AQA A Level Biology

3.7.1-3.7.3

Inheritance and
Evolution

Name

Class

Teacher
 Table of Contents
Topic Page

Exam Question Tracker ……………………………………………………………………………… 2

Specification ……….……………………………………………………………………………..…… 3

Keywords ………………………………………………………………………….………………….…… 5

Lesson 1: Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance …….……………………….. 7

Lesson 2: Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles ………………………………….. 16

Lesson 3: Linkage …………..………………………….……………………….…………….….…. 28

Lesson 4: Epistasis ………………………………………………………………………………….. 42

Lesson 5: Chi-squared test………………..………………………………….………………..… 53

Lesson 6: Population Genetics …………………………………………………………..……. 63

Lesson 7: Natural Selection ……………………………………………………………………… 75

Lesson 8: Genetic Drift and Speciation …………………………………………………….. 86

Checklist …………………………………………….……………………………………….…..……….. 99

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 Exam Question Tracker and Reflection

Use this table to record your exam question marks and decide which topics you need to
revise
Lesson Exam Reflections (E.g. Comments (E.g. strengths,
Question How did I revise? gaps in knowledge, how I
Marks Did I revise?....) will review content…)
/
Lesson 1: Monohybrid
Inheritance and
Codominance
/
Lesson 2: Dihybrid
Inheritance and
Multiple Alleles
/
Lesson 3: Linkage

/
Lesson 4: Epistasis

/
Lesson 5: Chi-squared
test

Lesson 6: Population
Genetics

Lesson 7: Natural
Selection

Lesson 8: Genetic
Drift and Speciation

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Specification

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Specification

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Inheritance and Evolution Keywords
Alleles Alternative forms of a particular gene with different base sequences, and
therefore different codes

Co-dominant Alleles which both contribute to the phenotype (i.e. produce a blended
effect) in the heterozygous condition

Dominant An allele that expresses itself in the phenotype in heterozygous organisms

Gene Section of DNA on a chromosome that controls a feature by coding for

formation of one or more specific polypeptides or a functional RNA (including
rRNA and tRNA).
Genotype The combination of alleles present within the cells of an organism

Heterozygous Situation of organism in which paired alleles are different

Homozygous Situation or organism in which paired alleles are the same

Homologous chromosomes A pair of chromosomes, one maternal and one paternal, that have the same
gene loci and therefore determine the same features. They are not
necessarily identical as may have different alleles. They are capable of pairing
during meiosis.
Locus The specific linear position of a particular gene on a certain chromosome

Monohybrid Inheritance of a single pair of alleles

Phenotype The observable or biochemical characteristics of an organism, resulting from

both its genotype and the effects of the environment
Recessive An allele that does not express itself in the phenotype in heterozygous
organisms
Dihybrid Inheritance of two pairs of alleles

Multiple alleles If there are more than two alleles for each gene in the gene pool. NB. Only 2
chromosomes in a homologous pair so only two of the three or more alleles
can be present in a single organism
Ratio A measure of the relative size of two classes that is expressed as a
proportion.
Sex linked Any gene that is carried on either the X or Y chromosome.

Autosomal linkage The situation where two or more genes are carried on the same
autosome.
Autosome A chromosome which is not a sex chromosome

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Inheritance and Evolution Keywords
Allelic frequency The number of times an allele occurs within the gene pool in a population,
relative to all others at same locus

Gene Pool All the different alleles of all the genes of all the individuals in a population at
any one time

Hardy Weinberg Principle The principle predicts that the proportion of dominant and recessive alleles
of any gene in a population remains the same from one generation to next
provided five conditions: No mutations, population is isolated, no natural
selection (alleles are equally likely to be passed on), large population, mating
is random
Population A group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a
particular time that can potentially interbreed.
Species A group of organisms that have a common ancestry and so share the same
genes and are capable of breeding together to produce fertile offspring - are
reproductively separated from other species.
Discontinuous variation Distinct forms with no intermediate types.

