1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. CONCEPT OF BONDED LABOUR

The bonded labour is a social system. This system

constitutes the lowest class of the ayricultural and other

labourers who even after 46 years of independence are still

beiny exploited in one form or the other. The most striking

features of this system are obligation, force and

curtailment of liberty. The bondage through obligation may

include debt bondage attachment to land, attachment to

house site or customary obligation. In the case of debt

obligation, a labour usually takes a loan or advance from

an employer, and in consequence thereof he mortgages his

labour with that particular employer until the loan is

repaid. In many situations the loan may involve interest as

well. His wages are so fixed that he can hardly make both

ends meet and is not in a position to pay back the loan.

This way the situation of debt bondage ties a labour to a

particular master and he is not in a position to come out

of the domain of his employer.

The other type of bondage through obligation is

attachment to land. The labourer is given a piece of land

to cultivate and is required to share the produce with the

 2

master. In fact the value of the share of the produce from

the land is much below the minimum wage though the
labourer renders service to the employer for the whole year
at his back and call. Since the income from this source is
not sufficient to meet the daily requirements of the
labourer, he has to contract loans from the employer for
consumption, customary social ceremonies like marriage,
death, etc. As he has no capacity to pay back the loan thus
contracted, he is forced to work for the same employer
until the loan is fully paid back.

The other type of obligation for which the labourer

is bonded to the master is by way of getting homestead plot
in master's land. In lieu of that the labourer is required
to work for his master whenever he needs it. The wages
given to him for the work are just nominal. When the work
of the employer is over no other work is available in that
particular locality. This way the labourer remains without
work for that part of the year when the employer does not
need him.

The customary obligation also force the people of

low castes and tribes to perform certain customary services
to the upper caste such as carrying the dead animals,
burning the dead, beating the drum during birth and
funeral, etc. Such type of obligations acquire more
 3

oppressive character where debt bondage is perpetuated on

inter-generation basis. The son has to work for the
employer because of the loan taken by his father. Some
time such loans are linked to the marriage of the bonded
labourer or the sons and daughter of the bonded labourer.
These are such obligations where the labourer has to remain
bonded to the employer for his whole life. Finally,
bondage may also include situations where the powerful
landlords and money lenders forcibly grab the property of
the tribals, scheduled castes and other lower castes. A
situation gets created when these deprived peoples are left
with no alternative except mortgaging their labour. Since
these persons can never free themselves from the vicious
circle of poverty, they have to continue in bondgage. This
system which was largely confined to the agricultural
sector is now seen among workers in stone quarries, brick
klins, construction sites, forestry, carpet weaving,
fishing, bidi making, match box etc. The entire conceptual
framework of the system of bondage shows that it has its

1. See K. Gopal Iyer, Bondage, Intervention and

Contemporary Situation, A Paper Presented at the
Workahop on Bonded Labour Organised by the Lai
Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration,
Mussorie on February 8-9, (1990).
 4

roots in the socio-economic structure in the rural areas

characterised by feudal and semi-feudal conditions,
hierarchical caste system, extreme poverty and ignorance
coupled with social customs.

B. DEFINITION OF BONDED LABOUR

The term
'bonded labour' is not capable of any
2
precise definition. The Royal Commission on Labour m
India (1931) has defined bonded labour as follows: "the
labourer borrows money from the land lord under a contract
to work until the debt is repaid. The debt tends to
increase rather than diminish and the man, and sometimes
his family, is bound for life."

The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes in his Report (1971-72 and 1972-73) has defined the

2. According to the Statesman Dictionary, Labour under

bondage has been defined as "a legal deed by which
a person engages himself and his representative to
fulfil specific condition or pay money". Quoted in,
S.N. Tripathi, Bonded Labour in India, (1989) at
9.
3. Quoted in, A. E. Punit, Profiles of Poverty in
India, (1982) at 57-58.
 5

Bonded Labour System as "the practice under which a man

pledges his own person or a member of his family against a
loan. The pledger or his nominee is released only on its
discharge. Until then the man himself or the member of his
family is required to work for his creditor against his
daily meals or low wages. Since he gets very little money,
he has to depend upon someone in the family to procure the
sum required for his release and this, of course, is rarely
available. The relationship lasts for months and sometimes

years, occasionally and entire life time and not

4
infrequently follows the male heir."

