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THEORY AND PRACTICE
OF DESIGN.
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/designtheoryOOjackrich
THEORY AND PRACTICE
OF DESIGN.
AN ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK ON DECORATIVE ART.

BEING A SEQUEL TO THE AUTHOR'S

"LESSONS ON DECORATIVE DESIGN."

BY

FRANK G. JACKSON,
LECTURER ON
PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT, ADVANCED DESIGN, AND TEACHER OF TECHNICAL ART
PROCESSES, ETC., IN THE BIRMINGHAM MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF ART.

Seven Hundred Illustrations.

LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, Ld

1894.

[All rights reserved,']

 HKisw
73

F. M. EVANS AND CO., LIMITED,

PRINTERS,
CRYSTAL PALACE, S.E.
MR

TO THE MEMORY OF THE LATE

F. W. MOODY
THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.
 PREFACE.

The kind way in which a former book of mine,

" Lessons on Decorative Design," was received by
critics, teachers, and students, has led me to yield to

a widely expressed desire that I should write a more

advanced work on the same subject. Hence the present

volume, which, I trust, may be of service to those for

whom it is specially designed. Like the previous
volume, it does not pretend to be a book of designs,
but a book on design — not a picture book, but a

school text-book.
The illustrations and diagrams have been selected
and designed with the view of explaining principles
and directing practice. Many of them are reproductions
of impromptu sketches drawn on the blackboard while
lecturing to my classes. Throughout the work I have
insisted on the observance of principles, regard for

construction, and the law of development. These are

 PREFACE.

necessary aids in the infant stage of a student's edu-

cation. They will not seem so important to him as
years advance. With the increase of knowledge and

experience he will come to see how far rule and precept

may be wisely relaxed, and will enter on the enjoyment
of that true freedom which is the heritage of the well-
grounded student.

FRANK G. JACKSON.
March, 1894.
 CTlTIYEHSIT-5

CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introductory i

Object of the book — Tendency of modern Decorative Art — The prin-

ciples of irregularity and order, p. 2 — Importance of principlesfirst

— Fitness to purpose illustrated,/. 3.

CHAPTER I.

Elementary Forms and Methods of Arrangement 6

The evolution of lines and figures used in ornament, p. 7 — Simple

methods of laying out ornament : diapering, chequering, spotting,
powdering, striping, banding, panelling, p, 10— The development of
the diaper,/. 13 — The difference between spotting and powdering
explained — Imbrication and vermiculation,/. 19 — Some applications
of the foregoing — Natural examples of decoration by spotting and
striping, p. 20.

CHAPTER II.

Application of Ornament 22

Suitability of decoration to particular purposes considered — The

characteristics of the surfaces of a wall and a textile —The nature
of patterns applicable to curtains, p. 23 —The division of the wall
surfaces of rooms and the distribution of ornament,/. 24 — Plinth,
 —

CONTENTS.

dado, wall-vail, frieze, cornice, pilasters, and panels their relative

:

structural value— Various proportional divisionsand their effects

upon the appearance of rooms,/. 27 — Practical considerations in
designing wall-papers,/. 28 — " Level" and "drop" repeats explained,
p.30— Some methods of verifying " repeats," p. 31 — The colouring of
wall-papers — The nature of patterns best suited to the process of
block printing, p. 33 — The frieze structure and ornamental
: its

treatment, p. 35 — Borders their uses

: their relation to panels
; ;

and general treatment,^, yi — The setting out of ornamental borders

on structural lines considered, p. 46 — Pilasters their structural :

value and their decoration, p. 50 — The different methods of setting

out ornament on pilasters compared — The proportional, spacing
out, and the distribution of elements employed illustrated,/. 52
The cornice and mouldings their composition and decoration, p. 53
:

— The horizontal surfaces of a room, ceiling and floor, p. 55 The —

function of ceilings and their suitable decoration different :

—
methods of setting out, p. 56 Arched, domed, and coffered ceilings,
—
p. 59 The characteristics of the floor surface Decoration by —
parquetry and carpets, p. 60— Lines and tones considered in
reference to the expression of even flatness — Superiority of
Oriental carpet designs over European ones — The difference
pointed out, p. 63 — Harmony between the walls and floor of a
room, p. 64.

CHAPTER III.

Methods of Expression 66

Expression by line, by surface massing or spacing, and by relief-

Outline for the expression of form, painting for expression of
surface quantities, modelling and carving for the expression of bulk
—The importance of good outline, p. 67 — Mr. Ruskin on the proper
use of outline — The right and wrong use of thick and thin lines
in outline drawing,/. 68— Brush expression : neglect of it in Art
Schools —Japanese power of drawing developed by the early use of
 —

CONTENTS,

PAGE
the brush — Quotation from Mr. Ruskin on the use of the brush,
p. 72 — Different methods in brush work — Uniform, graduated,
juxtaposed, and superposed tones, p. 75 — Modelled and carved
work : —
two distinctive kinds, p. 76 Different degrees of relief
The effect of lighting —
on relief work, p. 77 Relief work in relation
to material : terra-cotta, light and dark woods, bronze, iron, gold
and silver, p. 80 — Relief work heightened by colour, p. 82 — Relief
work with the ground perforated, p. 83 Pierced work — : principles
of, and its influence on other forms of decoration, p. 84 — Stencilling,
sgraffito, and gesso decoration,^. 85.

CHAPTER IV.

Elements of Ornament 87

The elements of '

ornament classified — Geometrical elements, frets,

etc., p. 88.

CHAPTER V.

Architectural Elements 90

Definition of Architecture — The influence of Architecture on Orna-

mental Art, p. 91 — The modification of architectural details to suit
special purposes illustrated by a comparison of the Greek and
Roman Doric columns, p. 92 —The importance of studying Archi-
tecture — Principles — Ornamental
derived from Architecture, p. 94
details derived — The volute scroll
from the same source origin : its

and itsmodifications in ornament — Architectural forms in iron-

work :the baluster, broken pediment, p. 96 — Cartouches,
etc.,

their origin and use in ornament, p. 99 — The development of the

cartouche from cut paper — Historical examples of the modification
of the cartouche — Combination of the cartouche with strap work,

p, 100.
 A

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.
PAGE
Industrial Elements 101

The difference between architectural and industrial elements is one of

degree rather than principle, p. 102 — The ornamental employment
of industrial objects classified : aesthetic, mnemonic, and symbolic
—Terms explained, examples given and described —The difference
between a monogram and a cipher explained, 108 — The use of p.
draperies, knots, and ribbons in grouping tools and musical instru-
ments—The flying ends of ribbons : their treatment,/. 1 10— Historic
examples of the decorative grouping of armour, tools, etc., described.

CHAPTER VII.
Vegetable Elements 112

Plants should not have a literal interpretation — Quotation from Sir

Gardiner Wilkinson — The necessity of studying the ideal forms of
leaves and the life-history of plants, p. 113— Personal research in
the natural world for motives and suggestions essential,/. 114—
Natural ornamental "start-points" versus artificial ones— Different
forms of roots and their ornamental treatment — The principle of
natural growth and its application to ornament, p. 116 — The
importance of studying the growth of plants, branches, stems, etc.

—Abstracted lines from trees, leaves, and flowers, and ornaments

built up upon them,/. 118— Patterns based upon lines abstracted
from cloud and wave forms, p. 121 — Bud forms in spring : lilac,

sycamore, ash, and horse-chestnut, p. 122 —The principle of flower-

growth : the suggestiveness of the different forms of inflorescence
and their application to ornament, p. 124 — The decorative quality
of seed vessels, p. 126— Sea- weeds and shells : their ornamental
character, p. 129 — The decorative value of fungi and mosses —
lesson from the study of ferns under the microscope, in the enrich-
ment of surface by the superposition of detail,/. 131 — Ornamental
lines in cut wood,/. 132 —
The revival and decadence of "acanthus"
foliage : characteristics of Renaissance, Louis Quatorze, " Rococo,"
and Louis Seize foliage,/. 134— The festoon its origin, principles,
:

and various treatments historical examples described,/. 137.

:
 —

CONTENTS. xiii

CHAPTER VIII.
PAGE
Animal Elements 142

The early use of animal forms in decoration : their symbolic employ-

ment, p. 143 —Animals in Egyptian and Assyrian Art — Fabulous
animal creations in Art explained : Griffin, Chimsera, Dragon,
Phoenix, Pegasus, Sea-Horse, Winged Sea-Horse, etc., p. 144
The difficulty of using animals in ornament The necessity of —
analysing animal forms for the ornamental lines existing in their
composition, p. 148 —The amalgamation of animal forms with
ornament — Birds in ornament : their decorative value — Examples
of the ornamental treatment of quadrupeds and birds described,
p. 150 —Wings : their and feather arrangement Com-
structure —
parison of the wings of a bird and bat, p. 152 Historic examples —
of the application of wings to human figures and animals, and of
their ornamental treatment, p. 154 —
Decoration on the plumage
of birds suggesting the setting out of ornament ; examples given
and described, p. 1 56 —The decorative value of insects, butterflies,
moths, etc., p. 158 — Fishes as decorative material: typical forms,

arrangement of fins, and the ornamental treatment of fishes,^. 160

— Snakes and lizards : their use in ornament,^. 161.

CHAPTER IX.

The Human Figure 162

The influence of the figure element in Ornamental Art — Method of

studying the figure for ornamental purposes and for composition of
line,^. 163 —The necessity of analysis mistakes in drawing pointed
:

out, p. 164— Application of the figure to the filling of spaces,/. 167

— Demi-figures terminating in foliage, reasons for, and probable
origin,^. 170 — Composition of figures with and without ornament,
p. 172— Figures used as architectural supports : Caryatides, Tela-
mones, Termini,^. 174 — Application of wings to the human form ;

the Egyptian and Assyrian methods, p. 176— Fabulous creatures,

partly human and partly animal : their symbolic meanings explained,

p. 177.

,- '-
 —

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER X.

PAGE
The Evolution of Industrial Objects— Cups, Vases, Etc. ... 182

The origin of vessels of capacity : cups and vases,/. 183 — Modification

of an elementary form for receiving water from a spring, to the
purposes of easy transit, p. 184 — Early stages in the development
of the beaker from a natural type, p. 185 —The reasons for the
further enrichment of their forms by alteration of outline, etc.,

p. 186 —Various forms of beakers described,/. 188 — Hanaps : their

characteristics and development ; the stem, knop, cover, and finial,

p. 189 — Methods of enrichment arising out of the nature of the

material in which these vessels were wrought, p. 190— Description of
various forms of hanaps belonging to different periods, p. 193
Vases : how developed and their characteristics — Enrichment of
the contour of vases by subdivision —The effect of mouldings,
p. 194— Illustrations of various forms of vases described —The
development of carafes and bottle shapes, p. 196— The chalice
developed from the primitive bowl form— Reasons for the raised
stem, introduction of the knop, the extension of the base, and the
shaping of its plan, p. 197— The enrichment of the various parts of
the chalice — Description of examples,/. 200 — How jugs and ewers
appear to have been developed— The development of the lip into

a spout form, /. 201 — The application of handles to pouring vessels,

/. 202 —
Different forms of jugs and ewers described, p. 204
Tankards and flagons developed from covered beakers Their —
characteristics, /. 205 —Various forms of tankards, and a flagon
described, /. 206 — Classification of handles belonging to hollow
and carrying purposes— The essential
vessels, for lifting, pouring,
parts of handles from which decoration is developed, /. 208— The
object of tracing the development of the foregoing varieties of cups,
etc. —To the designer Nature should be the source of inspiration
How natural forms should be used, p. 210— Varieties of form
obtained by adopting the natural methods of lateral, vertical, and
 CONTENTS.

partial expansion, and the use of controlling shapes to regulate the

details of a complex form, p. 212 — Proportion, stability, variety,
and contrast necessary to pleasant proportion, repose, and unity-—
Proportion in laying out decoration, p. 214 — Four different ways of
setting out surface decoration on vases — Stability, true and —
false

On the use of figures as supports in industrial objects,^. 215.

 ~

INIVERSIT

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE PAGE
i.— Diagrams of Diapering, Chequering, Striping,
Panelling, Spotting, and Powdering n
ii.—Varieties of Formal Diapers 12

in.—The Development of Free Diapers 15

iii#. — Method of arranging the Pattern of a Free Diaper 16

iv.— Historic Diapers, and their Construction 17

v.— Designs illustrating the application of Chequering,

Spotting, Striping, and Panelling to defined
spaces 18

vi.— Stripe Patterns applied to Curtains 25

vii. — Horizontal and Vertical Divisions of the Wall

Surface of Rooms 26

viii. Historic Examples of Friezes and Pilasters ...

39

ix.— Designs showing the relation of Borders to Panels 43

X « 55 53 3> 3) 44

XL— Classification of Borders according to treatment 48

xil— Decoration of Ceilings 57

 —

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE PAGE
xiii. — Diagrams showing the right and wrong Decorative
Treatments of Floors, Parquetry, and Carpets 6i

xiv.— Illustrations of Line, Brush, and Relief Expression,

and the right and wrong treatments of pierced
Work 71

xv.— Examples of Ornament expressed by the direct

use of the Brush 75

xvi.— Effect of Lighting on Relief-work 79

xvii. Examples of Architectural Details, and of Orna-

ments DERIVED FROM THEM, ETC 93

xviil— Examples of Ribbons, Knots, and the development

of Cartouches from Cut Paper 97

xix.— Historic Examples of Cartouches 98

xx. Symbols and Mnemonic Signs, Monograms, and

Ciphers 105

xxi. Historic Examples of the use of Industrial Objects

in Decoration 109

xxii. — Diagrams of Roots, and their O rnamental Treatment i i 5

xxiii. — Drawings of Trees, Clouds, and Waves, and of

Ornaments derived from them, etc 117

xxiv. Ornamental Lines abstracted from Leaves and

Flowers, and their Ornamental Use 119

xxv.— Sketches from Nature, from which the lines on

THE PRECEDING PLATE WERE TAKEN 120

xxvi.— Spring Leaf-buds of the Lilac, Horse Chestnut,

Sycamore, and Ash Trees 123

xxvii. — Diagrams of the Inflorescence of Plants, and of

their application to ornament 125

xxvi ii. —Various Fruit-forms suitable for Ornament ... 127

 — 1

LIST OF PLATES. xix

xxix.— Sketches of Sea-weeds and Shells 129

xxx.— Drawings of Fungi and Mosses from Gerard's

"Herbal" 130

xxxl— Drawings from Ferns under the Microscope, in

illustration of Natural Decoration by Spotting,
Striping, etc. 133

xxxii.— Sketches of Historic Ornament, illustrating the

Development and Decadence of Acanthus Foliage 135

xxxiii. — Examples of Festoons, Greek, Roman, and Italian 140

xxxiv.— Fabulous Animals, etc 145

xxxv.— Examples of the Composition of Quadrupeds and

Birds with Ornament ... 151

xxxvi.— Wings and Wing Structure 153

xxxvil— Historic Examples of the Application of Wings

to Human and Animal Forms 155

xxxviii.— Drawings of a Snake, Lizard, and Insect— The

Markings on a Butterfly's Wing and the Plumage
of Birds, with their Ornamental Application... 157

xxxix.— Fishes, with their Ornamental Treatment ... 159

xl.— Analytic Lines of the Human Figure 165

xli. —Examples of the Adaptation of Figures to

variously shaped spaces 1 69
xLii.— Examples of the Composition of the Human Figure
with and without ornament, and of figures
as Structural Supports 173

xli 11. Sketches of fabulous Human Creatures 179

xliv.— Illustrations of the Development of the Beaker 187

xlv.— hanaps of different periods 19

xlvi. —Vases of different Periods and Countries 195

xx LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE PAGE
xlvii. — Chalices, with Diagrams of Development 199

xlviil— Ewers and Jugs of various shapes; Diagrams of

Lips and Lines of Composition 203

xlix.—Tankards and Flagon : Illustrations of Orna-

mental Handles 207

l.— Examples of Vases, etc., derived from Nature —

Diagrams illustrating Proportion and the
methods of setting out Ornament on Vases ... 213
 INTRODUCTORY.

a former work, " Lessons on Decorative Design,"

IN I endeavoured to show the origin of decorative
art, that it mainly arose out of construction, and that
subsequent developments were the result of the en-
deavours to combine with inventive forms other details
borrowed from Nature by the active co-operation of
man's imitative and inventive powers. The book being
an elementary one, the student's attention was only
invited to the consideration of ornamental elements,
either composed of simple constructive forms of a
geometrical character, or derived from the vegetable
world. In the following pages I propose to treat

further of these, and also of others not previously

considered. Some of the latter claim a higher rank
in decorative art ; the principles advocated in the
B
ff
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

earlier book will also be applied and more fully

elucidated.

The history of ornament shows that, while it is in the

main based upon construction, it has been largely and

splendidly developed by the addition of a vast number
of elements derived from every part of the natural world.
Modern decorative art has, however, been made so to
depend upon natural objects for its material that it is in

constant peril of losing its essential characteristics. This

danger arises, not so much from the fact of the employ-
ment of natural forms, as from the temptation to indulge
in realism —a temptation due to the great advance made
in imitative art. The principle of irregularity, the chief

characteristic of the picturesque, has thus been unduly

emphasized to the almost complete neglect of the principle
of order, which is the basis of decorative art inherited
from construction. Giving way to the imitative tempta-
tion in ornamental art leads to various bad results.

Observe, for instance, the decoration of many modern

rooms, the walls, ceilings, doors, etc., covered, in childish
wilfulness, with a variety of realistic " patterns." While
the effect produced may be regarded as a "new depar-
ture," it will suggest, to the mind of any one who really
possesses but an elementary knowledge of ornamental
art, that the pictorial treasures of the household have
deserted their proper boundaries, and settled down in a
 INTRODUCTORY.

haphazard fashion in utter disregard of that useful maxim,

" A place for everything, and everything in its place."

A careful study of the development of art, particularly

in its earliest stages, will correct many a false notion

respecting this matter, and will tend, more than anything
else, towards the formation of style. Another good to

be obtained by such study will be a clearer perception of

first principles, i.e. the causes which have led to certain
forms in art. Industrial designers are so accustomed to
the elaborate decorative objects which are current, that
the reasons for the particular forms they have assumed are
rarely sought after; and, if a new design is wanted for an
old purpose, a mere alteration or rearrangement of parts

is held to be sufficient to effect a new pattern. Take an

illustration from the time of the transition of the old oil

lamp to the modern gasalier. This

transition occurred about forty years

ago, when gas was gradually sup-

planting oil as an illuminant in private

houses. The constituents of the oil

lamp were : a body with projecting
arms and chains for suspending from r~
the ceiling, in the centre a reservoir to
hold the supply of oil, with outlets to
feed the burners by gentle and regular percolation (see a).

Here the conditions attached to the use of oil were well

B 2
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

met. But, when gas had to be used, the designers failed

to grasp the nature of the new conditions, and simply

adapted the old and current form of lamp, retaining parts
that were wholly unnecessary. They introduced a tube
down the centre, through the obsolete
oil reservoir, with a gas box under-
neath ; from this gas box smaller tubes
were laid in the arms, whilst the taps,

for turning on the gas, were awkwardly

placed at the top (see b). Now, if a

AC ) designer had considered the pecu-

liarities of gas and the mode of sup-
plying it, he would have seen that all

that was absolutely necessary were (i) a tube which

would serve the double purpose of suspending the
lamp and conveying the gas, (2) projecting arms, not

necessarily horizontal as was required in the oil lamp,

and (3) a tap to turn on and regulate the light. There
would be no reason either for chains or vase, or for
retaining the form of "spout," as the arm was technically

called. Doubtless economic reasons had something to

do with the retention of these useless forms, as manu-
facturers would naturally be desirous of utilising old
u patterns." But this does not explain all, for we find

that, when new patterns were made, they ran upon the
old lines of the oil lamp, and that the useless parts were
 INTRODUCTORY.

repeated in a more or less objectionable form. The

chain, for instance, whose real office was gone, was
made of flimsy stamped metal, and was hung in the place

as before —a convicted sham, unable to support any

moderate weight. Although many of the parts came to
be regarded as superfluous, it is how slowly
astonishing
they were given up. Even to this hour many gasaliers
show the survival of the vase-shaped reservoir —a sur-
vival, not of the fittest, but of the reverse.
 CHAPTER I.