Continuous variation No distinct categories – likely to obtain a bell-shaped curve known as a

normal distribution curve.
Natural selection Darwin’s theory to explain the mechanism of evolution. The process by which
organisms better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce and
pass on their advantageous alleles to their offspring, whilst those less well
adapted fail to do so.
Directional selection Favours one extreme of the range of characteristics and the other extreme is
selected against – shift in population curve

Stabilising selection Favours the mean of the distribution because the extremes are at a selective
disadvantage – frequency of mean phenotype increases
Disruptive selection Favours both extremes of a distribution, selection occurs against the mean –
results in bimodal distribution.
Genetic Drift Causes random changes in allele frequencies in a population due solely to
chance factors.
Genetic bottleneck Severe reduction in population size

Founder effect Isolation of a small group of individuals by migration or a physical barrier.

Speciation Evolution of new species from existing ones. Process by which reproductive
isolation occurs between two populations so that they evolve along their own
separate paths into 2 separate species with different allele frequencies.
Species A group of organisms that have a common ancestry and so share the same
genes and are capable of breeding together to produce fertile offspring - are
reproductively separated from other species.
Allopatric speciation Occurs when populations occupy different environments – they are
geographically separated.
Sympatric speciation Occurs when populations are reproductively isolated within the same
environment.

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 Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance Date ___________

Do Now:

Introduction:
Human cells are diploid – they have two copies of each
chromosome (one from each parent). This means there are two
alleles for each gene, the fixed location of each allele on each
chromosome is called its locus (loci pl.)

Remember – gametes are haploid so they only have one allele for
each gene. When the parental chromosomes from each gamete
come together in the nucleus of a fertilised embryo the diploid
genotype is created. Genetic diagrams can be used to predict the
genotypes (and therefore phenotypes) of offspring that cold be
produced from two parents are crossed. The first set of offspring
of two parents is called the F1 generation.

Monohybrid Inheritance
This inheritance is the simplest as it involves characteristics
which are controlled by a single gene. Monohybrid crosses show
the probability of the alleles of that gene being inherited by
offspring when two parents are crossed.

The outcomes will be different depending on the parental

genotypes, however there are some predictable outcomes. The
phenotypes of the offspring are expressed as phenotypic ratios):
• If both parents homozygous e.g GG and gg = all offspring will
be heterozygous (Gg) ratio = 100% and all have the same
phenotype (e.g green pods)
• If both parents Heterozygous e.g Gg = offspring will be
GG:Gg:gg in a 3:1 ratio of phenotypes (e.g green:yellow pods)

The offspring of the first generation are known as the F2

generation.
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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

The expected ratios are not always what is observed in actual offspring however, there are many
reasons:
• Fertilisation/fusion of gametes is random
• Co-dominance
• Sex-linkage
• Samples taken from small populations

Remember: Meiosis also produces genetic variation in gametes due to:

• Crossing over between chromatids which produces different combinations of alleles
• Independent assortment of chromosomes which produces different combinations of maternal and
paternal alleles

Codominance
Alleles can be codominant if they are both expressed in the phenotype as neither one is recessive. It
can mean that both appear in the phenotype, or they can make a blend. You write the main gene as
the normal capital letter (e.g C for flower colour) then the alleles are superscript (above) and they are
also capitals because neither is recessive (e.g. CR or CW)

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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

Processing Knowledge:

1. What is a locus of an allele?

2. Why are humans diploid organisms?

3. What does F1 mean?

4. What is monohybrid inheritance?

5. What will the offspring be from two homozygous parents?

6. What is the expected ratio of phenotypes be from two heterozygous parents?

7. Why aren’t expected ratios always observed?

8. How does meiosis produce genetic variation in gametes?

9. What are co-dominant alleles?

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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 1 – Monohybrid Inheritance and Codominance

Independent Practice:

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 Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

Do Now:

Introduction:
Multiple allele crosses are when a gene has more than two alleles, it is a type of codominance. There are
many characteristics where there are not simply two versions e.g hair colour, eye colour, coat/fur colour,
and blood group.