The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 has

defined bonded labourer to mean "a labourer who incurs, or
has, or is presumed to have incurred a bonded debt."

4. See Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes 1971-1972 and 1972-73 (Twenty
First Report).
5. Section 2(f). The provision has been amended in
1985 so as to include begar, force labour and
migrant labourers. See also, J.K. Mittal,
Abolition of Bonded Labour System, The Academy Law
Review (1977-78), at 187, B.P. Dwivedi Legislative
Approach to the Problem of Bonded Labour: A Socio-
Economic Analysis, (1987) Supreme Court Journal, at
51.
 6

Under this legislation, bonded labour system means the

system of forced labour under which a debtor has entered
into an agreement with the creditor to the effect that he
would:

render by himself or through any member of his

family for any person dependent on him, labour or
service to the creditor or for the benefit of the
.creditor for a specified period or for an
unsepcified period, either without wages or for
nominal wages; or

forfeit the freedom of employment or other means of

livelihood for a specified period or for an
unspecified period; or

forfeit the right to move freely throughout the

territory of India; or

forfeit the right to appropriate or sell at market

value any of his property or product of his labour
or the labour of a member of his family, or any
person dependent on him.

The Act also defines each term which constitutes

the characteristic features of bonded labour system in our
country. Various forms of forced labour under this system
are also enumerated in the Act. The Act is explicit on the
 7

point that bonded labour is paid less than the 'prescribed

wages', and hence his wages are just 'nominal' and far
5a
below the normal wages in the locality.

The Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes, 1975-76 and 1976-77 has also
attempted to redefine the bonded labour system to mean
that, "If persons belonging to any particular caste or
community are forced or partly forced to work for a
creditor under an agreement either without wages or for
nominal wages which are lesser than the prescribed minimum
wages. They would come under the definition of bonded
labour system." This is suggestive of the fact that the
system of bonded labour has not been confined to any
particular caste and community but is the direct result of
poverty and helplessness. The other aspect which the
report highlights is that the bonded labour is practically
deprived of all his freedom until the debt is fully repaid.

5a. For an extended definition of the term 'Bonded

Labour', see Bandhua Mukti Morcha vs. Union of
India, A.I.R. 1984 SC 802 at 826-27.

6. See Report of the Commission for Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes, 1975-76 and 1976-77.
 8

The National Sample Survey Organisation (June,

1977)^ has defined bonded labour as "working with an
employer under obligation but work not specifically
compensated by any wage/salary." The survey also
highlights the main features of the Bonded Labour System:

i) On account of the debt incurred by the labourer

himself or his ancestor, the labourers enters into
the contract and ensures his labour with the
landlord-cum-moneylender, until the debt is
repaid.

ii) The period of bondage may vary from person to

person, and it may be seasonal or for one entire
agricultural year or for several years.

iii) The bonded labour is not free to go out anywhere he

likes either for work or for personal pleasure. He
lacks freedom as long as the particular debt is not
repaid.

iv) The bonded labourer does not get his due

compensation for his labour when compared with
other free labourers and their rates of wages.

7• See National Sample Survey Organisation, Socio-

Economic Survey, Thirty Second Round, Vol. I, 1977-
78 at 108.
 9

A close scrutiny of the above definitions of

bonded labour would show that the system of bonded labour
which has continued to exist in this country has the
following common features:

a) A bonded labour is one who mortgages his labour for

money or kind or both.

b) The wages are paid in advance, partially or

entirely.

c) A bonded labourer has to work with his creditor

until the debt is paid back or the stipulated
period is over.