ELEMENTARY FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

WHILE it is proposed in the present treatise to

direct the student's attention to advanced
studies in decorative art, it will be necessary to revert
to an elementary stage in order to make the course
of lessons now entered upon as complete as possible,
and to emphasize, more fully than the limits of the
former elementary work allowed, certain particulars

connected with this part of the subject.

In Chapter II. of " Lessons on Decorative Design"

was shown the method of evolving patterns from a basis

of crossed lines ; and attention was directed to the

development of forms for enclosing ornament, to the
analysis of those forms, and to the lines involved for
the purposes of rearrangement. From this part of our
 FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

subject we propose to start. The simple forms generated

on a network of lines crossing each other at different
inclinations may be enumerated as follows : first, those
which result from tracing along the lines placed at right
angles to one another and at
equal distances, the square and
the diamond or lozenge, aa ;

secondly, the inclusion of two

or more squares of the net-

work, oblongs, bb ; thirdly, figures

produced by the use of oblique lines —^= ^25D

cutting across the squares and oblongs,
TRIANGLES.
Lines placed at an angle of 30°, and crossed by

vertical ones, thus ^ yield the hexagon.

Lines placed at 45 , crossed by vertical and horizontal

ones, give the octagon Next come

 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

certain rectilinear ornamental lines, deducible from the

network — such as the embattled -4-1 D U th<

CHEVRON Or ZIGZAG v Sr^ the BLUNTED

the INTER
ZIGZAG
LAC

and the fret p The softening of the

preceding figures and lines gives us a curved series.

The octagon becomes a circle

| J
the oblong

and some proportions of the lozenge are transformed

F~
intO ELLIPTICAL SHAPES 3
while the combination of the ellipse and the circle

gives the l 1 oval. The '

embattled and zigzag

are changed into the wave

MEANDER
xnru and scallop
 FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

The scallop, placed in series, produces the scale pattern

to which the term imbrication-

is applied. The fret becomes

which, according to the method of arrangement, gives the

WAVE /c)/?)/?) ° r RUNNING SCROLL - /c)VQ/c)

The interlacing is altered into a double wave or

meander ^XTZZ>CZZ>C By working upon a basis of

circles and ellipses, instead of upon the basis of a recti-

linear network, similar results will be obtained ; but,

in addition, other ornamental elements will be more

directly evolved —such as the chain C3JZSZ5— t ^ie

CABLE GUILLOCHE etc.

Here, then, we have, in brief, most of the elemental

forms and lines which are found to be constant in all

styles of ornamental art, and upon which elaborate details

are supported. Illustrations of this will be found on

Plate X. Again, the method adopted for developing
lines and forms from a network can also be used to
io THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

demonstrate some of the methods of laying out orna-

ment. By simply filling in each mesh we
square
obtain, by simple repetition, an arrangement known
as diapering (see Figs, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, Plate I.). By
omitting alternate squares we get chequering (see

Figs. 6 and 7) ; Figs, 8, 9, 10, show the principle of

chequering and diapering combined. In allowing

larger intervals between the fillings we obtain two
further, but similar, modes of arrangement, known as
spotting and powdering (see Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22). If

we fill in the spaces in rows, leaving rows of voids, we

get striping (Figs. 11, 12, 13, and 14), narrower and
broader varieties being distinguished by the terms lining
and banding. The character of lining will be better
illustrated by simply emphasizing only one set of the
cross lines of the network. When this is done in two
directions we have the plaid (Fig. 18). The use of
striping and banding leads to another method of laying
out, namely, panelling (see Figs. 15, 16, 17).

We will now detail some of these systems of ar-

ranging patterns. First, the Diaper, This consists of

a repeated pattern, closely fitting and covering a surface
without intervals : it is an " all-over " arrangement of
formal character ; its severer forms consist in the details
of the pattern being confined to the allotted spaces, and
not overrunning their boundaries. The fundamental
 Plate I.

l2" STRIPING & BHNDN6 "* 14-

11m M m IS m n m m m
M m n M El M E m mmm m
m m HI m m m
is mmm umm
m m m m m
m m m wm m
u
M 1

m m m m
IfS m is mm is
1(9
w m JH m m m % N W G> &
"RMfNeL-UltxlG* XJ\ \ \

ST^oxTirs^ £gr -poujoer<\rsic^.

CJNIVERSIT'
PALI FOFtNlA-
Plate II.
 FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 13

forms may be of any shape, and two alternating

forms can be used in the same diaper, but should be
as closely fitting as possible (see Figs. 1, 2, 3, Plate
II.). These may be accented or not, as occasion may
require, or may be abolished altogether. In the latter
case care should be exercised to keep the pattern
compact.
The diaper, like many other ornaments, has been
the subject of alteration and development. One of
the first modifications of it consists in running out of
one space into another the pattern composing it. This
departure from the more exact diaper was gradually
extended, and ended at last in the development of a kind
of pattern known as the " free-all-over." The various
changes are as follow: first, the formal diaper con-
sisting of ornaments contained within a rigid geometrical

form (Plate II., Figs. 1, 2, 3) ; secondly, diapers in

which the pattern runs out of one figure into another

(Figs. 4 and 5) ; thirdly, when the boundaries of the

structural figures are ornamented as well as the enclosed

space (Figs. 6 and 7). In other forms of diaper the
fundamental forms are placed at intervals, and the
pattern runs out of them into the interspaces (Plate III.,
Fig. 1). When, however, the formal shapes are abolished,
we have a type of surface decoration called the " free-
all-over," in contradistinction to the formal "all-over" or
 —

14 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

strict diaper (Plate III., Figs. 3 and 4). Here it will be

well to observe that, although in this kind of pattern
work the geometric forms are ultimately eliminated, yet
their employment in designing is necessary to proper
construction, and is an important aid to accurate

repetition.

These geometric forms need not, however, control

the direction of the lines of the filling, as in cases

where the figures are retained, because they will not

appear as elements in the completed design. Neverthe-
less, as has been shown, in the elementary lessons, it is

often well to adopt a sympathetic relation of lines to the

figures used. On Plate IV. are given historic examples

of diapers and their construction. Striping or banding

need not be limited to mere lines ; what is required for
this arrangement is that the " repeat" shall take a hori-

zontal, vertical or oblique direction. The pattern com-

prising it need not be continuous, it may be interrupted.
The intervals, however, should be small, lest the dominant
idea of the arrangement should be lost. The main dif-

ference between spotting and powdering lies

in scale i.e., in the proportion of ground to

r*«i .
pattern. The detail of the spot should be
large and important, and have more interest
than the unit of the powdering, which should be small
and of simple character. Powdering is very often used
 Plate III.

t % t^^^mi/^ iJZNii^j
T
^oT
Plate IIIa.

v.o.3
Plate IV.
Plate V.

*5ftS?/^

Kl'Sfetii

as^m^i Si
i

£sSs

li*
r

lit
P -q: ,y

——w FlGs 1 9_ .:-

Pi
 FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 19

in conjunction with the spot (as in Plate I., Figs. 21

and 22), where their relative values are illustrated.

This background method of using powdering calls to

mind other plans often substituted for it, namely, imbri-

cation (seen in Plate V., Fig. 6) and vermiculation.
Vermiculation consists of a minute running
pattern, sometimes developed into fine scroll
work, and is at others -brightened by the
addition of small spots. Without further extending this

part of the subject, it will be obvious that all the

methods of arrangement already named are capable
of various combinations, and of being used together
in one and the same design {see Plate V.). Fig. 1

" "
shows the application of " spotting " and powdering
to a defined space like a panel. It will be seen
that the outer spots are united by a line so as to
" compose " them with the boundaries. Fig. 2 on
Plate Y. is an example of decoration by a large
central spot ; vertical and horizontal lines are included
for the purpose of securing unity. Fig. 3 is a long
narrow space decorated by three spots united by lines.

This treatment is sometimes found on panels . of

pilasters. In Fig. 4 is given an illustration of the
application of the stripe and spot to the decoration of
a rectangular figure. The two extremities of the stripe
are blended into the border to give completeness to the
c 2
2o THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

pattern and to prevent its appearing as if cut out of a

longer piece. In Fig. 7 we have another treatment of
the stripe and spot, and in Fig. n an arrangement of
oblique stripes for the decoration of a panel. Figs. 5
and 8 illustrate the application of the " chequer" to
panels of different proportions. In Fig: 5 the chequer
is somewhat modified in order to centralise the interest
without destroying the essential character of the chequer.
Fig. 6 shows a combination of the spot and imbricated
ornament within a circle. Figs. 9, 10, and 12 illustrate

panelling resulting from striping variously applied and

in accordance with the proportion of the spaces
decorated. Fig. 9 is from the use of oblique stripes,
Fig. 10 is mainly from vertical stripes, while Fig. 12
is formed from vertical and horizontal stripes equally
disposed. Examples of decoration by striping and
spotting may be seen on many natural objects, such
as plants, butterflies, feathers, shells, and in the graining
of wood, etc. (see Plate XXXVIII. and headpiece to
Chapter II., page 22).
In the study of the historic styles of ornament, it will
be observed that all these methods, as well as the
elementary lines which were engendered in the earliest

stages of art, occur again and again throughout all

subsequent developments of decoration, whatever the

age or country. However dissimilar the styles may
 FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 21

at first sight appear, careful analysis will show that

the fundamental lines and principles are the same,
and that even modern art, with all its boasted
originality, still shapes itself on lines no newer than
those of prehistoric times !
 CHAPTER II.

APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT.

HAVING in the previous chapter briefly re-

viewed and classified most of the lines and

methods common to ornament, we will now direct the

student's attention to some practical applications of

them. Suitability or fitness of a method of laying
out decoration for any special purpose must first

engage his attention. A little consideration will soon

convince him that the method of decorating a textile,

while being very appropriate for this purpose, may

be altogether inappropriate when applied to the
surface of a wall. For instance, a wall and a curtain
both possess distinct characteristics — the one stiffness

and uniform flatness, the other flexibility and un-

evenness of surface when in use. These qualities
 — ;

APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 23

should be taken into account when applying ornament

to decorate both in the same way would be to sin
against the natural law of "fitness" and suitability.

Hence it must appear that those methods that will

accent the qualities of stability and flatness will be the

most appropriate for wall decorations ; and any method
that will accent the quality of flexibility, or emphasize

the folds of the material, will be best adapted to the

enrichment of curtains. As a general rule, therefore,
in patterns for walls no particular direction should be
expressed i.e., such patterns should not exhibit any
tendency to develop horizontal, vertical, or oblique
stripes, and hence the methods of decoration will

comprise diapering, powdering, " free-all-overing," and

panelling. While modifications of some of these are
allowable for curtains, patterns having certain decided
directions, such as may be included under the heads
of horizontal and oblique striping, are more distinctly
suitable.

These kinds of patterns, by crossing the folds

of the material, bring out, so to speak, the modelling

of the surface, developing curves of exceeding beauty,
such as were not preconceived by the designer {see Plate

VI.). Vertical stripe patterns are less suitable, as their

application tends to confuse, instead of emphasizing, the

folds {see Plate VI., a, Fig. 4). Again, the scale of the
24 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

ornament used is an important matter. The patterns

should be designed for and adjusted to the size of the
folds into which the material naturally falls.

As the large folds of heavy textiles require bold

patterns, and the narrow folds of lighter ones smaller
details, the question becomes one of the right propor-
tioning of ornament to surface ; and this principle admits
of a wide application to all kinds of surface decoration.
For instance, in the case of wall decoration, presently

to be considered, the surfaces of important rooms should

have patterns comprising large masses, while the orna-
ment of small rooms should be less in scale. Besides
the scale of patterns, there is order of distribution to
be observed ; for, as soon as we begin to divide a surface

into distinct compartments, with the object of giving

additional interest to any scheme of decoration, we have
to consider the nature and relative value of each part,

and to apply the decoration consistently therewith. For

example, it is usual to divide the wall of a room into

plinth, dado, wall-vail, frieze, and cornice, with inter-

vening mouldings and borders (see Plate VII., Fig. i).

This arrangement of parts suggests different structural

values ; and their relations to one another require due
recognition when distributing the various classes of
ornament at our command. The parts having the
greatest structural value should receive the most severe
Plate VI.
Plate VII.
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 27

and formal ornamentation ; while those that are of the

least structural importance the freest and most pic-

turesque. The dado being the support of the wall is,

from an architectural point of view, the most essential,

and, therefore, to it should be apportioned the severest

decoration. To the upper portion a freer and less rigid
pattern may be given. Sometimes to the above hori-

zontal divisions are added vertical ones — such as pilasters,

etc. (see Plate VII., Fig. 3). When these are added the
wall-vail loses its uniform value ; the spaces between the
upright members become less essential than before, and
may therefore with propriety be decorated with orna-
mentation more or less inclining to the pictorial ; while
the structural uprights and pilasters should be more
stiffly treated; Some people may object to this assump-
tion of a possible construction, other than the actual
one, in laying out the wall space ; but as long as
divisions are required in order to avoid monotony, no
better method can be devised than that of adopting the

lines of some structural arrangement suitable to the

case ; and certainly this method is in harmony with
the principle of constructive order, which is the founda-
tion of decorative art.

Here it will be well to call attention to the effect that

these methods of wall divisions have upon the appearance

of rooms. While the use of horizontal divisions imparts
28 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

a sense of cosiness to an apartment, they also tend to

reduce the apparent height of it, and if the upper and
lower divisions are developed at the expense of the
intermediate one, as in Fig. 4, this effect is still more
marked. Vertical divisions by upright panelling, as in

Fig. 2, give the appearance of increased height, and

this effect is further accented in Fig. 3 by the use of
pilasters.

In practical pattern making, suitable to the paper-

stainer, weaver, textile printer, and ornamental tile-

makers, there are technical matters peculiar to each

industry, and which have to be considered, in addition to

the mere laying out of the ornament ; and the conditions

attached to each must be well understood if the artistic
element is to be practically expressed. While within
the limits of the present work it will be impossible to
treat of all the varied requirements which have arisen
with the development of the several trades, it wil.

be well to take one of them as a sample to illustrate

the limitations of the designer's work. Take wall-

paper, for example. In this country wall-paper is gene-
rally made 1 ft. io"in. wide, and in runs of twelve yards.
It is usually printed from blocks having raised patterns
upon them 1 ft. 9 in. in width ; the depth is determined by
circumstances — sometimes it is less than the width, rarely
greater ; but a square block is found to be the most
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 29

convenient. The block may contain one or more

"repeats," or even a section of a repeat, according to
the scale of pattern required. The extension of the
repeats in a vertical direction is obtained by successive
printings of the block ; the lateral extension by the paper-
hanger when he places the lengths of paper side by side.

The necessary dimensions of the block will, therefore,

control to a great extent the size and proportion of the

pattern ; whether it takes several repeats, or a portion
of one, the pattern must be so adjusted as to ensure
accurate repetition in the two directions. For instance,

suppose we adopt a diamond form as the basis of a

Z
A.

<x 00 K
B$ \X
If-

FlO- V?
FiG \ Tig 3r FiG HI V»G TV r *»o -V-

repeat (as in Fig. I.) : finding, however, that the use

of one only will yield a pattern too large in scale, we put
in one and a half (as in Fig. II.) ; but this, while it

affects the scale, also alters the proportion of the

fundamental figure. Arrange two within the same space,
and the difference between the height and width of the
figures is increased (Fig. III.). If it is desirable that the
proportion of the example in Fig. I. be kept, then we
shall have either to shorten the block (as in Fig. VI.),

or to adopt the arrangement (as in Fig. V.) which gives

smaller repeats. Here, then, it will be seen that in
 —

30 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

adopting any form whereon to construct the repeat, to

a block of a given size, any variation of the number
apportioned to it will lead to alteration in proportion
or to reduction in scale.
%
If the size of the pattern
indicated by Fig. II. be satisfactory, and if the alteration
in the proportion be immaterial, it will be found that
the mode of lateral repetition differs from that applicable
to I., III., and V. i.e., it will not repeat by being placed

side by side on the same level ; and, there-

fore, the lateral repetition will have to be effected by

lowering the pattern when fitting two sections together.

A/
thus Patterns arranged for this way of
A/
%
A/
hanging are technically known as " Drop patterns," be-
cause the decorator has to " drop " the paper when pasting
it on the wall. The chief object served in adopting the
" drop " principle is the avoidance of too small a scale of
pattern ; this will be seen in the diagrams. The largest
possible scale next to Fig. I. is Fig. II. Fig. IV., although
it would repeat laterally by dropping, would not repeat in
a vertical direction, and so would be unworkable.
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 3r

The construction of wall-paper patterns on a basis

of geometrical figures, such as are here given with a
diagram of repeats,

rwv? 7

is not the only method used by designers. Some

adopt the plan of cutting into equal sections the
paper on which the drawing is made, and trans-

posing the pieces during the progress of the design.

The former method is most generally employed ; but
answers better for patterns which are of a formal
32 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

character. The latter method, however, is undoubtedly

the more suitable for designs of a freer treatment, such
as the example (Plate III., Fig. 2). By this method the
artist can work with greater freedom, and at the same
time secure with but little trouble accuracy in his repeats.
Plate IIIa. explains the working of this method. The
initial portion of the design is drawn in the centre of
the paper, or cardboard, 21 in. by 21 in. (see A, the corners
of which are marked £L $;) ; this is then cut exactly into
halves, and then reversed (as at B), the figures reading

1?' il* The space between the upper and lower parts
of the pattern is now to be filled in (as at C). The card
or paper is then to be cut down vertically, dividing it

into four equal sections, and then transposed (as at D),

figures standing Jj? ^ This, again, leaves a central
space, which has to be filled (as at E), and which will

complete the main lines of the design. F shows

another disposition of the pieces to further test repeats.
The transposition and re-transposition of the parts of
the pattern will be necessary when adding details or
making alterations near to the edges of them.

As regards the colouring of wall-papers, the number

of colours to be used should be regulated by the scale of
the pattern. If the pattern be small, several colours
may be employed, inasmuch as the smallness of the
details and the number of the masses composing it
 ) ;

APPLICATION OF OPMgftMlbY&nsZTY

will cause the colours to be so interwoven and distributed

that there will be no interference with the repose which
should characterise a wall covering, whose subordinate
office is always to serve as a background to the general
appointments of a room. If, however, the pattern be
large, it will be well to have either fewer colours and
reduced in hue, or, better still, to limit the colouring to

two or three tones of one colour. It may be possible

to successfully employ several colours in large patterns,
by either reducing the hue or distributing the colour in

lines and among the smallest details ; but, how ever

r
this

result may be achieved, it will be in obedience to the

general principle that no large masses of different colours
should be used. Now as to the character of patterns

suitable for printed wall-papers. The natural law of

fitness again comes to our aid. The process of printing,
by which paper-hangings are produced, has to do with

repetition, and not with growth, or development, neither

of which it can truly represent. Growth is concerned
for the most part with variety, as repetition is greatly
modified by it. If this is so, patterns which are obviously
made up of repeats of a conventional type are best
adapted to block printing. Patterns having the appear-
ance of natural grow th are r
ill adapted to the process
because, in printing, the identical masses and lines must
occur again and again throughout the decorated space ;
34 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

and variety, an attribute of natural growth, is thus

ignored. For, although it is true that a plant develops

similar flowers and masses of leaves throughout its

entire growth, yet these are modified by variety, and

the stems vary in thickness and direction. A process
like the one in question is not fitted to render these

characteristics. They are only to be expressed by some

process favouring the principle of variety. In hand
painting we find the most suitable method, for the
obvious reason that by hand work variety is more easily

expressed than exact repetition. Hence the observance

of fitness of methods to the realisation of results will
justify us in formulating the rule, that conventional
patterns are best suited to the mechanically repeating
process of printing, and naturalistic ones to the freer

method of execution by painting. By using conventional

patterns for wall-papers, there need be no offence against
the law of fitness ; but by adopting naturalistic ones
there is danger of great offence. One of the reasons
why these latter patterns are so popular is that the
majority of people, and many who call themselves lovers
of nature, only extend their admiration to the flowers
and leaves of a plant, often to the former only, and never
turn their attention to the equally beautiful growths with
their ever-varying lines and exquisite gradations. If

these matters received the attention they deserve,

 ;

APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 35

" pretty floral " papers, with monstrous growths, would

not be tolerated, and would soon be discarded as
violations of 'nature and as sins against the natural and
eternal law of fitness.