The immunoglobulin gene (I) codes for the antigens on the surface of the red blood cells. There are three
types which lead to different antigens: IA, IB, and IO. There are two homologous chromosomes that cause
this, therefore two loci. IA and IB are codominant, but IO is recessive to both. People can be one of four
different blood groups as seen in the table Blood Possible
Group Genotypes
A IA IA IA IO
B IB IB IB IO
AB IA IB
O IO IO

Some examples of inheritance:

Ratio could be 3:1, B:O
Or
Ratio could be 1:1:1:1, AB:B:A:O

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 Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

Dihybrid Crosses
Dihybrid crosses is when two characteristics are inherited
from two different genes which have different alleles. These
can show the probability of inheriting certain combinations of
two different characteristics from their parents.

For example, the gene for seed shape has two alleles: R for
round (dominant) and r for wrinkled (recessive).

The seed colour gene also has two alleles G for yellow seeds
(dominant) and g for green seeds (recessive).

The diagram shows that we express the diploid parental

genotypes using four letters, to represent the two alleles on
each chromosome:
RRGG = homozygous dominant for each gene
rrgg = homozygous recessive for each gene.

The gametes they can produce are simple because they will
only be able to pass on the same allele for each gene: RG and
rg. All offspring will be heterozygous and have round yellow
seeds (RrGg).

It gets more complicated when heterozygous parents are

crossed because there are four possible gametes from each
parent, however there is an expected phenotypic ratio of
9:3:3:1. As before the expected ratio is not always observed
because of other factors, in this case linkage or epistasis.

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

Processing Knowledge:

1. What are multiple allele crosses?

2. Give an example of a characteristic with multiple alleles.

3. What is a dihybrid cross?

4. How many gamete combinations can be produced from a heterozygous dihybrid genotype?

5. What is the expected phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross from heterozygotic parents?

6. What two conditions can cause the observed ratio of dihybrid crosses to be different from the
expected?

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

Independent Practice:
1.

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

Independent Practice:
1.

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

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Lesson 2 – Dihybrid Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

Independent Practice:

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 Lesson 3 – Linkage

Do Now:

Introduction:
Sex Chromosomes
Genetic information for biological sex (male or female) is carried on two sex chromosomes – in
mammals these are the X and Y chromosomes. Males usually have one of each chromosome XY and
females have two copies of the X chromosome XX. Other organisms use different letter combinations!
The punnet square shows that the probability of having male or female offspring is 50%.

If you are asked to predict the probability of getting a female or male child with a certain characteristic
e.g. a blue-eyed girl then you just need to work out the probability of getting a child with the required
characteristic then divide by two as the chance of getting a male or female is always 50%.

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

Sex-linkage
Some characteristics are coded for by genes that are only found on the sex chromosomes not
autosomes, this means that they are sex-linked. There are some specific patterns:

The Y chromosome is This means that most of the sex-linked genes are found on the X
smaller than the X chromosome and are called X-linked e.g colour blindness and
chromosome and carries haemophilia. There are some Y-linked genes but they are rare.
fewer genes

Males only have one copy This means that they only have one allele (copy) of each sex-linked
of the X chromosome gene. This means they express the characteristic of this allele even if
it is recessive. This makes it more likely that males will have recessive
phenotypes than females. This also means that males cannot be
carriers of X-linked genes.
All Y chromosomes are This means that males must always inherit their X chromosome from
inherited from fathers their mothers. So, any sex-linked genes will have been passed on from
female parents.
Females have two copies This means that females will always have two alleles of every X-linked
of the X chromosome gene, this means that unless they have two copies of a recessive
allele they will always have a dominant allele which will be expressed.

Example 1: Haemophilia
A disease in which the blood clots more slowly and can cause slow and persistent internal bleeding
around joints. Caused by faulty recessive x-linked gene which results in a faulty protein being created.