(d) Bonded labour does not necessarily belong to a

particular caste or community but it depends upon
poverty and helplessness of the labourer.

(e) The agreement between the creditor and the debtor

(bonded) usually relates to the period of work,
nature of work, amount to be paid and mode of
payment. Contract may be oral also.

(f) During the subsistence of the contract, a bonded

labourer is paid nominal wages which are lower than
the prescribed wages. He is also provided daily
meals and sometime a residence also.
 10

(g) A bonded labour is not entitled for holidays. If

he absent himself/ he has to give a substitute or
compensate the days of absence by doing extra work.

In the light of these features, one can simply say

that a bonded labourer has virtually no bargaining power.
He has no right to refuse to work under the terms set by
his master. He can neither quit nor take up work for
another master. Through economic compulsions or customary
obligations, the bonded labourer is tide to his master's
needs. It will not be an exaggeration to say that in a
country like India the most outstanding feature of bonded
labour system is the cruel choice between the bread and
freedom. In the face of starvation and death, the
labourers have chosen bread which practically meant
mortgaging their personal freedom. This appears to be one
of the main reason for the continuance of this pernicious
system.

C. CONSTITUTIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF BONDED LABOUR

The system of bonded labour has been prevalent in

various parts of the country even during the pre-
independence era. This system was based on exploitation by
a powerful section of community of the poor and deprived
people who have continued to be held in bondage for years
together. With the dawn of independence, the system could
 11

not be allowed to continue to plight the national life any

longer and hence the founding father of our constitution
took a serious note of this evil social practice and
incorporated special provisions in the constitution of
India for eradication of this practice. The chapter on
Fundamental Rights and Directive Principle of State Policy
gave to these downtrodden people a new hope for a better
tomorrow. Article 14 guarantees equality before law and
equal protection of laws to all the persons residing within
the territory of India. Article 21 secures right to life
and human dignity. Similarly! Article 23 prohibits,
"Traffic in human being and begar and other similar forms
of forced labour". Thus the system of bonded labour stood
prohibited by Article 23 of the Constitution. Article 24
which is another important provision prohibits the
employment of children below 14 years of age. The
provisions contained in Article 39 (e) and (f), 41 and 42
which are enshrined in the chapter of Directive Principle
of State Policy mandate at the State to protect the health
and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age
of children against exploitation. It also compels the
state to provide just and human conditions of work
including educational facilities to all the people. These
are the minimum requirements which should exist in a
society governed by the rule of law so that a person is
 12

able to live with human dignity and nothing is done to

deprive him of the enjoyment of these basic essentials.
This is the basic philosophy of the Constitution of India
which promises to secure every citizen justice/ social,
economic and political in all spheres of life. The
question which may be asked in this context is, have we
been able to translate this vision of justice into
practice? On the political plane, one may say that every
citizen who attains a requisite age has a right to vote and
can stand for election to any post. But on the social • and
economic front there is wide disparity between the haves
and have nots. Almost 50 per cent of out total population
is still not able to enjoy the basic requirements of life.
A majority of them are the people who have to struggle
even for two time meals. Sometime, this leads them to a
point of starvation or even death. It is here that the
real exploitation starts and these poor are left with no
alternative but to mortgage their labour and freedom with
the socially and economically powerful landlords/
moneylenders who may assure them two time's meals. This
type of situation entails into a perpetual bondage.

In the Post-Independent era the Union and State

Governments took some half hearted measures to provide
social and economic justice to these deprived sections of
 13