We have now to consider the treatment of the frieze,

or chief upper division, which decoratively bears about

the same relation to the wall as the capital does to a

column ; and just as the capital is more pronounced than

the shaft of the column, so the frieze should have more
distinct emphasis than the wall. Its decoration should
possess more interest, not only for the sake of contrast
with the lower space, but because from its position it is

not likely to be interfered with by the furniture of the

room. Its position requires, also, that the decoration
should be simple and free from complex motives, so as to
be easily read.
This long horizontal division may be dealt with in

four different ways : (1) by filling in a continuous

-m^m% 3Si£l agag

running pattern, or (2) by a series of vertical ornaments
or (3) by a union of alternate vertical and horizontal
details, or (4) by an arrangement of panels. The first

D 2
36 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

method is the least satisfactory and likely to produce a

weak effect ; the second is better, but still defective, as

the arrangement of the parts is unnecessarily stiff and

monotonous, and does not sufficiently harmonise with
the long lines of the enclosed space. The third treat-
ment is, perhaps, best for general purposes, because,
while it combines the freedom and playfulness of the
first and the firmness of the second, it ensures the
harmonic relation that should exist between the
boundaries of the space and the filling. Again, the
third and fourth treatments are in sympathy with the
principle of construction, fas seen in the arrange-
ment of the timbers above the architrave in Grecian

3 IB IP w"
architecture (thus,

uprights and
~n
interspaces
—IT
__^_________=s=__

to be afterwards
), and give solid

filled in.

Taking this structural arrangement as the basis for

decoration, it is evident that the use of vertical stops
with lateral developments of ornamentation is desirable,
because the treatment most in accordance with con-
struction offers the best w ay
T
of securing the fittest

results.

Whether we lay out our frieze by simple stops

(as in No. 2), or by an arrangement of panels (as
 —

APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 37

in No. 4), it is open to us to accent more or less

the structural lines. The degree to which this may be
done will depend on the general scheme of decoration
adopted ; if it be severe and dignified, then the structural
divisions should be pronounced ; but if light and fanciful,

then they may be treated less vigorously. Some historic

examples of friezes will be found on Plate VIII., Figs. 1,

2, 3, 4. Borders, again, which are used to separate the

frieze and dado from the " filling," and for other purposes,

such as panels, should be treated according to their

importance. The primary office of borders is to prevent

the patterns of contiguous surfaces from impinging one

upon another. For this reason, if a border is rich in

character, it also requires bordering with plain lines on

each side, in order to prevent its mingling with the
patterns which it is intended to separate. '
That the
separation may be made distinct between the decorated
spaces, it often is desirable for the pattern of the border
to contrast in form, tone, and colour with the pattern on
either side of it i.e., if vertical lines predominate in the

surroundings, the border should be arranged on horizontal

lines, and vice versa ; and so on in the matters of tone
and colour. Another use of the border, especially in the

case of panels, is to confine attention to the subject or

design enclosed, in order to prevent its having the

appearance of overrunning its proper limits, and be-
38 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

coming confused with surrounding objects. In the case

of pictures, the application of the border or frame for
this purpose is well understood. At times, however,

some painters indulge in the novelty of extending on to

the frame the interest of the picture ; but the practice

carries its own condemnation, and may, therefore, be

regarded as a freak of fashion, rather than as indicating

any enduring and guiding principle. Again, in ornamental
compositions, the border will be found of great service in
" tidying up," so to speak, any irregular decoration, and

in rendering compact what without it would be loose

and untidy. Take any piece of freely drawn ornament,
and surround it with a border composed even only of
straight lines, and the effect will be as evident as that
exerted by a frame on a picture. The character of a
border should be in proportion to the interest of the
subject enclosed. If the enclosed space contains a design
of little interest, then the border may possess attractive
features ; if, on the contrary, it is occupied with a subject
of great interest, then a border of a more conventional or
commonplace type will be appropriate.
From an artistic point of view, the border of a written
or printed page may be richer and even more naturalistic
in its treatment than the border of a picture. The first

encloses conventional forms less interesting in appearance

than those contained in the latter. Borders are also
 Plate VIII.

'it a-
40 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

used not only to define spaces, but to emphasize con-

struction — as on the edges of plates, and bands on
vases, etc. Determining the scale of interest that a
border should possess in relation to its enclosure, and
giving right proportion and value, require artistic judg-
ment and careful consideration ; for many a design is

found to be incomplete for want of due attention to

its framing. The ineffectiveness of the whole design

often arises from the inappropriateness, the bad

proportion, or the want of weight in the border.
We may here observe that, though for economic
reasons borders for wall - paper decoration are made
straight, it is not essential that they should always be
so ; for other purposes and for other modes of production
they can take various forms. There is no reason why
the boundaries of borders should be parallel, any more
than that the enclosed spaces, with which they are
associated, should be rectangular in shape. A border
may surround any irregularly shaped space, and, while
its inner margin is identical therewith, its outer edge
may be rectangular (see Plate IX., Fig. 4) ; or if

one encloses a rectangular form, although its inner

margin coincides with the edge of the space, its outer
one may present a complex and irregular outline. Then,
again, the pattern of a border need not be continuous

throughout, but may be interrupted ; and for that

 ;

APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 41

purpose a construction may be assumed, and various

degrees of interest apportioned to the parts. When the
subject of the decorated space does not allow of
sufficient margin for a proportionate border, a useful

method of meeting the difficulty is to draw lines parallel

to the edge within the filling (see Plate IX., Fig. 5).

This method of supplying the want of a proper border

should be used sparingly, and only employed when some
other reason exists to warrant its adoption than the
baneful one of novelty ; otherwise its frequent use
may lead to irregular and disorderly composition.
Not that irregularity is always to be avoided
on the contrary, a little may sometimes add piquancy
to a design, but this should not be too freely in-

dulged in : it should be used as we use condiments

with our food — namely, as a stimulant. A too liberal
supply tends to vitiate the taste ; and as a well-ordered
diet and a healthy constitution require but little of these
additions, so also irregularity should be but little in

request in good ornamental composition.

This mode of making up for the want of sufficient

border must not be confused with another expedient

which is often adopted as a matter of composition of
line : for instance, when the filling is of a free kind,,
and contains more curves than is compatible with fitness
to space, the introduction of right lines by panelling
42 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

part of the field will, while correcting the monotony

of the pattern, bring the whole composition into harmony
-^ (see Figs. A and B). The
results are somewhat similar,

although proceeding from

different, causes.

On Plates IX. and X.

ZZ4 are given examples of
panels with the application of borders. In Plate IX.,
Fig. i, it will be seen that a broad line of similar
tone to the pattern of the centre gives balance and
produces unity of effect, while Fig. 2 is wanting in this

respect. Compare, also, the relative values of the

borders to the enclosed pattern, in Fig. 3 ; here the right-
hand border is insufficient. It is too meagre, and wants
weight. The left-hand border is more satisfactory, both
as to weight and quantity. Fig. 4 is an example of
a border whose inner edge follows the shape of a panel,
of which the outline is not rectangular. The continuity
of the border is in contrast with the spot treatment
of the panel. This, though small in quantity as com-
pared with the mass of the border, is compensated
for by adopting more interesting material for its com-
position. The border is subordinated to it by being
more commonplace. Turning to Plate X., Fig. 1, we
have an example of the wrong and right application
 Plate IX.

TIG >
fig; 3

FIG 7

T=&3
Plate X.

T=tct-zt BG3
 ;

APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 45

of the border. The ornamental border A is composed

of details having the same amount of interest as in

the filling of the panel ; consequently, the attention

is divided between both. Besides, the want of a broader
separation between the two patterns makes them appear
to run together, and the confusion is thus increased that
resulted from using such similar material in both border

and panel. In the border B, while we still have foliated

ornament, it is reduced in quality, and rendered more

formal. The slight similarity between the material of
the border and that of the panel is adopted for the
purpose of securing unity in the whole composition
while the difference of treatment is employed to

concentrate or localise interest.

In Fig, 2 the panel is occupied with a figure

composition ; the border is composed of elements of

a lower*grade conventionally treated, and is in point
of interest subordinated to the centre, while it harmonises
with the foliage which is accessory to the group of
figures. In Fig. 3 we start with, perhaps, the least

interesting ornamental elements —namely, geometrical

forms — for the panel. In order to give interest, and to
maintain unity in the design, we adopt, for the contiguous
border, curved lines, which are higher in the class

of abstract elements, as those lines possess more interest

than right lines. The centre filling will be subordinate

 — ;

46 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

thereto. In order to further accent unity of effect,

and to give firmness to the design, there is added an
outer border of elements, similar as regards their recti-
linear character. In the panel (Fig. 4) we have a
conventional rendering of the spring buds of the
sycamore. To confine the interest and to direct the
attention to the central subject, a border of geometrical
character is attached ; in it are included some severe
forms of leaves, in order to correct any excessive contrast
that might arise from the employment of geometrical
lines alone, and to bring it into unity with the centre
by echoing in a slight degree the same class of
elements.

•kj setting out ornamental borders that entirely

surround panels, it will be found advisable to consider

the structure of frames i.e., of the joining and mitring
of the parts composing them. Frames are formed in

several ways, by an oblique (1),

**2,
— square (2), or joggled (3) mitre,

each of which methods of joining

_,
may form the basis of patterns.

The object of regarding construction is to enable one

to provide decoration that shall harmonise with it

neither accenting nor concealing it. The joint is

apparently the weakest part of the structure ; there-

fore, any ornament added should appear to strengthen

 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 47

this part of the frame. For this reason, it is ad-

visable to attack the corner first, and to apply ornament
in such a way that it will look as though it grasped and
held together the vertical and horizontal pieces {see 1
5, 6, and 7). This being done, the rest of the decoration

may be more freely treated on the same lines, which

may be simply repeated or reversed as the case may
require, and with large and small intervals according

to the necessities of scale and proportion. Besides

borders which surround spaces having bound edges,
there are others which are
not so restricted, such as are
S5\
seen on the edges of china
plates, and used as stripes

on draperies, laces, etc. Of

these there are two kinds, (a) those having one bound
and one free edge, (b) those in which both edges have
free terminations.

Ornamental borders may be broadly divided into two

 Plate XI.

s pot VeRTICAU, HORIZONTAL . OBUOU6

„,„„niiim!iiininiL, m „„, u „„

utnrmmrc HHMHHHimn

SiESl mauuif '.,.'!.

^^^A^
m lllfflMllt'lllMlllllW I i

HSU vmmsm
^^m
m :

Wm IB 5

^ fi

Ml
rara lUOffllllll!

m
liiiifinf

WMSW
I.B^JI,

liMfifc

^^»^
^^ l

v.&j
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 49

classes — the interrupted and the continuous ; these are

subdivided according to particular methods of laying
out, as the spot, vertical, horizontal, and oblique treat-

ment {see Plate XL). Additional varieties are formed

by combining the above methods; the upright and
horizontal, the horizontal and oblique, and so on.

Some of the lines for laying out borders are, it will

be seen, similar to those used for friezes ; but the

application of them must be regulated by the less im-

portant function exercised by a border. The somewhat

severe treatment required for a frieze may be relaxed in
the case of a border ; the regular outline of the one may
be, as already explained, departed from in the other.

Besides horizontal borders, there are vertical ones.

Under this head may be included pilasters and other
upright divisions of surface. Vertical borders are for the

most part identical with horizontal ones ; the same lines

can often be used in both. Decorated pilasters and

narrow panels,' resulting from their use, are not, strictly

speaking, borders ; notwithstanding that we shall consider

them under this head, and that their proportion gives

them somewhat that character. There is just this

difference between the two ; a border consists of a

regular repetition of parts, and may be extended without
alteration of pattern. The ornament on a pilaster is not
so arranged ; there is less repetition ; the parts are dis-
E
5o THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

posed evenly but not equally. The proportion and

extent of the panel being determined at the outset, the
limit of the pattern is thus fixed, and the pattern becomes
a complete organic whole. While many of the lines

used for horizontal and other borders are, and have been,
used for the decoration of pilasters, subject to certain

modifications arising from the needs of adaptation, there

are four systems which appear to have been more
generally adopted ; namely,
(i) when the elements of the
design are built up in stages
and symmetrically disposed
around a central stalk ; (2)
when they are tied together
in bunches and suspended by
a cord or ribbon ;
when arranged upon a succession of
(3)
spirals ; and (4) when based upon " wave " lines crossing
and recrossing a central stem. These arrangements are
more or less satisfactory ; and a moment's reflection will

enable us to determine their relative and artistic values.

The law of suitability requires that the use to which an

object is put should be taken into account when applying
ornament to it. The office of pilasters is to strengthen

masses or support weights ; therefore, any decoration

applied to them should harmonise with these functions.,

It will at once be seen that the leading lines upon which

 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 51

2 and 3 are constructed render them less suited to the

decoration of a support than Nos. 1 and 4. Again,

No. 1, being decidedly structural in arrangement, will

require a conventional treatment of the details. In

setting out a design for a pilaster on this principle,

care must be taken to have the axis strong ; and for this

purpose architectural elements are admirably suited.

Horizontal lines should be so disposed at intervals as to

harmonise with the short boundaries of the space, to
serve as start-points and as ties, and to further empha-
size the quality of strength, which a composition of this

kind should possess. The foliage that may be used to

decorate these main structural lines should be firm and

should have a certain rigidity of character. The secondary
structural lines should be firm and graceful. They should
compose well with the boundaries and with one another,
but may carry foliage less severe in character; the
smaller filling, having nothing to do with the con-
struction, can be free and playful, and even naturalistic
elements may be introduced into the still less essential

parts. By observing some such rule as is here indicated

for the distribution of the different qualities of ornament,
we are enabled to import into our work, by an orderly
method, variety of treatment and, therefore, interest.

Again, the proportion of the panel of the pilaster should

be regarded in the spacing out of the ornaments ; tall

E 2
 —

52 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

divisions should prevail, as in Fig. a. In Fig. b the

divisions are decidedly inharmonious. A tall starting-

point is essential as the key-note of

the composition (^ Plate VI 1 1., Figs.

and
Mf
kWI-
iM 5. 6, 7. 8,

The second method,

9).

in which the
materials of the design are suspended,
is less structural, and consequently de-
mands a less symmetrical treatment
The masses will be proportionally
larger ; and there will be less variety
Fig. b. Fig. a.
in the lines on which the details are

arranged. The distribution of the elements of a design

on either plan will be similar i.e., whatever element is

used at the start, should be repeated, in some degree,

throughout the composition and at the extremity. If

taking the first plan we start at the base with a vase

or other architectural member, other details of a like
character should be repeated in the process of building
up ; and a cup or tazza will fitly crown the whole ; the
same rule applies to vegetable, animal, and human forms.
This rule also applies to tone and colour. The long,
narrow panels occurring between pilasters may be treated
in a freer manner, as they have a less structural value # ;

* For this reason, the hanging arrangement (No. 2) is more suitable

for spaces between pilasters than for the pilasters themselves.
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 53

their ornamentation may incline towards the pictorial,

and, if in relief, should in parts melt into the background ;

while the caved ornament of a pilaster should be clearly

and sharply defined on a firm and even ground. The
different uses of pilasters give them varying structural

values, the general decoration of which will be modified

accordingly. The severity necessary to a pilaster which
has to carry actual weight may
be judiciously relaxed in the
case of one which is used either
as an ornamental adjunct or for
the mere division of a surface.
Take, for instance, the pilaster

of a doorway and that of a

casket. The cornice is the
crowning member of the wall,
and, in its relation to the frieze,

may be regarded as a develop-

ment of a moulded abacus ; it

corbels out from the line of the

wall on to the horizontal surface of the ceiling, with
which it should compose. Generally, it is made up of a
suite of contrasted mouldings — flat, concave, convex, and
ogee — and is usually treated as a mass ; its decoration is

subordinated to that of the frieze. Bearing in mind the

position and office of the cornice, as a whole, individual
54 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

mouldings may be relieved by raised or painted de-

coration ; and, for this purpose, some of the lines in the

borders already given will be found suitable. But regard

should be paid to the principle upon which the selection
is to be made. This principle applies to all decorated
mouldings for whatever purpose they may be used. As
a rule, the leading lines of the ornament should in a
measure repeat the profile of the moulding to be deco-
rated, so as to ensure harmony between the decoration
and the object to which it is applied. If the profile is

concave in form, then patterns based simply on these

lines, or re-

versed, as *\ .fgggr. V^WWTW

—
will be appro- t£ * tM <* »»™*» -* »« ""
* , '

- iiiv
M

priate. If the moulding has an ogee outline, then the

pattern may *%&. ..

—
thus :
* ^
or, if convex, so : ^- rrw7r~W^c —^ ^ at '
stra ig nt - nne d

patterns will be "

applicable, and so on.
While the profiles may generally be the guide in
apportioning suitable patterns, it does not follow that
the profile or simple vertical section need in all cases
determine the choice of lines to be employed ; for

circumstances may arise when for variety's sake other

lines may be necessary to the general effect of the group
 APPLICATION OF O/hMMIj^* 55

of mouldings forming the cornice. Transverse and

oblique sections will be found to yield lines differing
from those of the profiles ; and, though at first sight
they may appear to controvert the general principle laid

down, their use will result in a real though subtle

harmony.
We now come to the consideration of the horizontal

surfaces of a room — namely, the ceiling and floor. First,

the ceiling : this is generally the least decorated part of

a room. Why it is so it is hard to understand, for
economic reasons do not explain it. The traditional

white ceiling has a cold, cheerless, and unfinished look,

which is often intensified by the rich covering of the
walls. Too often the only relief accorded to the cheer-
less space is the addition of some cheap centre ornament,
from which depends the gasalier. Of all surfaces in •

a room the ceiling is the one which offers to the

decorator the best chance to display his art ; for here
his whole scheme can be seen without any interruption
whatever. In decorating a ceiling, it should be re-
membered that it is a source of reflected light, and,
therefore, that it should be treated in a lighter and
more airy manner than the walls, particularly if the
ceiling be low, for heavy decorations would have a
depressing effect and lessen its reflective power. A
loftier ceiling may have stronger tones and more power-
 "

56 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

ful ornament, but still be less pronounced, as a whole,

than the vertical surfaces. The ceiling should to some
extent echo the colour treatment of the cornice and
frieze in order to preserve a general harmony or unity
in the whole decoration of the apartment. The laying-

out may be, in a simple scheme, limited to borders

with corner ornaments, or may in a richer scheme be
arranged on some structural lines covering the whole
surface, and, as a rule, the whole ornamentation should
be definite and approach the commonplace. On Plate
XII. are given a few examples showing some of the
methods used in decorating flat ceilings. Fig. i is a
structural arrangement resulting in panels of unequal
sizes and shapes, and filled in with ornaments ; the
several parts are treated according to their " values."
This example is in the French manner which prevailed
in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Fig. 2

is an " all-over " treatment, consisting of panels, of certain

sizes and shapes, repeated over the entire surface, and
containing conventional ornaments. In Fig. 3 is given
a Jacobean example of raised tracery relieved with " spot
patterns. Fig. 4 is a design for a printed ceiling-paper,
arranged on a multi-symmetrical basis ; Fig. 5 shows
an arrangement for decoration by means of stencilling
and painting ; while Fig. 6 shows a method of dealing
with the surface of a ceiling whereof one side is
Plate XII.
 —

58 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

broken up by the projection of the chimney breast.