Heterozygous females are carriers of the disease, they can pass on recessive gene to sons who will be
affected.

Affected males can create carrier daughters.

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

Example 2: Colour Blindness

Colour blindness is also a sex-linked disorder caused by a faulty gene found on the X chromosome. If a
female carrier and an affected male have children, there will be a 50% chance of producing a child
with colour blindness or 1:1.

Autosomal Linkage
Genes on autosomes can also be linked. Most genes on separate chromosomes are assorted
independently so the allele received for one gene does not affect the allele received for another, this
results in the typical 1:1:1:1 ratio or 9:3:3:1 ratio for a dihybrid cross as there are four outcomes.

If two genes are found close together on the same chromosome, they are more likely to be inherited
together as they will stay together during independent segregation of chromosomes in meiosis I and
enter the gametes on the same chromosome. This will produce an unexpected ratio as there are only
two outcomes, so there are more gametes which contain the linked genes (parental) and fewer where
they are separated (recombinant). Recombinant gametes will only be formed through crossing over in
meiosis I. So having recombinant gametes with linked genes is evidence that crossing over has
occurred.

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

Crossing over can put new alleles together in combination on the same chromosome. When genes are
far apart, crossing over happens often but crossovers between two genes that are close together are
not very common. This is because when there is a very short distance between genes the "target" for
crossover is very small meaning that few such events will take place.

The closer together the loci are on the chromosome the lower the chance of a chiasma forming
between them to separate them. This information can give an indication of how close two genes are
on a chromosome.

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

Processing Knowledge:

1. What is the probability of having a female child?

2. Some characteristics are sex-linked. What does this mean?

3. How is it possible for a female to be a carrier of a sex-linked condition?

4. Why are X-linked disorders more common in males than females?

5. If a woman carrying an allele for colour-blindness has a child with a man with normal vision what
is the chance that they will have a son who is colour blind?

6. What is an autosome?

7. Why are genes on the same autosome said to be linked?

8. Why does autosomal linkage reduce variation?

9. What evidence from a dihybrid cross could indicate linkage?

10. If recombinant gametes/offspring are present what is this evidence of?

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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Lesson 3 – Linkage

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 Lesson 4 – Epistasis

Do Now:

Introduction:
Many different genes can interact to control the same characteristic, multiple alleles are caused by
mutations at different positions on the gene. When these alleles mask or suppress the expression of
genes at a different locus it is called epistasis. There are a few different examples of interactions, a lot
involve visible phenotypes such as colour which is caused by pigments that can be changed by
enzymes. Enzymes that change the colours are coded for by genes.

Example: Flower pigment in a plant is controlled by two genes. Gene 1 (Y) codes for a yellow pigment,
gene 2 (R) codes for an enzyme that turns the yellow pigment orange. If a plant doesn’t have the Y
allele it doesn’t matter if it has the R allele or not as the flower will remain colourless. Gene 1 is
epistatic to gene 2 as it can mask the expression of gene 2. If the plant did have a dominant Y allele,
then it could stay yellow if it was homozygous recessive (rr) for gene 2 as no enzyme would be made
to convert the yellow pigment to orange.

Genotypes Phenotype
YYRR, YyRR, YyRr Orange
YYrr, Yyrr Yellow
yyRR, yyRr, yyrr White

The environment can also influence colouration, not just epistasis. Example: point colouration due to
temperature as seen in Siamese cats. Partial albinism is caused by a mutation that affects an enzyme
that produces pigmentation (melanin). The mutated enzyme fails to work at normal body temperature
but becomes active in cooler areas of the skin – dark pigments are produced only in the coldest areas
of the body, the extremities e.g tail, feet, ears, and face.

Epistasis will produce different variations on the 9:3:3:1 expected ratio of a dihybrid cross with
unlinked genes.