the population by launching various welfare schemes for

their benefit. However, the problem of bondec3 labour could

not receive any special attention till the enactment of the

law in 1976. i

The various studies conducted by the Gandhi Peace

Foundation, New Delhi, National Sample Survey Organisation

as well as by the various State Governments have reported a

large number of bonded labourer in various parts of the

o

country. This implied that there has been complete lack

of concern on the part of the State for human values

enshrined in Part III and IV of the Constitution. The

Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 has abolished

the practice of bonded labour in all its forms. The

existence of bonded labour even after the enactment of this

legislation shows that there has been partial

implementation of law. The Supreme Court of India, through

public interest petitions have also exposed the callous

attitude of the State administration in handling the cases

8. The G.P.F. Study recorded the existence of 26.17

lakh bonded labourer, the NSSO study recorded over

3.45 lakh and the state government recognised the

incidence of 2.55 lakh. See infra at

 14

of bonded labour including their rehabilitation. 9 The Court

in Neerja Chaudhary invoked the post Menka concept of
Article 21 to secure effective rehabilitation of the freed
bonded labourers and held that any failure on the part of
the state to rehabilitate freed bonded labourers is
violation of their right to live with human dignity
implicit in Article 21 of the Constitution. Similarly, in
Bandhua Mukti Morcha/ the Court read the Directive
Principle into Article 21 of the Constitution to make the
right to live with human dignity meaningful to the working

class of the country. These rulings of the Court show that

the practice of bonded labour is still with us and the
state has not shown full interest in implementing the
provisions of Anti-Bonded Labour Legislation. It is
submitted that mere passing of laws is futile unless their
objective is realised. In other words, the law must not
only speak justice but must also deliver justice. We

9. See People Union for Civil Liberties vs. Union of

India, A.I.R. 1982 SC 1473, Bandhua Mukti Morcha
vs. Union of India, A.I.R. 1984 SC 802.

10. Neerja Chaudhary vs. State of Madhya Pradesh,

A.I.R. 1984 SC 1099.

11. Menka Gandhi vs. Union of India, A.I.R. 1978 SC

597.
 15

content with the law in books but we must have the law in
action. This appears to be the only way to translate the
constitutional philosophy of the total abolition of bonded
labour system as enshrined in Article 23. The state must
make all efforts to eradicate this pernicious social
practice from the India soil.

D. SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Despite more than 4 decades of independence our

country still retains the system of bonded labour. Though
the Union Government enacted a comprehensive legislation to
curb the practice of bonded labour but the study conducted
on this subject by the Gandhi Peace Foundation and the
National Labour Institute confirmed a high incidence of
bonded labour in various parts of the country. Though the
investigation pattern varied, the subsequent surveys
conducted by the NSSO and the various state governments
have also reconfirmed the prevalence of bonded labour in
various parts of the country. It must be acknowledged that
the bonded labour system is totally incompatible with the
new egalitarian socio-economic order. It is an utter
violation of the basic human right of an individual in a
democratic set up. Though there are some macro studies
based on sample surveys conducted in some parts of the
country but no such study has ever been conducted covering
 16

the state of Himachal Pradesh. In fact, the government

sponsored survey have denied the existence of bonded labour
in the state. Therefore, no one felt concerned to explore
the possibility of the existence of bonded labour in the
state. It was only in 1985 that some reportings appeared
in a section of the press 12 alleging the existence of
bonded labour in Sirmour District of the State.
Subsequently, a public interest petition was filed in the
State High Court at Shimla and the Court was pleased to
appoint a team of commissioners for ascertaining the true
factual position. In their Report submitted to the High
Court, the Commissioner testified the existence of the
bonded labour in the above district of the State. The
petition was finally disposed off with extensive directions
for the release and rehabilitation of the identified bonded
labourers.

Though there are various types of forced labour

prevalent in the State of Himachal Pradesh, debt bondage in
agricultural sector seems to be the most widespread
phenomenon. Hence, the present study surveys the problem of
bonded labour mainly in the agrarian sector of district
Shimla and Sirmour of Himachal Pradesh. The study also
examines the problem of bonded labour in general and
evaluates the impact of centrally sponsored schemes for the
 17

rehabilitation of bonded labourers. The present stucjy has

been carried out to achieve the following objectives:

a) To look into the entire background underlying the

historical and philosophical foundation of the

system of bonded labour in India.

b) To examine the various types of bonded labour found

in different parts of the country and to analyse

the factors responsible for the continuance of this

system.

c) To analyse critically the constitutional and

legislative measures taken to eradicate this

inhuman social practice.

d) To make a critical appraisal of the various

development schemes initiated for rehabilitation of

bonded labourers in the country.

d) To conduct a field survey to find out the

existence of bonded labour in Himachal Pradesh.

e) To study and analyse the household pattern, family

conditions, debt/wage structure and other related

aspects of the identified bonded labourers in the

State, and
 18

f) Finally, to suggest ways and means for

strengthening the present organisational set up for
identification, release and rehabilitation of
bonded labourers.