In laying-out a ceiling as in Figs, i, 5, and 6,

the proportion of the space should be considered,

and the leading division, at least, should agree with
it i.e., a similar proportion should be repeated for

the sake of unity. Thus

This principle, it will be not
//A
seen, has been observed in

the illustrations given in Plate XII.

Details calling for continued examination should be
excluded, as the positions occupied by them are not
favourable for minute observation ; the operation of
puzzling out a complicated design, or reading an interest-
ing subject, would at the best result in cricking the neck.
Therefore, the design should be of a pleasant character,
easily seen at a glance, and readily understood^ ; and in

that respect should differ from a wall, whose decoration

may be composed of more interesting material, and
be more intricately arranged.

Subject to these considerations, the same principles

that have been advocated for other surfaces apply to
ceilings, as regards laying-out, distribution of elements,

composition of line, and mass.

* The ceilings of large halls and rooms can be reasonably decorated

with more interesting subjects than smaller ones, because of the number
of points of view from which they can be examined.
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 59

Besides flat ceilings, there are others of different

forms that should be mentioned, such as the coffered,
arched, and domed. The first is a horizontal ceiling,

having sunk panels lying between longitudinal and

transverse beams ; its decorative treatment does not in
principle differ materially from that required for other

panelled arrangements —severe ornament on the struc-

tural beams, and freer ornament in the panels. The

deep recession of these, however, often calls for more
definition of the decorative details than is accorded to
panels of shallower depths. Arched and domed ceilings,

applied respectively to rooms of oblong or circular plan,

graduate from the vertical walls of the rooms to the
crown, and thus afford opportunities for a more varied
decorative treatment by the introduction of elements
not fitted for a horizontal surface. The decoration of
these curved surfaces may fitly combine the treatment
of vertical and horizontal ones. Vertical ornaments,
figures, etc., at the lower part ; horizontal ones at the
top ; the whole being graduated together.
In decorating the floor of a house, whether by
carpets or otherwise, the prime condition to be met
is the essential flatness of its surface ; and, therefore,
any decoration that tends in appearance to interfere
with this quality is wrong. This wrongfulness is

second only to that of making the floor actually un-

60 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

even. The general practice of decorating by the use of

carpets leads to more artistic sins than the use of other
methods — such as encaustic tiles or parquetry. Carpets
are too frequently designed with a view to produce effect
when displayed in shop windows, and to catch the eye of
the purchaser, who for the time may be so forgetful of the
suitability of his purchase to the apartment which it is

destined to adorn, as to allow mere prettiness of pattern

to rule his choice. In order to design patterns for floor-
covering, the expression of even flatness and firmness
should be the aim of the designer. To effect this, he
will have to consider the class of forms and lines to be
employed, and the relation of tones and colours.

Patterns of a rectilinear character will better express than

curvilinear ones the qualities of solidity and firmness,
while tones closely related will convey an idea of flatness
better than those not closely related. While firmness
may be expressed by the use of geometric elements
composed of right lines, it is quite possible to interfere
with the sense of flatness in more ways than one, either
by the selection of tones, or by giving the pattern the
appearance of lying in more than one plane, as in inter-
laced work (see Plate XIII.). The passing over and under
of bands, as in Fig. i, indicates an uneven surface, and,

therefore, unfits it for a floor. The adoption of a pattern

of this kind suggests that it is a border —borrowed from
 Plate XI TT.

^SE L,BR^
r

TTKIVKRsiTT
ftrn:
62 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

decoration used for another purpose — and not adapted,

but adopted. An interlacing pattern of this kind may
fairly be applied to a wall, where the unevenness of the
surface is not of such paramount importance. Tones
wrongly applied lead to similarly faulty results (see Figs. 3

and 5). In Fig. 3 the effect produced by the injudicious

arrangement and application of widely dissimilar tones
is that of unevenness ; this has the appearance of a
collection of cubes set anglewise, and suggests a most
uncomfortable walking surface ; Fig. 5 is equally un-
pleasant. These defects may be easily cured by only
slight modifications. In the first case, if the bands,
instead of interlacing, are made to intersect each other
(as in Fig. 2), the quality of flatness will be secured ; and,
in the second, if the tones be rearranged and in nearer
relation to one another (as in Figs. 4 and 6), the same
result will accrue.

In carpets the patterns may take less rigid forms than

those used for parquetry, mosaics, etc., because, in

addition to the expression of firmness and flatness,

regard must be paid to the nature of the material, which

may be more or less flexible in character. Apart from
the essentials pertaining to all floor-coverings, there is a
quality belonging to carpets, and more particularly charac-
teristic of some kinds than of others, which requires con-
sideration—namely, a soft and slightly yielding surface.
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 63

Hence it will be well that patterns for this purpose should

combine curved lines, which express softness and flexi-

bility, with straight lines and angular forms, which

symbolise firmness and strength. It is just this happy
combination of qualities which gives such pre-eminence
to Oriental carpets, and renders them so superior in

design to most European productions. Throughout

these works, there is a general regard for essential con-
ditions and a ready acceptance of means to the ends
sought after. While recognising the suitability of flow-

ing lines to represent flexibility, there is no omission of

rigid ones as expressive of firmness ; and so we find that

Oriental artists are quick to avail themselves of the

peculiarities of the loom by accepting the angular
forms which result. In England the contrary too
often rules ; and, instead of frankly accepting the
natural results of the process, designers are apt to regard
them as difficulties to be combated and struggled with.

Again, although we may have patterns which are all

right as far as lines are concerned, they may become

all wrong by the injudicious application of tones which

may give harshness and unevenness to the designs.

Take, for example, the illustrations on Plate XIII. In
Fig. 7 there is an uneven effect and hardness of outline
resulting from tones of great intervals. Fig. 8 is flatter

in effect ; but there is still some harshness, because of the

64 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

great difference between the tone of the ground and that

of the outline of the pattern. In Fig. 9 the tones are
brought nearer together, and result in even flatness
and softness ; the outline of the pattern melts, so to
speak, into the ground. In Fig. 10 is given an example
of a mode of applying tones which is too often seen, but
which should be avoided; the "lumpiness " of effect

resulting from such a distribution of tones is most un-

pleasant. When first devised, this "lumpiness" may
have secured praise as a "novelty"; but could not
expect to endure the test of just criticism, which requires
that a novelty to be acceptable must come within the limits

of artistic requirements.
The decoration of floors, by whatever means, should
be so designed and used as to be in sympathy with
the sense of repose and in harmony with the natural

desire for cheerfulness--^-the one calling for unity of

effect, the other for variety and contrast. The degree
in which these mental desires should be met will depend
on circumstances. As a general rule, the floor ought,
in the treatment of tone and colour, to so harmonise
with the dado that the walls of the apartment may
be united thereby. Although the floor is to harmonise
with the dado, this harmony does not preclude the
introduction of a certain amount of variety and contrast :

this amount will, to some extent, be regulated by the

 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 65

character of the dado. Contrast and variety are not

to be excluded, but kept in subordination to unity of
effect. The use of a bordered carpet, with a margin
of actual flooring between it and the skirting board,
admits of more variety and gradation in the decoration
of the floor than was formerly the case when the entire
surface was covered. What has already been said about
borders generally applies to these special ones, subject,
of course, to the conditions belonging to carpets.

Borders have a structural value, and require to be duly

proportioned to the enclosed centre of the carpet, and
also some considerable thought in suitably arranging.

In reference to this matter, the study of Oriental

carpets and rugs will well repay the student, as it

will afford him many a silent and valuable lesson in

the proportionate adjustment and grouping of borders

with proper regard to the general effect to be produced.
 CHAPTER III.

METHODS OF EXPRESSION.

proposed to consider some

IN ofthisthe chapter
modes
it is

by which ornament is expressed,

and the purposes to which those modes may be applied.
There are three ordinary methods of expression: (i)

surface lines, as in outline drawing ; (2) surface massing,

as in painting', and (3) relief massing, as in modelling

and carving.
The first and second are appreciable by sight only,
the third by touch as well as by sight. Modifications

of these methods occur ; so that ornament, in

outline or in painted masses, is often recognised by

touch as well as by sight. For instance, when lines

are incised or raised, as in the decoration of ancient

pottery and metal work, and when forms are painted

 METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 67

with "slip," as in Oriental and other ceramics, gesso

work, etc. ; but this arises, as will be seen later, from
the fact that these modes of decoration appropriate,
in a slight degree, characteristics which belong to
modelling or relief expression. Take first the simple
linear method, which may be seen in the decoration of pre-
historic pottery, etching, engraving, etc. Expression
by line is the one very generally used, and in modern
education the one mostly encouraged ; it is the outcome
of the readiest means of execution — the stylus, pencil,

and pen. Good outline is of the greatest importance

to the artist, to whatever branch of art he may ultimately
devote himself. We are told by some people that there

is no such thing as an outline in nature. Theoretically,

this is true ; but, while there is no outline, there are

definite limits to objects and natural forms, and these
have to be defined in the linear method by a decided
line accurately following those limits. Admitting the
practical necessity of an outline for depicting forms
and expressing ornament, the next thing we have to

do is to determine the quality of line to be used. In

outline drawing, as a general rule, the lines should be

intentionally of a uniform strength ; but when it is

found necessary to depart from this uniformity, by

employing lines of different thicknesses, it should be done
for the purpose of expressing some additional facts
F 2
68 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

connected with the subject of representation, and not

solely for " effect/' To strengthen the outline for the
purpose of representing shade as seen in a piece of
relief ornament, is altogether wrong, not only because
it attempts to express badly an accident of lighting,
which does not belong to the original, but because it

results in a false representation of form. As Mr. Ruskin

puts it :
" A circle represents a sphere in outline ; but
if you thicken it in some part with the idea of repre-

senting shade, the shape is no longer that of a true

sphere. If thickened on the outside it becomes too
wide : if on the inside the space within is not circular,

and at the same time shade is not expressed." But

this does not preclude the use of light and dark lines ;

it is simply an argument against using

them in a wrong way. Light and dark
lines can, without any sacrifice of truth,

be used to express form. These two

drawings of the same form both express
the same facts, and are as true in the
one case as the other. The choice of line will depend
upon the amount of distinctness or force we require for
our work. If, for instance, we wish to express the bold

and distinct relief of a piece of sculptured ornament, a

strong line will be the better to use ; if, however, our
subject be a delicate low relief, then a light line will
 —

METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 69

be the more suitable. In the first case, we use lines

strongly contrasting with the surface on which they are

drawn ; in the second, lines that assimilate with the tone
of the ground.
When we desire to represent a piece of work in

which are combined both bold and delicate relief, such

as a group of objects, or a plant, portions of which are
near and remote, the lines may be varied so as to

represent the different degrees of relief, and may be so

thoughtfully carried out that an outline drawing would
convey a fairly accurate idea of the projection and
recession of the various parts composing the subject.

By varying the lines in this manner, we are enabled to

express more than the shapes presented to us, and while
the drawing is rendered more interesting and effective
by the use of lines of unequal thickness, there will be no
sacrifice of truth in the representations. See Plate XIV.
Figs. 1, 2, and 3 show different outline treatments of

similar pieces of ornament. Fig. 1 is from a relief of

uniform height from the ground on which it was

modelled ; consequently, a line of equal strength is

sufficient for the purpose of its representation, as form

lying in one plane only had to be defined. In Fig. 2
some parts have a higher relief than the rest i.e., the
pattern lies in two planes, one above the other — the
higher portions being the central bud form, with the
7o THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

rosette at its base, and the upper side of the two large
side leaves. The differences in the relief are expressed
by the use of strong contrasting lines for the higher parts

and of lighter ones for the lower; and, as all the parts lie

in only two planes, the sets of lines used are each of

uniform strength. In Fig. 3 the relief is more varied, and
is graduated from the lowest to the highest plane ; and,
therefore, the lines required for its expression are such as
vary in thickness or strength throughout their courses.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the application of lines of varying
strengths to decorative work.
Outline, besides being used for the purposes indicated,
can be employed to express various qualities, such as
softness, rigidity, flexibility, grace, etc.

But, although the point or stylus may be used for the

production of line work expressing a great variety of

forms and qualities, its capabilities are limited ; and
masses and quantities should be expressed by the aid
of the superior powers of the brush.
It is very remarkable that in the prevailing methods
of art instruction drawing with the brush has received
little or no attention. While our national scheme gives,

perhaps, too much encouragement to line drawing, it

gives no stimulus to space or mass drawing by the brush.

This omission is to be regretted, as practice of this

kind bears so directly on many artistic industries.- The

Plate XIV.
72 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

use of the brush is capable of developing powers of

drawing beyond all other means ; and, while it will assist

the student to more rapidly appreciate the value of

quantities by directing his attention to spacing and to
the solidity of the forms used, the freedom of hand
acquired by the employment of the brush will affect his
line work and raise its quality. Whatever may be
thought of the Japanese as decorative designers, there
can be but one opinion as to their merits as draughts-
men, and their skill in drawing is largely due to their

being accustomed from their youth upwards to the use of

the brush as a writing and drawing implement. The
power of drawing seen in their line drawing, which for

vitality is much superior to the generality of European

work of a similar nature, has been developed from
the restricted use of a hard point. In his Oxford lecture
on " Line," Mr. Ruskin, after speaking of the practice of
the Old Masters, says :
" The fact is that, while we have
always learned, or tried to learn, to paint by drawing,
the ancients learned to draw by painting. The brush
was put into their hands when they were children, and
they were forced to draw with that until, if they used the
pen or crayon, they used them with the lightness of a
brush or the decision of a graver."
By substituting the brush for the pencil-point, we
have a direct means for expressing mass and space as
 METHODS OF EXP

well as line. Linear ornamental elements translated by

the brush become enriched and gain special character-

istics by the process ; lines so changed, and forms which

are the natural outcome of the implement, not only
largely increase our range of ornamental material, but
also augment our methods of expression. With the
brush we are able to readily render ornament (i) by
accented lines, as at a ; (2) by simple
flat tints of uniform strength in

masses (c) ; (3) by graduated tones (b) \

(4) by the superposition of tones (d) ;

(5) by an arrangement of tones side ^r^ mk

by side, in imitation of relief work (e).
^k^mA* ^e
Simple brush work may be used in a &**•% Jki4
positive or negative way — i.e., by ^^Sgjr
painting in either the pattern, as at<£, ifcij p)
or the ground, as at f. By juxta-
posing different tones and colours (g) very rich effects
can be obtained, and still richer by superposition.
These methods of applying brush work not only serve
to enrich our patterns, but also enable us to adapt
them to particular grounds, light or dark, so as to
secure distinctness or softness of effect, as cases may
require. On Plate XIV. are given several examples
of brush work showing the different modes of applying
tones. The upper left-hand corner of Fig. 6 shows the
74 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

laying of uniform tones ; the right-hand corner of the

same pattern is enriched by a line of the same tone
laid around it. In the lower part of the same design
the flowers are composed of forms in different tones
juxtaposed. In Fig. 7 are shown other arrangements of
juxtaposed tones. Fig. 8 consists of a group of examples
illustrating the superposition of tones, and b is an example
of this principle seen on a clover-leaf, where it takes the
form of a connected pattern covering the three leaflets.

c shows the application of the foregoing to an

ornamental pattern. In Fig. 9 is given the method of
superposing tones after the manner of 'relief work. The
employment of tones in this way brings us to a form
of decorative painting which comes very near to imi-
tative work — imitative to the extent that it suggests
relief sufficiently to take it out of the category of mere
flat decoration. How far this imitative quality should

be carried is a question of taste ; it should, however,

never be indulged in to the extent of producing deceptive
relief either by imitating strong cast shadows on the
ground or by adding anything that will tend to give to
it a fictitious realism. The aim should be to increase the
interest of the work, and not to cheat the vision. The
amount of relief given to the work should be regulated
by the conscious knowledge of the character of the
surface upon which the pattern is produced. It will be
Plate XV.
76 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

obvious that all these simple methods of treating surface

decoration, indicated at a, b y c, d, e, f, g, are, with the
exception of e, suitable for application to movable objects,

such as textile hangings, pottery, etc., while e is better

fitted for designs made to occupy some fixed or per-
manent position. Fig. 10 is an example of ornamental
brush lines.

On Plate XV. are given illustrations of direct brush

work. Figs. I, 2, 4 and 5 are taken from old Damascus
tiles ; Fig. 3 is taken from Chinese pottery ; Fig. 6
from a Flemish earthenware plate of the seventeenth
century ; and Fig. 7 was drawn from an old Persian
plate — an example of pure brush work in colour, ex-

pressed by line and mass.

Modelling and carving, unlike the other modes of
giving expression to ornament, are not restricted to one
plane for their development ; but lie in many planes, and
are concerned with actual light and shade. Our
appreciation of sculptured and modelled work depends
very largely upon its being designed for holding shade
and shadow. Whether it be made for graduated shade,
or for the exhibition of strong contrasts of shadow, will
depend on circumstances of position and of lighting.

There are two distinctive kinds of relief work,

namely (1) sunk relief, or cavo-relievo, in which the out-
line of the work is deeply incised, and the spaces between
 :

METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 77

caved, the design being slightly below the ground (see

Plate XIV., Fig. 11) ; and (2) raised relief, wherein the
ground surrounding the design is lowered, leaving the
work projecting from it (see Fig. 12). Of raised relief

there are many varieties, to which names have been

applied to indicate various degrees of relief. The terms
used are flat relief, or stiacciato ; low relief, or basso-
relievo ; half relief, or mezzo-relievo ; and full relief, or

alto-relievo. In the first, the work is in but slight relief

from the ground, and the forms have very little pro-
jection, as on our coins. In the second, the relief is

greater, the modelling of the design has more variety,

and the forms are rounded, as in Assyrian sculpture.

In the third, we have the subject still more raised, but no
parts are detached from the ground. The fourth kind
shows the greatest amount of relief possible, with portions
entirely free from the slab upon which the work was
wrought, as in the metopes of the Parthenon. A
development of alto-relievo results in entire relief, or

sculpture in the round, as seen in statuary.

Low relief requires clear, bright light for its elucida-

tion, while high relief with bold undercutting is better

for cloud or diffused

light. The rounded

form of relief is best

seen in a direct side

light, as in this sketch
78 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

The same relief, seen in shadow by reflected light

only, becomes ineffective, as the surface modelling is

lost, and only the ^^

deep cutting and
definite edges are i|l|

visible ; thus :

A square-edged treatment, with strong incisive lines, is

therefore better adapted for dimly-lighted situations.

Again, objects which are movable and for close in-

spection, may be appropriately decorated with modelled

work in low relief ; for, while they can be always
placed in a light that will bring out the beauty of the
modelled surfaces, the relief will in no way interfere

with their use or their outlines. If the decoration is

to occupy some permanent position, then the nature of

the relief will have to be specially considered ; whether
it will be Viewed in open daylight or in shadow, or
whether it will be seen near to the eye or at a dis-

tance. As regards lighting, a comparison of Classic

sculpture of the sunny South with Northern Gothic
will serve to make clear the broad general principle upon
which the selection of relief should be based. On Plate
XVI. is shown two treatments of relief work, and the
effect that different ways of lighting have upon them.

The two distinct ways in which relief may be executed

 Plate XVI.
EFFECT OF LIGHTING ON RELIEF WORK.

No. I. No. 2.

No. 3. No. 4. F.G.J.

(A) Square edged relief, flat surface, side lighted.