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

Recessive epistasis occurs when the presence Dominant epistasis occurs when having at least
of two recessive alleles at the first locus will one allele of the gene at the first locus will block
prevent the expression of the allele at the the expression of the gene at the second locus.
second locus. For a cross between This time if you cross a homozygous recessive and
homozygous recessive and homozygous homozygous dominant parent the ratio of F2
dominant parents the ratio in F2 offspring is offspring will be 12:3:1.
9:3:4.
Example: Fur colour in mice Example: Fruit colour of squash
Aa/AA = agouti, aa = solid black AA/Aa = yellow, aa = green
Bb/BB = gene A expressed BB/Bb = masks gene A so no colour (BB/Bb =
bb masks A so no colour (bb = white) white)
So, the phenotype of Gene A is masked by bb = gene A expressed
two recessive alleles of gene B and will only So, the phenotype of Gene A is masked by
be seen if a dominant allele of the B gene is dominant alleles of gene B and will only be seen if
inherited. two recessive alleles of the B gene are inherited.

F1 phenotype

F1 gametes

F2 genotypes

F2 phenotypes

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

Processing Knowledge:

1. What is epistasis?

2. Why is fur colour in mice an example of recessive epistasis?

3. What is the expected ratio of dominant epistasis?

4. Explain dominant epistasis.

5. What is the expected ratio of dominant epistasis?

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

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Lesson 4 – Epistasis

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 Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test Date

Do Now:

Introduction:
When can it be used?
• The chi-squared test is concerned with frequencies i.e. the investigation involves collecting data
about the number of individuals in particular categories. Sample size should be over 20.
• Can be used to compare observed and expected results

What is it normally used for?

• Genetic cross experiments
• Choice chamber behavioural studies
• Counts of the number of individuals of different species

Example chi-squared test scenario:

Expected results: In a monohybrid genetic cross experiment with a homozygous dominant and a
homozygous recessive parent we expected a phenotypic ratio of 3:1.

Observed results: We obtain a total of 40 plants; 32 with red flowers and 8 with white flowers. We
want to know if the phenotypic ratios are due to chance, or if the outcome differs significantly from
the expected monohybrid ratio.

Null hypothesis: The null hypothesis for the χ2 test always states that there will be no significant
difference between the observed results and the expected results (no difference between the
expected and observed phenotypic ratios).

Calculate Chi-squared (χ2) value: using the formula

Calculate expected: Total of 40 so 3:1 ratio = 30:10

÷ ÷ ÷
Calculate (observed – expected)2 expected: (32-30)2 30 and (8-10)2 10
Σ (Sum) = 0.133 + 0.4 = 0.53
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χ2 = 0.53
Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

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Lesson 5 – Chi-Squared Test

Independent Practice:

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 Lesson 6 – Population Genetics Date _____________

Do Now:

Introduction:
A population is a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular
time that can potentially interbreed. The total number of alleles that are present in that population
would be known as the gene pool and the allelic frequency would be the proportion of a certain allele
in the gene pool relative to the other alleles for that gene expressed as a decimal or percentage.

The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to estimate the frequency of alleles, genotypes and
phenotypes in a population to see whether any changes are occurring over time. The principle states
that the allele frequency in a population will not change from one generation to the next if the
following assumptions are true:
• That no mutations occur (no new alleles are created)
• There is no movement of alleles into or out of the population due to migration of organisms
• The population is suitable large
• There is no selection occurring (so all alleles have an equal chance of being inherited)
• Mating is random (all possible genotypes can breed with all others)

If frequencies do change between generations then it suggests that there is an influence, e.g selection
of some kind.

There are two formulae that you need to know:

p + q = 1.0 and p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0

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Lesson 6 – Population Genetics

This makes sense because:

P = the frequency of the dominant allele (A)
Q = the frequency of the recessive allele (a)
So:
P2 = frequency of AA (homozygous dominant)
2pq = frequency of Aa (heterozygous)
q2 = frequency of aa (homozygous recessive)

Both are designed to be used where a gene has two alleles.

