jet Parameters
• Typical pressures used are 1500 to 8000 bar to provide 8 to 80 kW
of power.
• Increase in pressure allows more power to be used in the machining
process, which in turn increases the depth of the cut.
• Jet velocities range between 540 to 1400 m/s.
• The quality of cutting improves at higher pressures by widening the
diameter of the jet and by lowering the traverse speed
• Under such conditions, materials of greater thicknesses and
densities can be cut
• The fluid used must possess low viscosity to minimize the energy
losses and be noncorrosive, and nontoxic
• Water is commonly used
Water Jet Machining – Parameters
Workpiece
• Brittle materials will fracture, while ductile ones will cut well
• Material thicknesses range from 0.8 to 25 mm or more
Water Jet Machining – Advantages
Advantages
• Water is cheap, non-toxic, and can be easily disposed and recirculated
• The process requires limited volume of water (100–200 l/hr)
• The tool (nozzle) does not wear and, therefore, does not need sharpening
• It is a versatile and cost-effective cutting process that can be used as an
alternative to traditional machining methods.
• It completely eliminates heat-affected zones, toxic fumes, recast layers,
work hardening and thermal stresses.
• It is ideal for cutting asbestos, glass fiber insulation, beryllium, and fiber
reinforced plastics (FRP), because the process provides a dustless
atmosphere
• The process provides clean and sharp cuts, free from burrs.
• It is applicable for laser reflective materials such as, glass, copper, and
aluminum.
Water Jet Machining – Disadvantages
Disadvantages
• WJM is not safe in operation if safety precautions are not strictly
followed.
• The process is characterized by a high production cost due to:
• High capital cost of the machine
• The need of highly qualified operators
• WJM is not adapted to mass production because of the high
maintenance requirement.
Water Jet Machining – Applications
• It is ideal in cutting soft materials such as wood, paper,
cloth, leather, rubber, and plastics
• Cutting of fibreglass and corrugated wood.
• Cutting of metals and composites applied in aerospace
industries
• Underwater cutting and shipbuilding industries
• Cutting of rocks, granite, and marble
• Slicing and processing of frozen foods, baked foods,
and meat. In such cases, alcohol, glycerin, and PCB Cutting
cooking oils are used as alternative cutting fluids
• WJM is also used in:
• Cleaning, polishing, and degreasing of surfaces
• Removal of nuclear contaminations
• Cleaning of tubes and castings
• Surface preparation for inspection purposes
• Surface strengthening Bulletproof
glass
• Deburring