(B) Rounded relief, undulating surface, side lighted.
(No. ia) Seen in dull light.
(No. 2b) Seen in similar light, surface modelling lost.
(No. 3A) Light directly in front, flatness accented.
(No. 4B) In extreme side light, rounded relief intensified,

^sTUb^
OFTHF
XTKIVERSITT
 ;

80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

are by carving and modelling ; and as both the methods

of execution and the materials employed vary, so the
results should exhibit distinct characteristics. In carved
work you have, so to speak, to dig out your design from
a hard material ; in modelling you build up your forms
with a soft and pliable material ; for these reasons, if for

no other, terra-cotta should be easily distinguishable

from stone carving. The finishing of terra-cotta should

not be carried on in the direction of imitating carved

work, but in conformity with the plastic nature of the
clay ; so that, when converted into hardness by the
process of firing, the characteristics of the material and
the method of work should be still preserved.
Relief work may be either direct or indirect — direct

when the material in which it is wrought, carved, or

modelled, remains as the final medium for its expression

indirect when the pattern is first modelled or carved in

some soft material with a view to its translation into

some other material, such as bronze, iron, or the precious

metals. In the case of direct work, such as is applied

to furniture, a consideration of the woods employed is of
importance. Dark and heavy-looking woods require
bold and broad treatment, while light-coloured woods
require delicate execution. When relief work is used
indirectly, a consideration of the material in which it is

to be finally expressed is essential ; bronze and iron, for

 METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 81

instance, requiring a larger and bolder treatment than

is necessary for silver and gold. This is determined
as much by the colour of the metal used as by its

intrinsic value. While these general principles are

observed, the question of scale must not be over-
looked ; for obviously the size or minuteness of an
object will have to be taken into account in ad-
justing relief decoration, or, in fact, decoration of
any kind.
Again, in modelling or carving for reproduction in
different materials, certain ways of carrying it out will
be dictated by circumstances. When the cost of
reproduction is of secondary importance, the artist is

left fairly free in his rendering of the relief; but, if

it becomes necessary to consider economy, as in the

case of cheap metal castings, or plaster ornaments
for repetition, this freedom will be checked by
practical considerations. In the first case, high
relief with undercutting may be indulged in, because
the more costly mode of producing a mould for

casting can be used — such moulds being composed

of any number of pieces requisite for producing an
accurate copy of the original. In the second, a
less varied relief and an avoidance of all under-
cutting will be essential, so that a simpler kind of
moulding may be employed. The annexed simple
82 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

diagrams will further explain. No. I. shows the section

of a piece of relief ornament. The dotted lines

indicate the pieces into which it is

J||w^ necessary to divide the mould, in

• order to reproduce the undercutting,

^^ and the formation of which entails
considerable labour and, therefore, expense. No. II.

shows the necessary alterations in the modelling of a

similar ornament to adapt it to a one-piece mould.

The effect of relief is often aided and heightened by

the use of colour : for instance, in the plaster decorations

of the Moors, it appears to have been adopted in order

to give distinctness to the relief ornaments which adorned
their dimly-lighted interiors, and also to prevent the con-

fusion which was likely to arise from their practice of

superposing one pattern upon another, in their richer

schemes of decoration. The want of light in Gothic

churches no doubt primarily led to the use of colour in
connection with carved work, to help its effect instead of

increasing the depth of the cutting. A variety of relief

decoration is to be found in pierced or perforated work,

i.e., work in which the ground or pattern is entirely re-

moved. This method of treating ornament is applicable

to various materials, such as wood, stone, ivory, and

metal, and is invaluable in combining richness of effect
with actual lightness of material. In pierced relief work,
 METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 83

the effect chiefly lies in the ordered spaces and inter-

spaces ; therefore any carving or modelling of the spaces,
or masses of the pattern, should be subordinated, so
that low relief and soft hollows should be preferred to
high relief or deeply - cut incisions upon the surface
of the work. Compare Fig. 13 with Fig. 14 on
Plate XIV. Pierced work may have an even pattern,

untouched by carving of any kind ; and is often so

treated with good results. Whatever form is used, or in
whatever material it is expressed, the principles that
regulate piercing are constant. Thus, the pattern should
be as distinct and clear as possible ; and to this end all

oblique crossings and complicated details, which tend to

confusion, should be carefully avoided. (See Figs. 15

and 16, same Plate.) The peculiarity of the material in

which decoration of this kind is wrought, requires atten-

tion, and should influence treatment. Brittle materials
— e.g., some woods, stone, and pottery —require broader
treatment and stronger attachments than are necessary
in the case of iron or brass. If work of this kind is to

be executed with the fret-saw, long simple lines in the

pattern are best ; intricate details and sudden turns

impede the action of the saw and prevent easy execution.
When, however, such work is to be executed with
punches or chisels, these more complex details may be
introduced into the design, consistently with clearness.
G 2
 —

84 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

Whether the ground or pattern is cut away will

depend upon the circumstance of application. If

the former is desirable, the pattern will have to

be connected at certain points by "ties," that it

may hold together, the interspaces or ground being

interrupted ; if the latter, then the ground will have
to be connected by " ties " crossing the pattern, which
becomes interrupted and the ground continuous (see

annexed stencil patterns). The use of pierced work

has influenced and generated other forms of decoration.

Much Arabian and English Elizabethan relief ornament
is evidently derived from pierced work superposed upon
even surfaces ; while marquetry, though properly be-
longing to surface decoration, is practically an adaptation
of the same work, consisting as it does of the interchange
of pieces of fretwork in different coloured materials
tortoiseshell, brass, white metal, etc. Stencilling, again,
 ;

METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 85

is only the application of open work to the easy

production of surface decoration, and is effected in the
following manner : A pattern is cut out in paper or
zinc and laid upon the surface to be ornamented
colour is then brushed over the openings, and, on
the removal of the paper or zinc, there remains a
pattern corresponding with the pattern of the stencil
plate. Sgraffito is another mode of decoration which
it will be well to notice here : it is used for wall
decoration, and is exceedingly effective in its various
treatments, which range from simple incised line work
to low relief in mass. This kind of decoration is thus
produced : A thin layer of light - coloured plaster or
cement is superposed on a dark one, either black or
coloured ; and then the A design, previously pre-
pared on paper, is transferred to the sur-
face. The pattern is next cut with a knife
through the light, or upper, layer down
to the under, or dark, substratum
of plaster, re vealing a light
pattern on a dark ground,
which may be in line or

mass ac- cording to

taste. If a thicker
uppe r layer of

plaster — 2.A" be em-

86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

ployed, it may then be carved ; the effect being a low-

relief on a coloured ground, rather like that of Wedg-
wood ware. Gesso, again, is a variety of relief work
executed with the brush, and, therefore, may be properly
called relief painting. A mixture of plaster of Paris and
diluted glue is made of about the consistency of cream,
and this is painted on the surface to be decorated : first,

thinly ; afterwards, by successive touches, the gesso is

piled up until the limits of low relief are attained ; by

the addition of cotton wool or tow a high relief can,
however, be secured, and when it sets hard, as it will

do in a little time, the work may be carved, tinted, and

coloured. A harder and a finer variety is composed of
mie part resin, four parts of linseed oil, and six parts
of melted glue ; a small portion of whitening, soaked
in water, being added to give substance and opacity.
This takes longer to dry ; but, when set, it becomes
very hard and can be highly polished. Latterly, some
patent materials used by house decorators have been
successfully employed for gesso work —such as " Ala-

bastine" and " Denoline." The former is the more

easily manipulated.
 CHAPTER IV.

ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.

THE character of ornamental

on the details
art depends greatly
employed, as well as upon mod»
of arrangement. Although good ornament is possible
with simple materials, yet, undoubtedly, the higher forms
of decorative art must include the noblest elements.
While we are naturally drawn to those compositions
which include the highest organic forms, we should not
discard the use of those composed of less interesting
materials, because they hold a place and fulfil a useful
though humble function in the decorative systems. The
elements of ornament are drawn from many sources, and
may be broadly classified under two heads : the arti-
ficial and the natural. These, for convenience, may
be subdivided into (i) Geometrical, (2) Architectural,
 ;

88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

(3) Industrial, (4) Vegetable, (5) Animal, and (6) the

Human Figure. Under the first come frets, interfacings,

traceries, geometrical diapers, etc. Under the second,

columns, entablatures, pediments, pilasters, labels, car-
touches, etc. Under the third, tools, musical instruments,
draperies, ribbons, candelabra, vases, arms, etc. The
fourth will include, plants, leaves, flowers, fruits and
roots, festoons, acanthus foliage, rosettes ; and the fifth,

fishes, birds, quadrupeds', insects, reptiles, griffins,

dolphins, shells, etc. The sixth division will comprise,

adult figures, amorini, caryatfdes, telamones, terminals,

etc. To consider fully all the elements which might
come under the several heads would be quite impossible
within the limits of this work ; and we will, therefore,

content ourselves with the consideration of some of the

more important in each class, commencing with those
included under the first sub-division. (1) Geometrical
Elements : The simplest elements are the right-lined
ornaments, the frets, which are useful for ornamenting
flat surfaces, and which occur in all historic styles.

They are chiefly employed for borders, for which

their firmness of expression eminently fits them
but many diapers formed of them are to be found,
especially in Japanese and Egyptian art. Frets, as
borders, may be variously set out, according to the
purpose for which they are required. Usually the
 / ;

ELEMENTS OF OKN^MENT. 89

pattern and the ground are equally spaced, as in Fig. a

but this need not always be the case, for a more plea-
sing effect can be obtained by unequal
spacing, as in Fig. b. Then, again, cv nj HJ p
I

they need not always be based upon the ~Z" ,,

square, but may be based upon the *lllu~l°iSlBrr

oblong, as shown in Fig. c. This form c 1 n r_ , .
, i 1

will be better for the expression of hori- —

zontality, but many frets are to be met
q
~l/< — ^3v
with, chiefly Oriental, in which oblique

lines are introduced, as in Fig. d\ and these are very

suitable for flat inclined surfaces. Interlacings and
traceries, composed of oblique, vertical, and horizontal
lines, serve for similar purposes, and possess more
interest from the variety infused into their composition.
The use of curves, either in conjunction with right

lines or by themselves, leads on to a richer series.

Interlaced patterns, based wholly on the circle, will give

such patterns as the Guilloche and the Money border
(see Plate XL).
Geometrical figures and spacings are valuable
elements, and lie at the base of those elaborate and
intricate patterns in which the Oriental artists and the
mosaic workers of the Middle Ages so freely indulged.
The use of these figures in the construction of diapers
has already been pointed out in Chapter I.
 p^/gggagggg

CHAPTER V.

ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS.

NEXT in order come architectural elements. Archi-

tecture, rightly understood, is the art of aesthetic
construction — not construction merely, but construction
allied with beauty — not made beautiful by superadded
decoration, but by beauty inherent in its construction.
In good architecture we recognise the fullest expression
of the inventive and constructive faculties, together with
a regard for beauty ; and, as it is based upon order, fit-

ness, proportion, stability, and grace, elements drawn

from such a source necessarily possess qualities so high
as to command the attention of the ornamentist. The
chief concern of decorative art is with beauty of line,

form, and colour, and it has less to do with constructive

necessities than architecture. The freedom it enjoys
 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. 91

from that restraint which attends aesthetic construction,

is, without some counteracting influence, a dangerous

liberty, liable to run riot ; but the employment of archi-
tectural elements offers a means for minimising such a
tendency. In all the best periods of ornamental art the
influence of architecture is distinctly seen. It is traceable
in pottery, stained and painted glass, iron-work, jewellery,

the decoration of panels, pilaster shafts, etc. Archi-

tectural forms, pure and simple, are often incorporated
in decorative designs, but are oftener modified by the
imagination, so as to bring them into harmony with
other and freer details, with which they become
associated. Hence, while some forms are distinctly

architectural, others are but suggestive (see Plate XVII.,

Fig. 13, a capital by Holbein). Now, in adapting
architectural forms in a design, it is not essential that
the rigidity necessary in pure architecture should always
be maintained, because the same structural conditions
have not to be dealt with. In the case of architecture,
actual physical weight has to be provided for ; in

decoration, the appearances of weight only ; and so long

as the eye is satisfied with the semblance of stability,
freedom of treatment can be indulged in. The reason
given above for modifying the severe forms of archi-
tecture — namely, that they may be brought into harmonious
relation with more ornate elements —justifies such treat-
92 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

ment ; and the history of architecture itself furnishes

instances in which forms, taken from a severe style to be
used in a richer one, underwent considerable change to
fit them for their new position. Take one example from
Roman art. In adopting the Grecian Doric column a, it

was necessary to so soften and tone down its

severe features as to bring it into harmony with

the richer ornamental system associated with
the Corinthian order. This was the Roman
practice. The original column would have
been discordant and disturbing to the general

unity of the work in which it was employed ;

it was, therefore, so to speak, revised (as Fig. b).

It was made taller and more slender, had a

moulded abacus, a distinct necking was given
to it, and a base added. Whatever modifi-
cations are indulged in, care must be taken
,fe£; that the variations are upon architectural lines

and principles. To do this, it follows that a

knowledge of pure architecture is of vital importance, if

the elements from such a source are to be intelligently

used. The study of architecture will not only furnish
ornamental material, but will bring to light principles of
high decorative importance. For instance, in regard to

the crowning of supporting members like columns, the

higher the column in proportion to width, the taller the
 Plate XVII.

M7NIVERSITY
 . ;

94 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

capital, and vice versa. This principle, it will be seen, is

also recognised in the relative pitch of the roofs of classic

buildings and those of northern Gothic.

Apart from climatic and other con-
ditions, the horizontality of the former
~
rig. i. artistically requires a lower gable or
pediment (Fig. i). The vertical tendency of Gothic

A buildings calls for a higher pitch

M
(Fig. 2).

Reverse these and the importance of the

principle is seen at once.
The value of this principle would appear
to be attested in the development of Gothic windows,
in which we have the long narrow ones of the lancet
period surmounted by an acutely
/^fffh^v
pointed arch ; while in the later

phases of the style these apertures

widen, and the crowning arch be-
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. comes depressed (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

This general principle is a guide in proportioning the

superadornment of rectangular spaces, whether of frontis-

pieces of books, or a pair of park gates in wrought iron

in fact, many historic examples show that this proportion

has been observed by their designers (Plate XVII., Figs.

4, 5, 10, 14, and 15). Each of these five figures on

Plate XVII. appears to be controlled, in its general lines,

by the proportion of the classic pediment, which may be

 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. 95

roughly determined as shown at Fig. 3. Place one leg

of the compasses on the point where the vertical central
line crosses the horizontal cornice, and extend the other
to the extremity of the latter, and then describe a
quadrant, cutting the vertical line below. Taking the
intersection thus made as a centre, and with the chord
of the arc as a radius, describe a semicircle upwards,
cutting the vertical line, which will determine the slant
of the raking cornice. Again, mouldings usually have
a projection, from the body of the work to which they
belong, equal to their depth ; and, when decorated, the
lines of the pattern agree with the section. Such prin-
ciples have influenced all good decorative work, subject,
of course, to modifications by material ; for instance, the

tenacity of metal over that of stone will allow the pro-

jection of metal mouldings to exceed what is the safe
limit for stone architecture.

Having pointed out some principles, we will now

pass on to notice a few ornamental details derived
from architecture. Perhaps no detail is so frequently
used, more or less modified, as the volute scroll.

It was designed originally to occupy the space left

between the bell of the capital and the soffit of the

angular abacus ; as in the Corinthian capitals of
columns and pilasters (Plate XVII., Fig. 6), where
it assumes the function of support for the over-
96 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

hanging portion of the latter. Its gracefulness and

strength render it particularly suitable for setting out

friezes and other ornamental arrangements where these

qualities are desirable (see Fig. n). Figs. 16, 17, 18,

19, and 20 show the development this element has

undergone. On the same Plate, Figs. 1 and 2 show
forms often seen in old iron-work, which are derivatives
from architectural details. Fig. 1 is from a baluster or
dwarf column, as shown at a ; Fig. 2 is abstracted from
a "broken pediment," as at b\ Figs. 7 and 8 are door
hinges, and obviously their form is influenced by the
round arch used in architecture of the Norman period.
The hinge, Fig. 9, belongs to the period when the
pointed arch came into use, the influence of which is

seen in the change of form and in the way the scrolls

spring from the central strap. Fig. 12 shows the
decoration of a narrow upright panel with an ornamentally
treated architectural support.
Cartouches, which we include in this section, appear to
owe their origin, as the meaning of the word indicates,

to the ancient use of paper or parchment labels for

holding inscriptions and badges ; when the latter were
used, the cartouche took the form of shields. The edges
of these labels or shields, when fancifully cut, naturally

curled into scroll forms of an ornamental character.

This, attracting attention, led to a systematic develop-
 Plate XVIII.

M,,
(JlHI'Mi • »'MI!||||||
 Plate XIX

^^^ -

tig- ^ hi «y\b m^mm^W^ iral <

*

; ^^iM^rmJ^ fo^rlT^ WtttttJ F.G.J

 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. 99

ment, and ultimately, in conjunction with interlaced

ornament, resulted in that particular kind of decorative

detail known as cartouche work. As an element it

is valuable in design, both in its capacity as a foil to

set off more interesting ornament, and as a tonic to

give strength to a composition. On Plate XVIII. are

shown some sketches from cut paper, with the edges
rolled in various ways, to illustrate the probable be-
ginnings of the cartouche : Fig. 12, cut as at a, with the

projections rolled backwards ; Fig. 13, cut on the lines

of b> the parts rolled backwards and forwards ; Fig. 14

is a variation of the same, all the parts being curved

forwards ; Fig. 15 shows a richer form, cut as at c; and
Figs. 16, 17, 18, and 19 are obtained in the same way,
the diagrams attached, d}
e,
f t
and g t
being their forms
in the flat. Plate XIX. is devoted to examples showing
the further development of the cartouche at different

periods. After the ornamental elaboration of the edges

they become thickened, a result no doubt obtained from
their reproduction in carving. The thickness was some-
times uniform, but more often graduated, a refinement
which added greatly to the character of this ornamental
element (see Figs. 1, 4, and 6 from French and Flemish
examples of the sixteenth century). Then we have the
borders of the cartouche foliated and adorned with masks
and other details based on natural objects (see Fig. 2,

H 2
IOO THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

after Holbein, Fig. 3, from a German design of the six-

teenth century, and Fig. 10, from late French Renais-

sance). Another way of treating the edge was by the
application of distinct architectural features, more or less

severe, as in Fig. 8, which is an illustration taken from

Italian art of the sixteenth century. Figs. 9 and 1 1 show
the modelling of the edge into rounded forms, a treat-
ment peculiar to the style known as " Louis Treize."

Some cartouches have their surfaces pierced, as in Figs.

4 and 5, and in very rich examples we have a combina-
tion of two, or even three, cartouches superposed,
portions of the upper one interpenetrating the lower,
as in Fig. 4. Again, the surface is often seen panelled,

as in the Jacobean example, Fig. 7, whilst Fig. 12

illustrates the application of the idea of the cartouche

to strap work, which largely dominated the English

Renaissance.
 CHAPTER VI.

INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS.

WE now pass on to consider the industrial elements

comprised in our third division. Although for

convenience we have assumed for these objects a distinct

class, yet it might be fairly regarded as a sub- division of

the architectural group. Theoretically and practically

the distinction is but slight. If our definition of archi-

tecture be right, that it is the art of aesthetic construc-
tion, and at the same time we accept the dictum that
every article fashioned for useful purposes should be fitly

formed and made pleasing to the eye, it follows that

industrial art and architecture have much in common.
Although industrial objects have to serve the minor
purposes of life, they are nevertheless architectural in
character — the difference between a cup rightly designed,
102 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

and a building truly planned for a specific purpose, is

rather a matter of degree than of principle. The ani-

mating principles of architecture and industrial art being

identical in spirit, the results are often similar; and so
distinctly is this the case, that occasions arise when it is

very difficult to classify them. The classification adopted

in the present instance is therefore an arbitrary one, used
for convenience only.
Industrial objects, such as tools, musical instruments,

vases, armour, etc., are used in a variety of ways, often

in a purely aesthetic manner, but more generally for

mnemonic and symbolic purposes. By the aesthetic use
of objects is to be understood the inclusion of details,

such as those just named, without any other aim than

pleasing the sense of vision ; and, therefore, the objects
are selected for the beauty of their forms, and as a
means for infusing variety and interest into a compo-
sition —the mnemonic, as the word implies, is their adop-

tion for the purpose of aiding the memory in recalling

facts and events ; and the symbolic their employment to

set forth some idea to indicate a virtue or an office.