To work out frequencies you need to know which allele is
dominant and which is recessive then you can work all the
rest out.

Allele Frequency
When looking to calculate allele frequency e.g the frequency of a dominant allele relative to a
recessive one then you would use p + q = 1.0. If a frequency of an allele is 0 then no organisms have
that allele, if it 1 then it is the only allele in the population. If it id 0.5 then it makes up half the alleles
in the gene pool, the other allele for that gene will make up the other half.

Example: The frequency of a dominant allele is 80%. What is the frequency of the recessive allele?

So p = 0.8
We can now work out the frequency of q, the recessive allele, using the above equation.
0.8 + q = 1 (100%). So 1 - 0.8 = q. So, q = 0.2
q allele would therefore account for 20%.

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Lesson 6 – Population Genetics

Tips:
For If the frequencies for two alleles add up to more than one the then they are not alleles for the
same gene. If they come to less than one, then there are more than two alleles for that gene.

You can use these equations on codominant alleles or if you don’t know which allele is dominant or
recessive. Just assign each allele to a letter and if you are consistent then it will work out ok.

Task Question Method/Equation to use

Predicting There are two alleles for flower colour (R Looking for allele frequency of
allele and r), so there are three possible recessive allele
frequency genotypes-RR, Rr and rr. If the frequency of
genotype RR is 0.56 in Population X, what So use the simple equation to find q
is the allele frequency of r?
Predicting If there are two alleles for flower colour (R rr is the homozygous genotype so it
genotype and r), there are three possible genotypes is equal to q2
frequency RR, Rr and rr. In Population Y, the
frequency of genotype RR is 0.34 and the So use the large equation to find q2
frequency of genotype Rr is 0.27. Find the
frequency of rr in Population Y.
Predicting If R is dominant and r is recessive, then a The frequency of plants with red
phenotype plant with a red flower phenotype could flowers in Population Z is equal to
frequency have the genotype RR or the genotype Rr. the genotype frequencies of RR and
Plants with the genotype rr will have a Rr added together.
white flower phenotype. In population Z,
the frequency of the genotype Rr is 0.23 So use the large equation to find p2
and the frequency of the genotype rr is = 2pq
0.42. Find the frequency of the red flower
phenotype in population Z.
Predicting the The frequency of cystic fibrosis (genotype Need to find the frequency of the
% of a ff) in the UK is currently approximately 1 heterozygous genotype Ff
population that birth in 2500. Use this information to So use both equations to find 2pq
will have a estimate the percentage of people in the (You can't just use the large one as
certain UK that are cystic fibrosis carriers (Ff). you only know one of the three - q²)
genotype
Show if If the frequency of cystic fibrosis is Need to estimate the frequency of
external factors measured 50 years later it might be found the recessive allele in the
are having an to be 1 birth in 4500. Use this information population
effect on allele to decide if the Hardy-Weinberg principle So use 1/4500 = q2 to find q
frequency applies to this population. If this has changed then HW no
longer applies

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 Lesson 6 – Population Genetics

Independent Practice:

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 Lesson 6 – Population Genetics

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 Lesson 6 – Population Genetics

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 Lesson 6 – Population Genetics

Independent Practice:

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 Lesson 6 – Population Genetics

Independent Practice:

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 Lesson 7 – Natural Selection Date ________________

Do Now:

Introduction:
Causes of variation
Variation is the differences that exist between individuals in a population, most variation is due to
individuals having different combinations of different alleles producing different phenotypes. Variation
can be caused by environmental or genetic causes, but most is caused by a combination of both:

Environmental Genetic
 Climate = All  Mutation - Random changes in DNA or changes to structure or
 Availability of number of chromosomes
food/water = animals  Meiosis – through independent assortment of homologous
 Intensity of light, chromosomes creating variation in gametes and crossing over
availability of water and creating different allele combinations on chromosomes
nutrients in soil = plants  Fertilisation of gametes – this is random, and the new
 Humans = lifestyle combinations of genes are produced by chance.
Natural Selection
Natural selection is one process that drives evolution, the other is genetic drift. In a population not all
organisms will survive and be able to reproduce (they will have low fitness). Some individuals will die
or fail to reproduce due to predation, disease or competition for resources (food, water, space, mates,
light). These are known as selection pressures.

