Chapter 18
Inheritance
Chromosomes (introduction)
Chromosomes - a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying a genetic information in the form of genes
(located in the nucleus of cells)
Gene - a length of DNA that codes for a protein
(genes control our characteristics as they code for proteins that play important roles in what our cells do)
When a cell is not dividing When a cell is dividing
Haploid nucleus - a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes (eg. sperm and egg cells)
Diploid nucleus - a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (eg. body cells)
Homologous chromosomes - the two chromosomes of a pair in a diploid cell
(one from mom, one from dad)
Homologous chromosomes
have genes for the same
characteristic in the same
position.
Cell division
1. Mitosis: nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
Before cell division
Just before mitosis takes place,
the chromosomes in the parent
cells are copied. Each copy
remains attached to the original
one, so each chromosome is made
up of two identical threads joined
together. The two threads are called
chromatids, and the point where they are
held together is called the centromere.
During cell division
2. Meiosis: reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid,
resulting in genetically different cells
Stem cells
Stem cells (unspecialised cells) - their function is to divide by mitosis and produce new daughter cells that
can become specialized within the tissue and be used for different functions
Every cell in your body has the same genes. But in each cell, only a particular set of these genes is switched
on, or expressed. The cells in your hair follicles, for example, are the only ones that actually express the gene
for hair color. This gene is present in all your other cells, but it is not expressed. So differentiation involves
switching particular sets of genes on or off.
Embryonic stem cell - a cell in an embryo that is capable of giving rise to all types of specialized cells
Adult stem cell - a cell in an adult that can give rise to limited range of specialized cells
For example, you have stem cells in your bone marrow that can divide to produce red blood cells, platelets and
the different types of white blood cell. But they cannot produce nerve cells, liver cells or any other kind of
specialized cell.
Inheritance - the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
Allele - any of two or more alternative forms of a gene
(variations of a gene)
- Can refer to the alleles using symbols
- Dominant alle: Capital letter (example: G)
- Recessive alle: Small letter (example: g)
Homozygous - having two identical alleles of a particular gene (GG,gg)
- two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
F1 generation (filial generation) - the offspring of 2 different pure-breeding (homozygous) strains
- they are always heterozygous (GG + gg = Gg)
Heterozygous - having two different alleles of a particular gene (Gg)
- not pure-breeding
(A heterozygous chinchilla is said to be a carrier of the charcoal color because it has the allele for it but does
not have charcoal fur)
Genotype - the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the allele present
Phenotype - the features of an organism
3 possible combination of alleles
Genotype
1. GG
2. gg
3. Gg / gG (same)
Dominant - an allele that is expressed if it is present
Recessive - an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present
G-dominant allele
g-recessive allele
Dominant + dominant = dominant
Recessive + recessive = recessive
Dominant + recessive = dominant
Codominance - a situation in which both alleles in a heterozygote have an effect on the phenotype
Extra
Genetic diagram
1. Heterozygous and homozygous
2. Heterozygous and heterozygous
Monohybrid inheritance - the inheritance of one only pair of contrasting characteristics
If there are four possible offspring genotypes at the end of the cross, this does not mean that the two chinchillas will have
four offspring. It simply means that each time they have offspring, these are the possible genotypes that they might have.
The offspring genotypes which you work out are only probabilities. With small numbers, they are unlikely to work out
exactly. With very large numbers of offspring from one cross, they are more likely to be accurate.
Test cross
● Breeders can use a test cross to find out the genotype of an organism showing the dominant
phenotype by crossing it with one known to have the homozygous recessive genotype for the
same gene.
● By looking at the ratio of phenotypes in the offspring, we can tell whether the unknown individual is
homozygous dominant or heterozygous.
‘A plant breeder has a tall plant of unknown genotype. How can they find out whether it is homozygous
dominant or heterozygous?’
● The short plant is showing the recessive phenotype and so must be homozygous recessive - tt
Sex determination
Woman’s genotype - XX
Man’s genotype - XY
Note- use the letter symbols to describe whole chromosomes (X,Y), instead of individual alleles
Sex linkage
The X and Y chromosomes do not only determine sex. They have other genes on them as well.
We have seen that, for most chromosomes, we have two copies of each one - a homologous pair. They
contain the same genes in the same positions. (This means that we have two copies of each gene)
But this isn't true for the sex chromosomes. The Y chromosome is tiny, and only has a few genes.
The X chromosome is much larger, and has many more genes. (This means that, for most of the
genes on the X chromosome, we have only one copy. There is no second copy on the Y chromosome.)
There are also a few genes on the Y chromosome that are not found on the X chromosome. (This means that
a woman never has a copy of these genes, and a man has only one copy.)
Genes that are found only on the non-homologous parts of
the X or Y chromosomes are called sex-linked genes.
Condition is much more common in men than women.
Men: ½
Women: ⅓
Sex linked characteristis - a characteristic in which the gene
responsible is located on a sex chromosme, which makes it more
common in one sex than in the other
DNA and protein synthesis