These different uses of industrial and other elements

divide ornamental art into three classes : the aesthetic, the
mnemonic, and the symbolic ; the two latter, while being
very distinct in character from the first, are nearly allied
to one another. A symbol may be used to aid the
 INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS. 103

memory as well as to set forth an idea. Thus a cross

may serve to recall the circumstance of the death of our
Lord, and at the same time stand for the symbol of the
Christian faith ; or a lyre be used to bring to recollec-
tion the ancient use of that instrument or to typify the

general idea of music. While the symbolic and the

mnemonic have much in common, they have distinctions.

For instance, written inscriptions ornamentally treated

are mnemonic, and in no sense of the term can they

be regarded as symbolic. On Plate XX. are given
examples of symbolic details. Fig. 1 is a prehistoric

emblem of Deity. The form of a circle points to early

sun worship. The survival of this form is seen in the
halo or nimbus of the Middle Ages. In Fig. 2 we have
the Egyptian symbol of divinity, but in a more complex
form. The circle is retained, and on either side are
asps, symbols of wisdom ; while the outstretched wings
indicate sovereignty and ubiquity, attributes of the
Deity. Fig. 3 is a similar emblem %
used by the Assyrians. Above the t
central disc is a form shaped as a
bow unstrung. Being a race given $l]~fi$
to the pursuit of hunting, their conception of a god
was as a King mighty in the chase. A variety of this
symbol shows a King in the act of drawing the bow.
In Fig. 4 is given the Egyptian scarabczus, or beetle,
 :

io4 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

symbol of creation, the idea of which is thus explained :

The creature deposits its eggs in a mass of earthy refuse,

which it rolls up into a ball, and which, by its hind legs,

it drags into some spot exposed to the full power of the
sun's rays ; these, acting upon it, hatch the eggs. When
this is accomplished, the earthy matter breaks up, and
the larvae issue forth. To the mind of the Egyptians
this typified the mysteries of creation, and even the
rebirth of the Resurrection. The idea is supported
by the frequent use of this symbol on mummy cloths
and other things connected with the burial of the dead.
In Fig. 12 we have the Christian symbol of the glory of
the head, the nimbus; and in Fig. 18 the aureole, or
glory of the body. Fig. 1 3 shows the symbol of Christ
a monogram composed of the two Greek letters of His
name, Chi and Rho, with Alpha and Omega added to
indicate His eternal character. Fig. 14 is the cross,

symbol of Christianity, and a remembrance of the

Saviour's sacrifice. This is the Latin form of cross.
Fig. 15 shows the Greek form, and Fig. 16 the
Maltese, whilst Fig. 17 is the Cross of St. Andrew.
Fig. 6 is a classic symbol, the caduceus, or winged staff
of Hermes, the god who, it was said, presided over
commerce and industry. The story runs that Apollo,
when giving a golden wand to Hermes, told him that
it had the power of uniting in love all beings divided by
 Plate XX.

MGt 2- VMO 3

TIG 36 ^»^ 37
 —

io6 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

hate. Hermes, to test it, threw it down between two

snakes which he found fiercely fighting. The combat
ceased ; they twined about each other in loving embrace,
and, curling round the staff, became permanently at-

tached thereto. From its association with Hermes,

the caduceus has been accepted as the symbol of

commerce and the industrial arts. The parts composing

it each have separate symbolic meanings, thus: the staff

power, the wings despatch, and the serpents wisdom.

Fig. 1 1 is a modern symbol of handicraft i.e., of hand
work directed by the intelligence. Two forms of the
thyrsus, a symbol of festivity and gaiety, are shown in

Figs. 9 and 10. Its origin is attributed to the ancient

practice of crowning a spear-head or a staff with bunches

of vine-leaves or fir-cones, for use in the dance at

Bacchanalian revels. The vine-leaves had reference to

the wine used on those occasions, and the fir-cones and

leaves to fire, —because, as the revels were held at night,

or in dark retreats, torches were used, and these were

generally made of the wood of fir-trees. Figs. 19, 23,
and 24, show the different ways in which torches can be
employed to symbolise various ideas. Fig. 19, in its

upright position, is a symbol of life. Its reversed

position, as in Fig. 23, signifies death. By representing
the flame ascending, as it naturally would do when the
torch was inverted {see Fig. 24), it will serve as an
 INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS. 107

emblem of death and resurrection. Progress of civilisa-

tion, etc., is symbolised by a winged wheel (Fig. 29).

Figs. 32 and 33, the trident and rudder, are nautical

emblems, and are associated with the sea-god Poseidon,
or Neptune. The lyre and sistrum (Figs. 27 and 34)
are musical emblems, and, as before pointed out, can also
be used as mnemonic signs. Figs. 30 and 31 are
symbols of the drama — tragedy and comedy. These
were derived from the ancient Greek practice of using
special masks to indicate the characters of the play
during its representation on the stage. Fig. 26 is from
Assyrian art, and represents the sacred tree of life.

Fig. 20 is a symbol of the course of human life, and is

of frequent occurrence in Renaissance decoration. The

upright position of the symbol indicates the beginning or
start in life, and leads on to the point where the roads
diverge to right and left — to good and evil. Figs. 22 and
25 are examples of mnemonic ornament — inscription

ornamentally treated ; and Fig. 22 from the Moresque,

which abounds in this class of ornament. Fig. 25 is

modern ; the letters of the quotation are interwoven and

treated as ornamental elements. With this inscription

symbols are combined to indicate the flight of time —

wings at each end, and a winged hour-glass in the
centre.

The objects grouped in Fi g 28 are used to symbolise

.

UNIVERSITY
.California
 —

108 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

learning and literature. Monograms are often used in

decorative designs, and consist of letters interlaced, as

shown at Fig. 36. When, however, the letters are
reversed and more intricately combined so as to be less
easily read, they are called ciphers (see Figs. 35 and $j).
In grouping tools, musical instruments, or other
elements together, either as centre ornaments or for
filling panels, other industrial products, such as draperies,
ribbons, and cords, occur and are of very great use,

draperies for giving flexible masses ; ribbons for tying

together, for filling awkward spaces which often occur
in practice, and also for relieving the heaviness of
effect likely to result from the use of massive detail.

The employment and development of ribbon material

comes naturally in some arrangements. In the decoration
of an upright panel, when the objects are strung together
and suspended, it is desirable not to hide, but to show,

the means of suspension, and to present them in as

pleasant a form as possible. The inevitable knots,

bows, and ends connected with this mode of treatment
should be carefully studied for the lines of exquisite
beauty which they reveal, not only in historic examples,
but, primarily, in actual ones formed of different materials.
Their value is mostly to be appreciated in conjunction

with other elements, but even used by themselves they

furnish very fair ornament (see headpiece, page 10 1).
Plate XXI.
no THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

The flying ends of ribbons assume a variety of curves,

the movements of which have been taken advantage of
in historic art. Sometimes we have a simple flowing
movement (a), at other times the smooth-
ness of flow is relieved by a rippling of
the surface, which adds materially to the
richness of effect (b). On Plate XVIII.
are given examples of ribbons, narrow draperies, and
knots sketched from actual material, to show the
origin of these details which so frequently occur in

the ornament of different periods (see Figs, i to n).

Further illustrations of the treatment and use of
ribbons will be found on Plate XXL, which is devoted
to historic examples of the ornamental grouping of
armour, tools, etc. Fig. i is a group of musical
instruments strung together by drapery, an example of
French decoration of the eighteenth century. Fig. 2

is a cluster of instruments consisting of a tambourine,

trumpets and flutes, with which are entwined wreaths of
olive-leaves. The whole group is suspended by a
ribbon, the flying ends of which have a rippled surface.
Fig. 3 is a modern example of a decorative arrangement
of tools by the late Alfred Stevens, and shows a very
skilful adjustment of unpromising ornamental material.
Fig. 4 is a panel decoration, composed of shields tied
together with ribbons. Fig. 5 is taken from a piece of
 INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS. in

sixteenth century Italian pottery. In this example the

ribbons play an important part, and are ingeniously used
to fill up the somewhat awkward spaces between the
groups of arms, labels, etc.; although the result is not
altogether satisfactory, for the redundancy and fluttered
character of this element conveys a feeling of unrest and
want of repose. Fig. 6 is a modern design composed of
musical instruments and art objects, with foliage appro-
priate to the idea of the composition. On comparing
the foregoing examples it will be seen that where the
elements are" so different in form and the groups are
suspended, the arrangements are upon the principle of
Balance ; but where the forms are selected for their

similarity of shape, and the groups are merely superposed

on a ground, to which they adhere for support, they
approach more or less to a Symmetrical order.
 CHAPTER VII

VEGETABLE ELEMENTS.

WE have now to consider those classes of

which are derived directly from nature, taking

elements

the first subdivision, namely, vegetable forms. Here the

material presented to the ornamentist is both varied and
abundant, capable of easy adaptation to his requirements.
The history of decorative art shows the constant employ-
ment of such material, and exhibits also great variety of
treatment, from the realistic to the severely conventional ;

at times dangerously near to too literal transcription

to be consistent with good ornament, at other times
only suggesting the originals. When plants are re-

produced realistically, they cannot be regarded as orna-

ment : because they show no attempt at idealism or
adaptation, principles which lie at the root of all good
 VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 113

ornament. Therefore, except for symbolic or mnemonic

purposes, plants should not have a literal interpretation ;

for, as Sir Gardiner Wilkinson points out :

" The imita-

tion of natural objects, for mere ornamental purposes,

usually disagrees both with the material used and the
place where they are introduced ; it is also an indication

of poverty of invention, and a deficiency of taste in

design." So-called decorative art, whose Alpha and

Omega consist in the copying of natural details, is the
refuge of the ignorant, who, in their narrow view of
nature-worship, often grossly violate her laws and
principles. In the study of plants for decorative pur-
poses, it is necessary that one should become acquainted
not only with the ideal forms of leaves and flowers, as set
forth in Chapter IV., "Lessons on Decorative Design," but
also with their life's history from the cradle to the grave,
their habits, the conditions under which they thrive,

and the nature of the curves that their varied growths

suggest. Rose and tree should be infinitely more to an
artist than they are to a mere cultivator of flowers.
The latter may revel in the symmetry of his plants
and the doubleness of his blooms ; but the former
should discover other beauties than those which con-
sist in a " well-shaped shrub " or in the complexity
of a " doubled flower." Suggestiveness of line and
simplicity of form are of more importance to the
114 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

decorator than the peculiarities of the latest product of

the scientific cultivator.
Consider plants in their entirety : roots, stems, leaves,

flowers, and fruits, and what a boundless store of sug-

gestions are presented to us ! Yet how little some
designers avail themselves of them, being satisfied to
repeat old conventional forms, or to take the most
ordinary ready-to-hand treatments of natural forms, or
culling from the pages of some "herbal," and never
troubling themselves by personal research for those
inspiring motives with which nature has surrounded
them. For instance, how often do we see in so-called
naturalistic panel decoration pots and vases used as
start-points, till one is sick of their wearisome repetition.

Not that pots in themselves are bad as start-points, — on

the contrary, they are reasonable ones ; but it is their

constant repetition, to the neglect of those furnished by

nature in the varied roots from which plants spring.
The many different forms roots assume afford admirable

suggestions, andmuch more might be done with them

than has been attempted. On Plate XXII. are given
some types of roots, and Figs. 1-9 show their simple
ornamental rendering. Figs. 10-13 show the adaptation
of plants, with their natural start-points. In Fig. 10 is

given the adaptation of the white lily to a somewhat

fancifully shaped space, the earth line entering into com-
 Plate XXII.

TGJ
I 2
u6 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

position with the bulb and root. Fig. 12 is a study

from the couch grass, and shows a further ornamental
treatment of the ground through which the underground
stem of the plant runs ; Fig. 1 1, the top view of a plant,
showing the fibrous root developed into tracery, and
accented so as to form a contrast with the foliage. Fig.

13 is the conventional treatment and adaptation of the

root and foliage of the parsnip to a vertical border, the

tones introduced between the tracery of the rootlets

being suggested by the element in which it naturally

grows. These examples illustrate an important law of
growth, which is too often neglected in ornamental
work — that reversed growths have distinct points
of departure, the ascending axis of a plant throwing
off its leaves in one direction, the appendages of
the descending axis in an opposite one ; but the
departure is marked either by a' thickening of the
intervening portion, or by the line of the earth in

which it grows. In all good ornament of a flowing

kind, however conventional it may be, this law has been
observed, thus ^a^"J/^
Z^~
:
'
5^*-\ )
^'
never so
<
and, if even <cr^ ;i>

more than one start-point is used, a stop is introduced

to arrest the flow, as at and this, it

will be seen, is in harmony fh^LdM^fe!? with the

law pertaining to plant >'; ^P^^ life.
Plate XXIII.
n8 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

In all naturalistic treatments, the direction of stems

and their general composition should be closely studied
for the ornamental lines that may be abstracted from them
for decorative purposes. It follows that the lines so

obtained from any plant will be better suited for build-

ing up a design founded on that plant than those of a

purely inventive character ; there will be a sympathy
between the detail and the general construction in the

first case that will be wanting in the latter. On Plate

XXIII. are given some sketches of trees, and abstractions

therefrom, for decorative purposes. Fig. i, drawn from
a young hawthorn, is ornamentally treated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 3 is an ornamental rendering of a pine-tree shown in

the realistic sketch, Fig. 6. The ornamental frieze

pattern, Fig. 4, is based upon the lines derived from an

espalier cherry-tree. Figs. 5, 7, and 8 are decorative
tree forms, the lines of which are abstracted from nature,
taken from Italian textiles. Other forms of a similar
kind will be found on Plate XV., Figs. 1 and 2. On
Plate XXIV. are given some further illustrations of the

abstraction of lines from nature for the purpose of

getting fresh ornamental elements. The drawings from
which they were taken will be found on Plate XXV.
Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, Plate XXIV. are simple
analytic lines taken from the corresponding figures on

Plate XXV. Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12, Plate XXIV.,

 Plate XXIV.

FGJ
university)
Plate XXV.
 VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 121

show abstracted lines and forms from Figs. 9, 12, 13,

16, and 17, Plate XXV., which, with others, were

drawn from the same tulip flower in the various stages

of its growth. Figs. 13 to 20, Plate XXIV., demonstrate

the method of dealing with abstracted forms in building
up new ornamental details; Figs. 13 to 17 by simple
serration of edges, and in Figs. 18, 19, and 20 by the
superposition of tones and lines, resulting in the pro-
duction of varied elements suitable for use in designs of
a conventional type.
The lower part of Plate XXIII. is occupied with
examples of patterns based upon lines abstracted from
cloud and wave forms. Fig. 9 shows a sketch from
nature, and Fig. 10 its ornamental interpretation. Fig.

1 3 is a drawing from nature of waves breaking upon the

shore, and Figs. 11 and 12 give ornamental treatments
of the same. In Pig. 14 are shown cloud forms from a

Japanese book.
Again, leaves in their various stages of development,
from the bud state to their final expansion, together with
their surface decoration by veining, superposition of tone
and colour, and the shapes of their margins, offer

to the ornamentist abundant hints and suggestions.

The purity of form and line observable in early plant
life, the graceful lines of the tender branches, and the
exquisite shapes of leaf-buds, should command attention
122 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

and careful study. A patient investigation of bud forms

alone, in early Spring-time, would amply repay the student,
for many a hidden delight would be revealed to him. On
Plate XXVI. are given a few studies of early leaf-buds.
Fig. i is the lilac. Fig. 2 is from the sycamore, and in

it are shown different stages in the growth of the buds ;

the graceful way in which the lower one leaves the

stem, and the composition of line it displays, is worthy of
particular notice. Further developments of the buds of
the sycamore are shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11.

Attention should be given in Fig. 9 to the termination

of the upper scale of the bud envelope, which is foliated,

resembling a sculptured finial. Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are

buds of the horse-chestnut in various degrees of develop-

ment. They are characterised by a sturdy and vigorous
growth, and the forms composing the envelope have
very pronounced shapes. Figs. 12, 13, 14, and 15 were
sketched from the buds of the ash-tree.
While leaves, and the forms of leaf-buds, may have
been less regarded than their quiet beauty justifies, the
same cannot be said of flowers. Their -brilliancy has
caused them to be universally admired, and as a con-
sequence they are largely used as an element in orna-

mental art of all styles. They are more pronounced in

styles of a naturalistic character, but modified in what are

usually considered conventional styles, such, for instance,
Plate XXVI.
124 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

as the Greek and Roman. In these styles but little use

has been made of positive forms of flowers, and the
reason is not far to seek. Anything approaching a natura-
listic rendering of them would ill accord with the con-
ventional lines prevailing in classic ornament ; and so we.

find that the terminations to scrolls consist for the most

part of groups of leaves disposed in a multi-symmetrical
or bi-symmetrical manner, on the principles observed in
flowers. In modern practice the results of the classic

method have been adopted, and few attempts appear

to have been made to further develop the application
of similar principles to those which animated the work of
ancient times, although the book of nature is still

open as of yore. Glance down the pages of any

illustrated book on elementary botany, and note the
various orders of inflorescence ; and it must strike any
thoughtful student in search of ideas and principles
how many suggestions are here presented, all of which,
if utilised in the same way as was done by the old
masters, would lead to good results. For example,
take the simplest form of inflorescence, the spike (see

small diagrams on Plate XXVII.), and adapt it. Taking

its principle of growth, and not any individual specimen,
we have a termination perfectly consistent with the
scroll, while it harmonises well with the longitudinal
character of the border pattern (see Fig. i, same
 Plate XXVII.

warn
126 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

plate). On again taking the capitulum and merely

adopting the principle, which is the placing of a
number of flowers on a disc or head, as diagram b,

it will admirably compose with the spiral lines of the

scroll (Plate XXVII., Fig. 2). Fig. 3 shows the
application of the principle of an unfolding leaf-bud to

the finish of a scroll ; Fig. 4, the ornamental ex-

pression of the principle of the glomerule (diagram f) ;

Fig. 5, the application of the principle of the scorpioid

(diagram d) to a wave line pattern. In Fig. 6 is shown
a scroll termination based upon the umbel (diagram c).

Fig. 7 is a diaper arranged on the lines of the umbel and

scorpioid. Flowers being the crowning glory of plants,
and as they are mostly made conspicuous by their

distinct colouring, it is essential that they should have

some emphasis, whether expressed by line, space, or
mass. The purpose of plant life is the production of
fruit and seeds, whereby they are propagated. The
forms which carry the seeds assume a variety of shapes,
and are suitable to the needs of the decorator. Very
many require but little adaptation, as their forms are
more set and regular than is the case with flowers and
leaves. On Plate XXVIII. are given examples.
Figs. 1 and 2 are the seed vessels of the nasturtium,
and Figs. 3, 4, and 5 give the different forms assumed
by that interesting plant, "love-in-a-mist." Fig. 6
Plate XXVIII.
128 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

presents front forms of the wild rose. Figs. 7, 15, and

16 show the seed vessels and appendages of the fox-
glove. Fig. 8 is the seed receptacle of the common
garden marigold, which is at once a quaint and sug-
gestive form. In Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12 are given the
<c "
heads of different kinds of poppies, and Fig. 14 shows
the fruit of the tomato— a useful form for bold deco-

ration. In Fig. 17 are given sketches of the fruit of the

sweet pea. The ornamental lines, which the envelopes
present when they liberate the seeds, are generally
of a very attractive character ; and the study of them
will furnish many a decorative hint. Fig. 18 shows
the cone of the fir-tree — a bold form richly ornamented.
It is a natural example of decoration by oblique striping,
and in this respect offers a contrast to the vertical

divisions seen in such forms as the tomato, poppy, " love-

in-a-mist," etc.