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Organisms with variations that make them more likely to survive are said to have a selective
advantage. They are more likely to reproduce and pass on those alleles to the next generation, so
these favourable alleles increase in frequency in the gene pool. Evolution is the change in the
frequency of a gene in the population. If selection pressures are different for different populations,
then evolution can occur, and new species can emerge once the populations can no longer interbreed.

Summary of how natural selection drives evolution:

1. There is variation in a population
2. Due to mutation some individuals have favourable alleles which help them to survive and
reproduce
3. They pass on these favourable alleles to offspring, so the frequency of these alleles increases
4. If no interbreeding with other populations occurs, then new species can be formed

Variation in a population can be shown as a bell-shaped curve of the frequency of phenotypes.

Natural selection favours allele combinations which produce advantageous phenotypes depending on
the environment. Changes will promote or eliminate certain genotypes and therefore phenotypes.

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Types of Natural Selection

Stabilising Directional Disruptive

 Individuals with  Individuals with alleles for  Individuals with alleles for
characteristics towards the a single extreme extreme phenotypes are
middle of the range are phenotype are more likely more likely to survive and
more likely to survive and to survive and reproduce reproduce.
reproduce.  Occurs in fluctuating
 Occurs in response to
 Occurs when the environments which favour
environmental change
environment isn’t changing more than one phenotype

Mean stays in the middle but Mean moves in a direction away Mean in the middle decreases
the range of phenotypes is from the original (mean= 6 and range increases (opposite of
reduced. before) stabilising)
Example: Example: Example:
Robins typically lay four eggs Light coloured moths are better In a hypothetical population grey
because larger clutches may be camouflaged against clean trees and white and grey rabbits are
harder to feed and result in whereas dark coloured moths better able to blend in with their
malnourished chicks whereas are better camouflaged in a rocky habitat in the Himalayas
smaller clutches may result in sooty environment. As the than white rabbits, this results in
not enough offspring hatching. industrial revolution produced diversifying selection as the
Stabilising selection maintains more sooty trees in England the number of white rabbits reduces
the average clutch size of four peppered moth population due to predation.
eggs. shifted from light to dark

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Processing Knowledge:

1. What are the three causes of genetic variation?

2. What three factors can prevent an organism from reproducing?

3. Define evolution

4. What is meant by selective advantage?

5. Explain how competition, predation and disease can alter allele frequency in a gene pool over
time.

6. Explain the differences between stabilising and disruptive selection.

7. What data evidence could you use to suggest directional selection was occurring in a population?

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Natural Selection

Independent Practice:

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 Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation Date ______________

Do Now:

Introduction:
Speciation
Speciation is when a new species arises from an existing species due to certain conditions. It occurs
when populations of the same species become reproductively isolated from each other, this means
that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

Natural selection can result in new species but so can speciation and genetic drift because they also
result in changes in the allele and phenotype frequency. There are two types of speciation which
cause reproductive isolation:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Allopatric Speciation Sympatric Speciation

 Geographical isolation occurs - populations  Formation of a new species from a

are separated by a physical barrier population without geographical isolation.
 No interbreeding can occur, so gene pools  Random mutation or change in behaviour
are separated. prevents individuals from breeding with
 Different environmental conditions can occur others that do not have the same
causing the populations to be affected by mutation/behaviour.
different selection pressures.  No interbreeding can occur as the groups are
 Different mutations will occur, and different reproductively isolated.
advantageous alleles will allow organisms to  Over time this leads to a change in allele
survive and reproduce passing these on to frequency in the different populations
offspring.  Eventually phenotype frequencies will
 Over time this leads to different changes in change, and the populations will become
allele frequency in the different populations reproductively isolated from each other so
 Eventually phenotype frequencies will speciation will occur.
change, and the populations will become
reproductively isolated from each other so
speciation will occur.
Example: Very rare as it is difficult for a section of the
Darwins finches which became separated on population to become completely reproductively
islands of the Galapagos with different food isolated from the rest without geographical
resources. Over time their beaks changed as they isolation. Example: mutation causing polyploidy
specialised to eat one type of seed, this eventually (change to the number of chromosomes).
led to them becoming separate species.