E. METHODOLOGY

The methodology of the present study has been

designed in such a way so that the administrative as well
as socio-legal aspects of the problem of bonded labour are
examined in their proper perspective. The problem has been
examined by an indepth study of all the laws dealing with
the abolition of bonded labour. The major portion of the
study has been completed through an investigation process
and data collection from both primary and secondary
sources.

Himachal Pradesh is a hilly region state. The

geographical division of the State is also not uniform. In
fact the State comprises of low, middle and high hill
zones. The socio-economic conditions of the people also
vary according to altitutdes. The system of bonded labour
has been found to exist mostly in hilly regions of the
State where great economic disparities exist in the socio-
economic set up of the people. Therefore, The present study
has been confined to two districts of the State, viz..
 19

Shimla and Sirmour where this system has been found in

existence in one form or the other since long. Keeping the

possibility of higher incidence of bonded labour in the

area, the researcher has selected two development blocks

from each of the district for the purpose of carrying out

field investigations. Further, from each development block,

a number of villages have been selected randomly. In fact

38 villages have been surveyed in the four development

blocks keeping in view the incidence of bonded labour. Out

of the total number of villages brought under survey, the

researcher has been able to identify 75 bonded labourers of

different age groups. This has been possible by collecting

relevant information from some responsible persons which

enabled the researcher to identify the bonded labourer in

the concerned village. The investigations have been

carried our with the help of a structured interview

schedule which covered information concerning various

perspectives like family background, occupation, age, level

of literacy, caste, and wage structure of the identified

bonded labourers. The statistical information thus

collected have been analysed and classified in various

tables. Responses of the administration regarding the

incidence of bonded labour in the respective district have

been recorded and analysed.

 20

F. COLLECTION OF DATA

Data collection has its own relevance and

significance in any kind of research work. The present work

which is an empirical study of the system of bonded labour

in Himachal Pradesh has been carried out with the help of

original data collected through field surveys of 38

villages in the 4 development blocks of District Shimla and

Sirmour. After visiting these 38 villages selected

randomly, the researchers has been able to identify 75

bonded labourers. Each bonded labourer irrespective of

his/her age or caste has been interviewed with the help of

a structured interview schedule. Because of the delicate

nature of the problem of bonded labour as well as the

involvement of the bonded labour in supplying information,

every care has been taken to see that the landlords are not

able to know anything about the meeting of the present

researcher with the bonded labourers as it might put them

in a serious situation.

The information, thus collected has been reproduced

in Tables A to H in Chapter VI of the present work. The

important perspectives covered in the process of data

collection include, duration of bondage of land owning and

landless bonded labourers, marital status and age of bonded

labourers, purpose and amount of loan taken by them, the

 21

mode of payment of wages to bonded labourers,mode of

cultivation of land possessed by the bonded labourers,
type of work and the treatment given to the bonded labourer
by the employer, educational level and caste structure of
the bonded and the job satisfaction level of the bonded
labourers. Some data relating to the problem perspectives
of bonded labour in India has been collected by using
secondary sources such as the surveys conducted by the
Gandhi Peace Foundation, National Sample Survey
Organisation and the various other study groups sponsored
by the Government of India or State Governments. The
information collected through this source has also been
analysed for examining the problem of identification,
release and rehabilitation of bonded labourers.

G. INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The data collected from primary as well as

secondary sources has been interpreted so as to examine the
problem perspectives of bonded labour in India as well as
in Himachal Pradesh. The data collected from secondary
sources has been tabulated and presented in Table A to K in
Chapter IV of the present study. Table K sums up the
entire information inrespect • vj of the bonded labourers
identified and rehabilitated in various parts of the
country. The initial identification number of 48,636 of
 22

1976 has gone almost double by 1977. In the year 1984-85

the figure shot up to 1,77,062 and in 1992 it reached to
2,50,289. Similarly, the figure of 41,152 rehabilitated
labourers during 1976 has gone upto 2,23,141 in 1992.
Also the percentage of rehabilitated labourers which was as
low as 24.6 has gone upto 89 percent in 1992. It is only
11 percent of the released labourers who are yet to be
rehabilitated. The empirical study conducted by the
planning Evaluation Organisation of the Govternment of
India and the Study Groups of National Academy of
Administration has pointed out that since a majority of the
bonded labourers belong to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, efforts should be made to integrate the
rehabilitation programme with the schemes relating to the
development of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
Poverty, ignorance, illiteracy and helplessness have been
found as the main reasons for indebtedness and continuance
of the inciiience of bondage.

The main emphasis of the present study is on

identification of bonded labour in Himachal Pradesh. As
already submitted, the State of Himachal Pradesh comprises
of 12 district. The present work is confined to study the
problem of bonded labour in 2 districts of State, viz.
Shimla and Sirmour. Since the State had officially denied
the existence of bonded labour, it was really a very
 23

difficult task for the present researcher to start with the

identification work. Nevertheless, the researcher, after
having established some friendly contacts with some
responsible persons in two districts, selected 4
Development Blocks for conducting the present survey. This
was done keeping in view the possibility of bonded labour
in the identified 4 Development Blocks, namely Rohroo,
Chirgaon, Paonta and Shillai. The field investigations
were carried out during 1992 and 1993 and a total number of
38 villages were surveyed. 75 persons were interviewed and
identified as bonded labourers. The interview scheduled,
prepared for the purpose, covered information relating to
different perspectives of bonded labourers as well as the
working condition^of the bonded. Out of the 75 identified
bonded labourers^ 43 hail from district Shimla and remaining
32 from District Sirmour. The informations collected
through the interviews have been analysed in Tabl^A to H
of Chapter VI. Regarding the land owning pattern among the
bonded labourers. Table A reflects that 85 percent of of
the bonded labourers are owners of land. The main reason
for their entering into bondage appears to be the
unproductive nature of land. Since their lands are
situated in same village, they have no chance of moving out
the village and hence to enslave themselves for their petty
needs and continue in bondage. The information contained in
 24

Table-B of the Chapter relates to the marital status and

the age of bonded labourers. The analysis reveals that 81
per cent of the bonded labourers are married and have
children. It was revealed that agricultural labourer more
particularly those having no lands of their own face more
problems if they are married. The family size of bonded
labourers enhance their liabilities and push them into
bondage.

The information contained in Table-C of the Chapter

shows the basic purpose for which the loan was taken by the
bonded labourers. A close analysis of the table reveals
that there are 25 bonded labourers who have not taken any
loan and work on daily wages basis. However, the wages
paid to them vary between Rs. 10-15 which are much below
the wages prescribed under the law. Out of the remaining
50 bonded labourers 39 have taken loan for meeting
consumption requirement of the family. 9 have taken the
loan for marriage purpose while 2 tooks it for medical care
of the family members. The loan pattern generally varied
between Rs. 1,000-10/000. The main reason- for the
situation is the extreme form of poverty. Marriage also
sometimes become immediate cause for the attachment to
bonded service. The interesting aspect in this context has
been that due to poverty the poor have not only mortgaged
their labour with the landlord but even the property owned
 25