Algae, or sea-weeds, furnish abundant ornamental

material; and should not be neglected, for an investiga-
tion of their varieties will well repay the trouble of
search and research. For designs of a nautical character

their use is obvious enough, but their employment need

not be restricted to any special purpose any more than
other forms of vegetable life. See Plate XXIX., on
which are drawn some sea-weeds having decorative
possibilities of decided character. At the bottom of the
Plate XXIX.
Plate XXX.
 VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 131

same plate are sketched a few selected examples of shells

as suggestive forms for ornament. Fungi and mosses

should be studied, as they also have great decorative
value. On Plate XXX. are shown some varieties,

principally drawn from examples appearing in Gerard's

" Herbal." The infinite variety of line in the natural
grouping and in the shapes of fungi, render them
attractive to the eye of the decorator ; while the rich
convolutions and continuity of the repetitions in mosses
are of nearly equal interest, and their suitability to serve
the purposes of backgrounds to plants of higher
organisation is at once obvious and suggestive. Again,
regarding ferns, it is quite worth the student's while to
carefully examine the spores and the way they are
disposed on the undersides of the fronds, not only on
account of the many beautiful forms examination will

disclose, but for the lessons he will receive in surface

enrichment by superposition of detail and the varied
distribution of masses. On Plate XXXI. are given some
drawings made from ferns while under the microscope,
showing the various orders in which these curious seed
vessels are arranged in spots, groups, and stripes.

Lower down on the plate some sketches are given as

hints of the way these arrangements may be utilised.

The veining seen in the cut timber of trees may

profitably arrest the attention of the student of design,
k 2
132 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

not for the purposes of imitation, like house decorators'

" graining," but for the sake of the beauty of individual

lines and their harmonious arrangement. Illustrations of

this kind of natural decoration are here given. No. i

T4<M

is from a plank of pitch-pine. No. 2 is a finial from

a piece of carpenter's work, in the
same wood, in which the lines of the
grain fall in with the form, and result
in a quaint kind of decoration, re-

minding one somewhat of savage orna-

mentation. No. 3 is taken from a moulding occurring

on a piece of furniture made of birchwood. Here the

lines flow from the concave to the convex, as if designed
specially for the purpose. The headpiece to Chapter II.

is a design based upon wood-graining. Plants may be

Plate XXXI.

FGJ
 —

134 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

used in any of the modes indicated in Chapter I. i.e.,

either by "chequering," "diapering," or ''striping,"

etc., or in any other geometrical order. To adapt

them, however, to such lines as the wave, spiral,

festoon, or scroll, harmony between the details and the

basis of the ornament must be preserved ; and this may
be secured in two different ways — either by a careful

selection of those plants whose natural growths will

easily conform to them, or by a process of abstraction,

using them for the creation of detail, so that in combining
the natural with the conventional there may be no
appearance of copied nature allied with unnatural lines.

By the latter method has the so-called acanthus scroll

and foliage been generated.
In the " Lessons on Decorative Design," the develop-
ment of this class of foliage, as far as the Gothic period,
has been dealt with; and it will only be necessary here to
point out that the Renaissance style which followed, re-
vived the classic forms, infused into them renewed vigour,
but in turn suffered decadence. On Plate XXXII.
will be found a few selected examples of historic art
which illustrate this. Fig. i, from Italian carved work of
the sixteenth century, shows distinctly a revival of
the antique —not a mere reproduction, but a develop-
ment on classic lines and methods. The leading lines of
this design flow with grace and in melodious order ; the
 Plate XXXII.

^WM<»v»u i MMwnU'tfrrnniMMiiii-m^ ffiw«W3 HMitw> iM itinTt

i i

'FIGr (S
T=vo.7
HjllllllliJillllMin

lifllHlllllllllllllllM
136 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

details clothing them are carefully thought out, and so

disposed as to relieve any monotony of direction by
arresting the attention with various pleasing forms. The
foliage from which the ornament starts is strong and
vigorous, and the free terminations of the scrolls have a
delicate grace. Notwithstanding the so-called conven-
tionality of the composition, it forcibly brings to our
remembrance the lovely leaf- edges and beautiful bud
forms which abound in natural growths. The whole
effect of this example is beautiful because of the truth on

which it is based, and its consistency throughout is equal

to its beauty. Towards the end of the sixteenth century,
however, from various causes, chiefly dexterity of hand
and less frequent reference to nature, signs of decadence
began to show themselves ; the crispness and other
characteristics of natural foliage were less and less ex-

pressed, and the points of the leaves ran into weak-looking

curves, and the vigour, which was such a marked feature
of cinque-cento work, was ultimately lost. In the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries the degradation of a
noble detail is still more apparent, and it, in common
with other ornamental elements, suffered in a marked
degree. The squareness of treatment was given up, the
points of the leaves became attenuated and twisted,
while the general design betrayed carelessness in compo-
sition. On reference to Figs. 2 and 6 it will be seen
 ;

VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 137

that effect, rather than beauty, was the aim of the artists

of these periods, and such effect as could be obtained by

the use of violent contrasts of line, form, and light and
shade. To such an extent was this carried, that in the
last phase of the style, the " Rococo," the foliage lost all

character, and consisted of mere bundles of unmeaning

curves (see Fig. 7). Fortunately, at a still later period,

a revulsion took place in favour of a better form of art

a revulsion brought about by the discoveries of ancient
Greco-Roman decoration at Pompeii. This led to the

formation of the style known in France by the name of

" Louis Seize "(Figs. 4 and and in this country as the
5),
" Adams style." Although this was an attempt to bring

forward a more classic style of design, yet it was classic

with a difference, for the previous styles were not

forgotten, and their remembrance influenced the practice
of the newer form of art. One result is to be seen
in the thin and somewhat attenuated foliage, as in

Fig. 4. This change for the better did not check the
employment of the over-free and rollicking style of the

"Rococo," which long survived ; and the great Exhibition

of 1 85 1 demonstrated its existence as a favourite style
for all classes of industrial art.

The festoon, which consists of the decoration of

the catenary, or swag, with floral details, has been
largely used in decorative art, and is useful for obtaining
 ;

138 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN..

contrasting lines or for the purpose of securing unity

in a design. The fully developed festoons are composed
of two start-points, from which they hang, and of sheaths,
out of which issue the fruit, flowers, and leaves ; these
generally increasing in bulk towards the central or lowest
part, thus : Sjk Jjj Their treatment should vary
according ^^U--^ to the character of the design

or composition into which they enter, whether light,

fanciful, dignified, or severe.

The historic records of art show that the swag, or fes-

toon, is based upon three simple types, more or less invol-

ving the catenary curve.

a
p^ ^^JL^
The first is like a simple !
N.J.^ \j
hanging cord or chain,
having the same weight throughout its entire course
the second is like a necklace, the details being arranged
in bunches ; the third, thicker in the middle and gradu-
ating upwards, somewhat resembles a piece of hanging
drapery. The order of development, from the simplest
form of festoon to the richest, appears to have been :

first the elaboration of the parts near the points of

suspension by the addition of some purely inventive
shapes, and by the arrangement of the ribbons on
which the details of the swag are strung ; and then
the marking of the central and lower part of the
curve by some pronounced feature. Festoons arranged
 —

VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 139

strictly according to the first type can never be quite

satisfactory in themselves, because of the want of gra-
dation, though they may serve special purposes. It will

be found that when they are based on the third type,

whether made continuous or interrupted — i.e., when
the details are composed in graduated quantities

their design will be of a brighter quality. The festoon

is undoubtedly of festal origin. The stringing together
of fruits and flowers with ribbons and draperies for the
adornment of buildings on joyous occasions, whether
secular or religious, would be the readiest and most
natural form of decoration for the purpose, and appears
to have been indulged in from very early times.
The beauty of the lines into which these extempo-
raneous decorations naturally fell struck the eyes of artistic
folk; who, taking advantage of the suggestions presented,
were led to construct ornaments from them, but in a
more enduring form, in painting and carving. On Plate
XXXIII. is given a variety of examples, showing various
treatments of this ornament from the simplest form to
the most ornate. Fig. 9, from the Greco-Roman, is a
simple one, based upon the first type previously alluded
to, in which the elements composing it are repeated in
one direction and without gradation. Fig. 10, belonging
to the same style, is a festoon of more complete form ;

the details graduating from the points of suspension

Plate XXXIII
 VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 141

towards the centre, which is well marked. Fig. 3, also

Greco-Roman, is a compact and severe form. Fig. 14,
a Roman sculptured example, is heavy and compact in

construction ; the ribbon with which the leaves and fruits

are tied together becomes a feature in the design ; bows
of ribbon form the start-points, and the middle of the
festoon is accented by the crossing of this material.
Fig. 7 is an early Italian specimen, in which the details

graduate in one direction only. Fig. 1 is also an Italian

example, possessing all the essentials of a festoon, but very

simple in form. Fig. 2 is a richer example of Italian
work of the sixteenth century. Fig. 4, another from the
same source, is made still richer by the use of a greater
variety of detail and a further elaboration of the ribbon
Fig. 5 is a somewhat later example, and is arranged upon
the second type ; the ends of the ribbon being prolonged
and made to play a greater part in the composition.
Figs. 11 and 12 are simple forms based on the same
type, the one incorporating naturalistic details, the other
conventional ones. Figs. 15 and 16 are taken from late

French Renaissance, and show the use of drapery with

natural group of fruit and leaves. Figs. 13, 17, 18, 19,

20, and 21, mostly Italian, are given to show the varied
treatment of the parts next to the points of suspension,
by the use of ribbon, floral, and architectural forms.
 CHAPTER VIII.

ANIMAL ELEMENTS.

the second sub-division of natural elements we

IN have those derived from animate nature, such as
quadrupeds, birds, fish, reptiles, and insects. These have
always been largely used in ornamental art in a more or
less naturalistic manner. The fact that animate forms are
more difficult to treat ornamentally than inanimate ones,
did not deter the old artists from their use ; on the
contrary, they grappled with the difficulties because they
were fully alive to the increased interest that animal
forms would give to their compositions. In prehistoric

art instances occur of their employment in connection

with the interlaced ornaments peculiar to those re-
mote periods. In point of fact, the art workers of
those times appear to have restricted themselves in
 ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 143

their choice of materials from nature to the use of

animals only as ornamental elements, rarely using vege-
table forms. The reason for this is to be found in the

fact that man in his early condition had an intense

interest in those animals which aided him in his

struggle for existence, such as the horse, dog, reindeer,

etc. His interest is recorded by the addition of their
representation to his other ornamental details, and arose
from his admiration of their usefulness rather than from
any appreciation of their beauty of form. Man's chief
business in life then being the provision for natural
wants and for his own protection, the liking for any
particular object, natural or otherwise, was inspired by
fitness of purpose rather than by aesthetic considerations.
The hard conditions of his life did not conduce to the
awakening of his dormant sense of beauty, and so it is

only in the later periods, when an easier state was

reached, that he became alive to the beauty prevailing

throughout the whole natural world. There is little

doubt that symbolism in the early days of historic art

led to many of the animal details found in the later
epochs, such, for instance, as griffins, dragons, and other
grotesques.
In the history of art, it is seen that the formation
of any " style " owes much to a preceding one, however
much may differ the ruling principles which animate
 —

144 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

them. Hence, in the development of an aesthetic

ornamental system, details were often borrowed from

a symbolic one on account of their artistic merits, and
as offering a vehicle for graceful expression. There
being no need or intention to set forth any mystical
meaning in adopting such forms, the sole attention was
directed to emphasizing and refining characteristics

which would harmonise with other details of the style.

In Egyptian and Assyrian art, we find the use of

composite animals, for conveying to the beholder distinct
ideas. To put a human head on the body of a lion
or bull is, from a matter-of-fact point of view, a
monstrous proceeding, but, regarded from a symbolic
standpoint, it is perfectly justifiable. To convey the
idea of strength and intelligence combined, what better
plan could have been adopted than to select a creature
having great physical power, and then to give it a
human head, which is the symbol of the highest intel-
lectual force in nature ? Other forms of composite
animals owe their origin to the exercise of the same
principle i.e., by taking the forms of certain creatures,

for the sake of their chief characteristics, and combining

them with other forms for the expression of a concrete

idea. On Plate XXXIV. are given examples of

these fabulous animals, creations of art in early times,
and upon which the grotesques of later times have
 Plate XXXIV.

SPHINX

N-WTUR.AU USOUOHIK
146 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

been founded. Some of these may be thus explained :

The griffin, composed of the body of a lion, head of a

bird, and wings, is regarded as a symbol of watchfulness.
The qualities which contribute to this idea of watchful-

ness, are strength, alertness, and swiftness. Alertness

is accented by the forward position of the ears, as if to

catch the slightest sound of approaching danger. The

griffin was often used by the Greeks for adorning the

acroteria of the pediment of their temples, and is

appropriately used in modern times to crown the piers

of gateways to mansions and public buildings. The
wyvern is a winged serpent, with bird's head and legs,
and has the same symbolic meaning, although other
qualities are added ; such as subtlety and wisdom, indi-
cated by the serpent body, and alertness in hours of
darkness, by the bat-like form of the wings.
The chimaera is a monster combining the forms of
lion, goat, and serpent, from whose mouth issue flames,

typifying a volcanic mountain in Greece. The reason

for the combination of the creatures is thus given : the
top of the mountain was the resort of lions ; the middle,
of goats ; while the foot of it was infested with veno-

mous snakes. Hence it became the symbol of terror

and devastation. The dragon, a winged reptile, was an
earlv emblem of the evil forces of the natural and moral
world. It combines in its formation the terror-inspiring
 ANIMAL ELEMENTS.

character of the lizard and serpent, and the swiftness

of action which belongs to creatures possessing wings.
To intensify its potency for evil, it is often represented
as belching forth flames of fire. By some writers it

is thought that the root from which the name is derived

points to the probability of the term having been applied
to meteors or shooting stars, which, in early times, were
regarded as potents of disaster and evil. A sketch is

given of the natural dragon, so named from its resem-

blance to the fabulous creature. The phcenix, a female
bird of very beautiful plumage, is supposed, after a life

of some hundreds of years, to have built for herself

a funeral pile, which with her wings she fanned into

flames and was consumed, but afterwards rose from the
ashes in all the freshness of youth. This is the accepted
symbol of resurrection and immortality. Pegasus, or
winged horse, is the adopted symbol of poetical aspiration,
from the supposition that it had been in the service of
the Muses. Besides this winged horse of the land, we
have sea-horses, with and without wings, used as emblems
of the watery element, which are generally associated
with Poseidon, or Neptune, and the Nereids. The sea-
horse, partly horse and partly fish, has fishy appendages
affixed to the forepart, at the elbow, and at the
extremities of the limbs; and the wings, when added,
become fin-like in character, and may be regarded as
L 2
 ;

148 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

developments of the pectoral fins of fishes. The

name hippocampus is applied to the sea-horse ; the
same term is used to designate a curious little creature,

of which a sketch is given. Below the latter examples

are drawings of the dolphin in nature and art, to show
the points of difference and agreement between them.
Fig. i on the same Plate is a prehistoric example of the
use of a bird form appropriately applied to indicate the
progress of the sun through the heavens. Fig. 2 is an
early Celtic illustration of the termination of tracery or
interlacing with animal forms. The free and varied
growths of plants, with their multitudinous repetition of

parts, enable the ornamentist to easily adapt them to his

requirements without violence to their nature.

But in the case of animal forms it is different ;

the prescribed number of parts belonging to their

organisation must be regarded, and thus a narrower

limit accompanies their employment, presenting diffi-

culties in the way of successful adaptation that are

not met with in dealing with vegetable nature

difficulties which are greater or less, according to their
biological rank.

To successfully combine natural forms with purely

ornamental lines it is necessary that we should analyse
them, in order to ascertain the general flow of line that
exists in their composition, and thus to secure harmony
 ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 149

in the combination. If this is necessary in adapting

plants, how much more important it must be when using
animal forms! It is quite possible to carefully and
accurately draw an animal form, and yet it may be totally

unfit for a decorative purpose ; while it is possible to

have a less accurate representation which may have
high decorative quality, for the reason that the first may
be wanting in composition and continuity of line, while
in the latter these may be preserved and emphasized.
It is for these reasons that some animal forms found
in barbaric ornament are so often ornamentally true,
while their accuracy, from a realistic point of view, is

defective.

Besides the inclusion of animals in decoration we

have the amalgamation of animal forms with ornament.
This practice, dating from prehistoric times, has survived
in modern art, and some extent explains the con-
to

tinuance of this method of treating animated nature.

Other reasons will be given, when considering the highest
organic form, the human figure, in our last division of
natural elements. Birds are particularly useful in adding
variety and interest to ornamental compositions. They
are graceful in themselves, and associate well and
pleasantly with ornament based upon vegetable nature.
In scroll work, while their general shapes may flow in
with the lines of the ornament, the variety of action
 —

ISO THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

offers opportunities for adding contrast and giving

brilliancy and force, relieving the tendency to monotony
from the use of oft-recurring curves.
On Plate XXXV. are given a few examples of
the ornamental treatment of quadrupeds and birds.
Fig. i, a dog in the act of running after a bird, is

adapted to undulating lines clothed with foliage ; and

in Fig. i a are given the analytic lines which regulate
the composition. Figs. 2 and 3 are examples, from
sixteenth century Italian stone carving, of the adaptation
of bird forms to ornamental foliage, and Figs. 2b and 3^:

show the lines which form the bases of the designs.

Fig. 4 is an arrangement of birds and conventional
foliage taken from Indian wood carving. It is rather
severe in treatment, but the whole pattern is well
disposed. Fig. /^d gives the abstracted lines devoid of
details. Figs. 5 and 6 are sketches from nature, and
Figs. $e and 6/ respectively show the ornamental lines
that are to be found in them, and which should be studied
when adapting these elements to ornamental purposes.
Fig. 7 is a sketch of a dog, given to illustrate the
arrangement of the parts of the limbs, which differ from
those of human beings ; the extremities consisting of an
elongation of the bones of the hand and foot. This
figure further illustrates the place from which wings
should start, if required i.e., from the spine of the
152 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

scapular or blade-bone. In Fig. 8 we have the adapta-

tion of a deer to an oblong panel.

Supplemental to this Plate are given drawings of

wings and wing structure. On Plate XXXVI., Fig. i

shows a wing stripped of the coverts, revealing the bony

structure. By comparing this with the drawing of the
human arm, Fig. 2, it will be seen that it is a similar
structure, but specially adapted by readjustment of

parts to the purposes of flight through the air.From

what answers to the wrist and fingers of the human limb
proceed the long or primary feathers ; to the underside

of the forearm are attached the next important feathers

— the secondaries ; while the humerus, or upper arm,
carries the tertiaries, and to the thumb are attached some
small feathers forming what is called the winglet. Fig.

3 shows the structure of the wing of a bat. Here there

is a different arrangement, but again it will be seen that
it is an adapted arm; in this case, the substitution of a thin

membrane for the feathers favours noiseless flight. The

forearm is extended, and the fingers lengthened ; and the
thumb is developed into a hook, by which ^^^
the creature suspends itself when at rest. /0^_
The wings of birds are various in shape, V
though agreeing with a general form, which, ^7\_^
however, differs materially from that of bats.

The varieties result from the development of parts

 Plate XXXVI.