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 Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Mechanisms of reproductive isolation

Reproductive isolation occurs because changes in alleles, genotypes or phenotypes prevent individuals
from successfully breeding with individuals which don’t have the changes. These can include:

Temporal changes
• Different breeding/flowering seasons or becoming sexually active at different times of the year – no
breeding can occur as they are not active at the same time
• Feeding times e.g nocturnal vs diurnal – no breeding can occur as they are not awake at the same
time

Mechanical changes
• Physical mismatch of reproductive parts – change in size, shape or function can prevent successful
mating
• Gamete incompatibility – e.g sperm killed in female’s reproductive tract or polyploidy (mutation
causing different number of chromosomes) prevents gametes from fusing and producing viable
embryo.

Behavioural changes
Different courtship displays e.g change in song – prevents members of the opposite sex being attracted
to each other so no mating occurs

Genetic Drift
Evolution occurs by natural selection but it can also occur due
to genetic drift. Genetic drift is not influenced by
environmental factors creating selection pressures which
determine the survival and reproduction ability of organisms,
what alleles get passed on is due to random chance. It is
often due to only some of each generation in the population
reproducing.

Mechanism:
1. Individuals in a population show variation in genotypes
2. By chance an allele for one genotype is passed on to more
offspring than the others. So the number of individuals
with this allele increases in frequency in the population.
3. If by chance this same allele is passed on more often over
repeated generations then this can lead to evolution as
the allele changes in frequency in the population.

This is more apparent in small populations because chance

changes have a greater influence on the gene pool. It can also
be the reason for changes in allele frequency between
isolated populations and could eventually lead to
reproductive isolation and speciation.

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Evolutionary Diversity
Speciation and evolutionary change over millions of years has produced the diversity of life on Earth
today. All species evolved from a population of single celled organisms, the population was divided,
and the new populations evolved into separate species. This was repeated over a long period of time
to create millions of new species. This can be seen in the evolutionary tree of life.

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Processing Knowledge:

1. What is speciation?

2. What is allopatric speciation?

3. What is sympatric speciation?

4. What are three ways that organisms can become reproductively isolated.

5. Explain how behavioural changes may result in reproductive isolation.

6. What is genetic drift?

7. Explain how evolution has led to the diversity of life on earth

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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Lesson 7 – Genetic Drift and Speciation

Independent Practice:

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 Checklist Inheritance and Evolution

Independent Practice:
Specification Area and Topic RAG Knowledge Flashcards Exam
Dump Question
3.7.1 Inheritance
 Genotype
 Phenotype
 Alleles
 Diploid organism alleles
 Monohybrid crosses
 Dihybrid crosses
 Sex-linkage
 Autosomal linkage,
 Multiple alleles
Paper 2 and  Epistasis.
3  Chi-squared (x2) test
3.7.2 Populations
 Population definition
Topic 7  Gene pool and allele
Genetics, frequency
populations,  Hardy–Weinberg principle
evolution
3.7.3 Evolution may lead to
and
speciation
ecosystems  Variation in phenotype due
(3.7.1 – to genetic and
3.7.4) environmental factors.
 Predation, disease and
competition for the means
of survival
 Selective advantages
 Stabilising selection
 Directional selection
 Disruptive selection
 Evolution
 Reproductive separation
 Allopatric and sympatric
speciation
 Genetic drift
 Allele and phenotype
frequency
 Evolutionary change

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