by the bonded labourers stood mortgaged with the landlords

for an additional advance of money in a number of cases.
Regarding the mode of payment to bonded labourers/ the
information contained in Table-D suggest that a maximum
number of 38 bonded labourers are partly paid in cash and
kind. There was no bonded labourer who was being paid in
cash exclusively in Paonta and Shillai Development Blocks.
The maximum number of bonded labourers who are receiving
theijr/ cash fall in Chirgaon Development Block. Regarding
the wage structure/ it was revealed that the wages of a
majority of bonded labourers which vary between Rs. 100-400
per month are adjusted against the loans plus the
exhorbitant rate of interest charged thereon. This is
nothing but a total exploitation of the bonded labourers.
Table-E provides information regarding the mode of
cultivation of the land possessed by the bonded labour
households. It has been shown that out of the 61 land
owning labourers 58 have been cultivating the land
themselves while 6 of them have mortgaged their lands for
securing loans. This feature is noticeable in Shillai
Development Block of Sirmour District. The fact remains
that the bonded labourers whether land owning or landless
have to depend on the rich landlords for their day to day
survival. Regarding the nature of work taken from the
bonded labourers as well the attitude of master towards
them, the information contained in Table-F of Chapter VI
 26

shows that 17 percent of the bonded labourers are engaged

in manual work while 82 percent perform jobs connected with
agricultural operations. It has been noticed that bonded
labourers who are either children or aged person are
preferred for domestic service and cattle grazing etc.
However, 92 percent of the bonded labourers were not
satisfied with the behaviour of the master. Table-G
depicts the situation regarding the literacy rate and caste
structure of the bonded labourers. It is revealed that 68
percent of the bonded labourers are illiterate and a
majority of them belong to scheduled caste. 12 have
received education upto primary level, 10 upto to middle,
2 upto high school. Those falling in the high school level
belong to caste Hindus. The basic reason for low level of
education and illiteracy has been poverty and economic
insecurity. In fact, the bonded families, due to poverty
prefer an earning hand in the family rather than spending
money on education. Their children become bonded labourers
because such services are easily available for them. This
shows that poverty is one of the dominant factor which
compel both educated as well as the illiterate persons to
pledge their labour for fulfilment of their daily needs.

During the course of field investigations, the data

collected in respect of job satisfaction level of bonded
labourers has been presented in Table-H. An analysis of
 27

the information shows that 73 percent of the bonded

labourers showed their complete dissatisfaction with the
job. 24 percent replied in a mild tone giving the
inference that they were not fully satisfied. There were
just 2 bonded labourers who showed some amount of
satisfaction with their job. In this categorisation
presented in Table H, there are 3 children whose opinion
can not be considered as decisive as they are not mature
enough to express a definite opinion. It has also been
observed that those expressing satisfaction full or partial
are the one who considered bonded servive as an additional
source of income. However, there is a feeling among the
bonded labourers that their wages are not in proportion to
the services they render. Though/ in recent times/ the
labour has become very costly but the masters' attitude has
remained unchanged.

The researcher has also examined the administrative

authorities entrusted with the task of implementing the
provision, of law. It is painful to point out that the
interviewed authorities which included Deputy Commissioners
of Shimla and Sirmour as well as some Sub-Divisional
Magistrates of the areas under study were not able to
exhibit any knowledge about the organisational set up of
the vigilance committees at the districts and sub-
divisional levels though such committees had been
 28
constituted for each district by the State Government in
1982. Thus, the State administration has not bothered much
about the welfare of the poor bonded labourers. No sincere
efforts have been made for identifying and protecting them.
It seems that this situation will go on on the x.^^ same way
unless some concerted efforts are made in the direction.
It is submitted that the media and other non-governmental
organisations can play a vital role in exposing this state
of inhuman activity. The information collected by the
present researcher have proved the existence of bonded
labour in Himachal Pradesh. It is better that the State
admits the existence of this pernicious practice and
undertakes a comprehensive survey for identification/
release and rehabilitation of the bonded labour. The
present investigation are just a drop in the ocean and if
the research is carried further with due financial support,
more startling facts may be revealed.