\A/I NOUT
154 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

according to the nature of these aerial creatures. A

wing of rounded form, especially if allied v/ith con-

cavity on its inner surface, is not conducive to high or

rapid flight, as in the case of the barn-door fowl. The
wings of the sparrow (see Figs. 5 and 6) are more
pointed and less concave, and therefore are better suited
to sustained and rapid progression through the air.

Wings of birds that have great rapidity of flight are very

much pointed, as the goat-sucker, falcon, sea-swallow,
pigeon, and curlew.
On Plate XXXVII., Figs. 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10,

will be found some historic examples of the orna-

mental treatment of wings, and their application to
animal forms, etc. It will be seen in Fig. 1 that
in the Egyptian " winged globe," the emblem of
deity, the feathers of the wings are rendered in strict
accordance with the severity that characterises that
style of art. Notwithstanding this diagrammatic treat-

ment, the idea of wings as regards the arrangement

of feathers is well preserved, while the all-encompassing
nature of this symbolic attribute of the Deity is beautifully
and effectively expressed. much finer in
It is altogether
conception than the similar Assyrian emblem shown at
Fig. 3. Fig. 2, given as an example of the way in which
symbols are oftentimes rendered in purely aesthetic styles
of ornament, is taken from Italian art of the sixteenth
Plate XXXVII.

JE&1
 —

156 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

century. Here the general form only of the Egyptian

symbol is regarded, the globe is transformed into a
shell, and the wings are naturalistically treated. The
whole composition is a mere piece of eye - pleasing
ornament, having no symbolic meaning whatever. Fig.

5 shows the application of wings to the Greek sphinx :

one of the attributes which distinguish it from the

Egyptian creature bearing the same name. Fig. 13
shows an ingenious conventional treatment of the wings
of a bird taken from a fifteenth century textile. Figs.
11, 12, and 14 — 19 are illustrations of various wing
treatments. Fig. 1 1 is from stained glass. Fig. 12 was
taken from a carved wooden panel of the sixteenth
century, and Fig. 14 from the base of a bronze candela-
brum. Fig. 15 is an illustration borrowed from a
painting by Holbein, Fig. 16 from a ceiling decoration
by Perugino ; while Figs. 17 and 18 are from modern
book illustrations, and Fig. 19 is a sketch from a painting
by one of the old masters.
Besides the structure of wings, the decorative character
of the plumage of birds should engage the attention of
students of design, not only for the beautiful colouring
and detail, but for the hints to be obtained for setting
out ornament. The forms and arrangements of spots
and stripes are almost infinite in their variety. On Plate
XXXVIII. are given some examples of feathers with
 Plate XXXVIII.

Fi<3. a
lrt& 13
158 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

ornaments suggested by their markings. Figs, i and 2

are peacocks' feathers in different stages of development,

and Figs. 8, 11, and 16 are ornaments based upon them.
At Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6 are shown some pheasants'
feathers exhibiting various arrangements of spots and
stripes. Figs. 9, 10, 12, and 13 are simple patterns
designed upon the general forms and upon the principles
of distribution seen in the natural markings. Fig. 9
follows the lines of Fig. 3, Fig. 10 those of Fig. 6,

Fig. 12 those of Fig. 4, and Fig. 13 those of Fig. 5.

Insects have decorative value ; and, although they

may not so easily as birds lend themselves to compo-
sition of line, yet may be effectively used as spots in a

design when contrast is desired. Their shapes are

suggestive, while the markings on the wings of some,
such as butterflies and moths, afford excellent examples
of surface treatment. On Plate XXXVIII., Fig. 7, is

shown the application of the marking of a butterfly's

wing, given at Fig. 24, to an ornamental repeated

pattern.^ The insect, Fig. 17, is translated into an

* Decoration which mainly consists of the adaptation of natural

markings such as are seen on the skins of animals, butterflies' wings,

feathers of birds, and in the graining of woods, etc., is sometimes classed

as naturalistic. This term applies to another kind of naturalistic de-
coration which concerns itself with the idealising of natural forms, as
explained in " Lessons on Decorative Design," page 100.
 Plate XXXIX.

OOiXSAU

CTUJDfl
160 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

ornament at Fig. 18; and in Fig. 19 is given a diaper

based upon a similar form. Fishes and reptiles, again,
are a fruitful source of decorative material. Their
flexibility renders them easy of adaptation to any
purpose required. In using them, however, their

general arrangement or structure should be borne in

mind, and also the principle upon which nature produces

her varieties. On Plate XXXIX. a few typical fish
forms are given with their ornamental renderings. A is

a sketch of an idealised fish showing the arrangement

of means of progression — namely, the fins ; the forms

of these vary in different kinds of fish. b shows the

division of the dorsal fin into two parts. At c we
have a large development of the pectoral fins, which
have the appearance of wings. The fish shown at r>

has a divided dorsal fin, the forepart being enormously

developed in length and depth. At e is given the
representation of a fish with the back fin divided ; the
front portion is developed in height, while the back
part is extended in length. F shows another variety,
in which there is a suppression of the fins, especially

of the dorsal one. At h we have a curious fish in

which the dorsal fin is extended along the whole upper

border of the creature ; the beginning, at the head
developing some graceful appendages. These few
examples of natural fish will suffice to show the variety
 ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 161

of lines upon which ornamental fish forms can be con-

structed, while below are given illustrations of the
method adopted in practice. Thus ic and nc are
two renderings of the natural type marked c and so ;

on. Snakes and lizards are also useful for decorative

purposes, in introducing an element of playfulness, and
in relieving the seriousness of constructive composition
by their graceful forms and the variety of ornamental
lines that they naturally take. On turning back to
Plate XXXVIII. the reader will find, in Figs. 20 and 21,
examples of snake and lizard taken from a Japanese book
on natural history. Serpents have always been favourite
forms with designers of all periods. Figs. 22 and 23
show a modern and an antique use of these creatures ;

the first is taken from the border of a small tray, the

second shows their adaptation to the handle of a vase.

Shells again, the product of the lower forms of animal
life, have great ornamental value, which is attested by
their frequent use in historic art, where they are subject,
more or less, to modifications according to the style
in which they are found. In fact, it is possible from
the treatment of the shell to name the style from which
it is taken. Natural shells in many cases require but
little adaptation when used in simple schemes of orna-
ment, yet in others they readily lend themselves to
amplification and enrichment.
 CHAPTER IX.

THE HUMAN FIGURE.

OUR third

use of the
and last

human
sub-division brings us to the
figure in ornament. The
human figure is the highest and noblest of all the
elements with which the ornamentist has to deal,
and is at the same time the most difficult to treat.

In spite of this difficulty, however, we recognise

the fact that the interest given by the human figure
to any decorative scheme, surpasses that imparted by
any other elements, be they what they may ; and,
parallel with the interest which it excites, is the re-

fining influence which it exerts over the elements

associated with it. The study of the human form is

of such a nature, that it is impossible to pursue it

without benefiting the use of the lower elements of

 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 163

ornament and raising their general character. In proof

of this, examine a piece of good Italian or English
Gothic foliage, and compare it with the best obtainable
foliage to be found in Asiatic art ; and it will be seen at
once how tame the latter is by the side of the living
creations of the styles first mentioned, in which the
study of the figure is so greatly fostered. Nor is this to

be wondered at, for the subtlety of line, composition of

mass, proportion and balance of parts are so perfectly
illustrated in the human form, that it seems as if nature
had concentrated all her wealth in this one supreme
creation, which presents an epitome of the qualities
essential to ornamental art.

In adapting figures to design, it is of the utmost

importance that they should harmonise with the flow of
the ornament with which they are allied, and with the
shape ojfthe space to be filled by them. The mere
imitative rendering of the figure is not sufficient for the
purpose. Figures so drawn would have the appearance
of being " stuck " in the composition, instead of forming
an integral part of the whole. To deal successfully,
therefore, with the figure as an ornamental element, the

student must not depend on merely copying his model,

but must idealise by every possible means, —by analysis,
and by searching after the ornamental lines which are to
be found in the human structure. The study of anatomy
164 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

will to some extent be a help, but should not be relied

upon altogether; as it is the surface forms and lines
which concern the ornamentist, and they do not always
agree directly with the under structures. Perhaps there
is nothing more noticeable in a young student's first

attempts in drawing the human figure, than his failure to

grasp the continuity and beauty of line on which the.

unity of the composition of the human form depends,

and the general lines upon which its details are built.
He does not see, until it is pointed out, that, in the case
of a figure standing with the weight upon one leg, as in
Plate XL., Figs, i., n., and v., there is a general and
controlling line running from the pit of the neck to the
inner ankle, which brings into unity all the varieties of
form in the trunk and lower limbs. Or, again, in draw-
ing the upper and lower limbs,' a beginner invariably
seizes upon the details of their shapes, and fails to

appreciate their values and the general lines which

govern their disposition. In the side view of the leg,
he would observe that its outline is made up of a series
of convex lines ; and, dwelling upon these details of form
and not comprehending their relative values and their

subordination to the shape of the whole limb, would give

a result like that shown at Fig. vl, Plate XL. Now,
a closer observation would lead him to see that, not-

withstanding the convex curves of the shin, the general

Plate XL.
166 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

line of the front of the leg is concave, while that of

the back is convex / ; regard to which fact, while

adding detail, would give the form as Fig. vn. The

same with the forearm ; it is often drawn thus :

but if the general lines were taken into account,

as here shown / / , a result like this would be

given : / / Another example is given in Figs. vm.

and ix., to which the foregoing remarks apply. Careful

analysis of this kind when studying the figure, would
not only be a guide to its truthful representation, but

would disclose many an instance of subtle composition,

confirming and emphasizing the value of the funda-
mental principles of ornament : continuity and repetition
without monotony, variety without pettiness, contrast
 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 167

without disunion, radiation and symmetry without

formality. On the same Plate will be found several
examples of the ornamental lines to be traced in

figures in different positions. Fig. x. shows the lines

of the muscles of the back. Fig. xn. illustrates the

composition of the foot with the ground. Fig. xvn.
shows the radiation of the lines of the fingers, seen
in a partially closed hand.
Let us now consider the direct application of the
figure to decorative purposes (1) for the filling of spaces,

such as panels, spandrels, and tympanums. Of course

the same rules hold good as those laid down for decora-

tion with foliage, but it becomes more difficult, because

we v0tey not do with the human figure what we may do
with plants ; we have to take figures in their entirety,

without adding to their structures. To fill a space,

therefore, it behoves the student to study well the lines

of his elements, — all the movements of which figures are

capable, and any accessories that will aid the work of

composition, such as draperies, architectural details, and
foliage, so that adaptation to spaces may be effected

without undue strain or seeming effort. On Plate XLI.,

which consists of the adaptation of figures to variously

shaped spaces, Figs. 1 and 3 show kneeling figures

adapted to a square and circle. It will be seen that

in both cases the object has been to evenly distribute
i68 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

the action of the figures so as to fairly fill the shapes.

Recognising the rectilinear character of the square, the
figure is so arranged that its angularities are brought
out, and auxiliary details are so introduced that the
whole mass may repeat in a measure the shape of
the space. The figure, of course, might have been
more severely fitted to its space, thus :

but the effort would have been too

obvious, as is the case in Fig. 9. In
Fig. 3 the curved perimeter is the
dominating influence ; so that the de-
velopment of angularities is not necessary, except by
way of contrast, rounded forms being required for

harmony. The curve of the back of the figure flows

in an almost parallel direction with the right-hand side

of the space, while the vase and spray of leaves balance

it on the other side. In the annexed illustration is given
an example of the adaptation of the figure to a space
bounded by a curve and straight line :

Fig. 2, Plate XLL, shows the de-

coration of an elliptical-shaped panel
by a youthful figure arranged as a
" spot " within an imaginary line harmonising with the
boundaries of the shape. Fig. 4 is from a design
by the late Alfred Stevens, and shows an easy
and harmonious adjustment to a given space ; the
 Plate XLI.

V16 i "FIG 2. FIG. 3

170 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

leading lines of which are here shown :

Fig. 5 is after Godfrey Sykes, and is an

excellent example of the filling of a rect-
angular space (see the parallelism of the
principal mass). At Figs. 8 and n are
given examples of figure treatment in spandrels, with
analytic sketches showing the lines upon which each
is based. In Fig. Za the first line drawn starts from
below, parallel for some distance with the arch, after-
wards diverging until it assumes a horizontal direc-
tion towards the vertical side of the spandrel. Lines
corresponding to the wings are then put in to further
repeat the horizontal boundary, while the lines of archi-
tecture are added to complete the composition. In
Fig. lib the starting line radiates from the arch in an

upward direction ; and at the termination on either side

are horizontal lines. A vertical line is then introduced
parallel to the upright side of the spandrel, upon which
the details of the wreath, etc., are arranged. Fig. 10
shows the figure decoration of a narrow longitudinal
rectangular space. Fig. 12 is selected from the
illustrations to " Pan-pipes," by Walter Crane, to show
how, in quasi-pictorial work, the composition of line is

seen ; note the uplifted arm and the line of the left leg.

In the history of ornamental art we constantly meet with

figures terminating in foliage. Some people there are
 —a

7W.E HUMAN FIGURE. 171

who deride such examples on the score of their im-

possibility, and, therefore, not to be used by the en-
lightened designers of to-day ; but at the same time
do not hesitate to convert the human animal into a six

limbed creature by adding wings to the shoulders —

combination no less impossible or monstrous than that
they condemn. With such criticism, however, we have
little to do, for our business as students is rather to
ascertain the reasons for the creation of such creatures,
and their employment in art. There are symbolic,
harmonic, and other reasons for their artistic existence.

The first consideration has been already pointed out ;

but there remains an important one, that of scale, a

matter of high importance in a complicated scheme of
decoration. If it were required to introduce the figure
element into a space forming part of a design, it might
very possibly be found that the use of an entire figure
would give masses too small in size, as in Fig. 6,

Plate XL I. But, by using a demi- figure, as in Fig. 7,

the defect in respect of scale would be remedied. Here

it will be seen that by this means larger masses are

introduced, and the quantities throughout the design are

thus varied, while the dominant feature of the design
the figure — is accented.
To prevent a crudeness of effect in the bare use
of a portion only of a figure, ornament was developed
172 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

from the sectional line, such ornament having harmonious

relations with surrounding details. This treatment may
have gradually obtained form in this way. Having
found that a half-figure suited the scale of the work
in hand, nothing would be more natural than to
terminate it with drapery, as in Plate XLII. (a),

a method which survives in the termination of

sculptured busts ; and, after due elaboration of the
folds, any desire for further enrichment was no doubt
satisfied by ornamenting the edges of the material
by shaping the outline as at b. A little exercise of the
imagination would convert these cuttings of the edges
into foliated forms, as at c. For the purpose of further
harmonising the foliage with the figure, as well as the

details accompanying it, the addition was made to grow

out of the figure, taking certain anatomical lines for the
start, as at d. On the same Plate are given compo-
sitions of figures with and without ornament ; figures

amalgamated with foliage, and figures used as structural

supports. Fig. i. is a design representing a frolic of
amorini, by a French artist of the early part of the
present century, and below it, Fig. 1.(0), the elemental
lines of the composition. Fig. in. shows a composition
of figures with conventional foliage to fill an upright
panel, and is accompanied by Sketch in. (a), showing its

leading lines. Fig. v. is after a drawing by Le Pautre,

Plate XLII.
174 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

illustrating the composition of figures with rich scroll

work, and below it is given a diagram of the lines of its

arrangement. Fig. iv. is an example of the amalgamation

of figures and ornament ; the lines of the latter were
suggested by the action of the figures shown in the small

sketches at Figs n. and in. Fig. vin. is a drawing

of a figure used as an architectural support in place of
a column. This application of the human form by the
Greeks probably arose out of their misconception of the

Egyptian use of figures with their architecture, as at

Fig. ix., in which it will be seen that the figure does
not support the structure immediately above, although it

may appear from the front view to do so. The figure

rests against the wall ; and, if it has any structural value

at all, which may be doubted, it is that of a buttress

rather than that of a column. The Greeks, acknowledg-

ing the want of fitness in employing animate forms for
the support of massive superstructures, were careful to
give to these caryatides, as they are called, a strong
architectonic character, which to some extent concealed
their inappropriateness. But, notwithstanding the skill

shown in their treatment of the subject, the error is but

disguised, and forms a bad precedent, a precedent
which is answerable for much of the bad art exhibited
in subsequent periods in the adaptation of figures to
structural purposes. The artists of the Renaissance period,
 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 175

seeing only the idea of using figures in place of columns,

and without regarding the artifice practised by the
Greeks to cover any weakness of effect, adopted a
more or less natural treatment. In the pursuit of
gracefulness of line they lost sight of the essential
nature of a support : stability and strength ; and they
perpetrated caryatides and telamones that conveyed to
the beholder an idea of insecurity. See Fig. vn.,
an illustration taken from a work on architecture by
Philibert De L'Orme, also Fig. vi., a still later example
from a German source, further showing the neglect of
the principle of stability, notwithstanding the employ-
ment of strong muscular figures. Take the medial lines
of all three of these structures, thus : -,-.

and, on comparison, it will be seen what )*\

a much better conception the Greeks
had of adapting an unsuitable subject
to the purposes of columnar support. J4
They based their adaptation upon the
strongest line, a vertical one ; their successors on
curves, graceful but weak, having no supporting qualities

whatever.
There is another class of architectural supports into
which the figure element enters, used in a similar manner
to pilasters, called termini, consisting of half-figures, or

busts, and united by draperies or other ornaments to

176 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

pillars which taper downwards. In the example given in

Fig. xi., it will be seen that the office of support is slight;

the general purpose appearing to be that of the decorative

filling up of the gap found to exist between the upper
architectural projection and the face of the wall, to which
the terminal is applied, rather than that of bearing any-

actual weight. On Plate XXXVII. some illustrations are

shown of the treatment and application of wings to the

human form. In Egyptian art the wing feathers are

usually attached to the under-sides of the arms, thus
avoiding the anomaly which would result by adding the
whole of the wing structure, and giving them distinct

points of attachment (see Fig. 4). The Assyrians in

their winged figures altered this arrangement by making

the wings to issue out of the shoulders, giving to the being
six limbs instead of four (Fig. 7). Although this

method of applying wings to the human subject is to

the biologist the least satisfactory, it is the one that

survives, and is, at the present time, the accepted way
of dealing with these decorative appendages. Figs.
6 and 10, taken from vase paintings, show some
Greek treatments of wings. In their upper margins the
structures of the limbs are well and finely indicated.

In the Renaissance examples, shown at Figs. 8 and 9,

this outline is much exaggerated, and the curves do

not agree with the hidden structure. Fig. 8 is from a
 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 177

carved wooden chest, and, although the sinuous curved

outline of the top of the wings is open to objection,

the way in which the wings are applied is reason-

able. They are developments of the arms, and not
added limbs as in the case of the example below,
Fig. 9.

In the course and current of decorative art, many

fabulous creatures, partly human and partly animal,
have been created, giving forms upon which artists of
later periods have based their grotesques. To Grecian
art, the central idea of which was the glorification of the
human form, we are indebted for most of the mythical

creatures that have been handed down to us. Rocks,

trees, woods, mountains, rivers, and seas, Literature and

the Arts, had each, in the Greek system, a human repre-

sentative, depicted in an ideal form ; and even natural

calamities and the vices of mankind had symbols in

human guise. When the latter, however, did not, in a

sufficient degree, express the idea intended, animal forms

were added for the purpose of rendering the symbol as
complete as possible. Thus, in their personification of

free, untrammelled woodland life, they gave to the figure

of a man the legs and horns of a goat to intensify the
idea of wild freedom, and hence resulted the mythical
forms of Pan and Satyr (see Plate XLIII., Fig. 7). On
this Plate will be found other fabulous creatures, which
N
178 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

may be briefly described. Fig. i is an Egyptian Sphinx

having a human head and lion's The combination
body.
is a symbol of intellectual wisdom and power. The
Greek Sphinx, Fig. 2, differs in form from the Egyptian
one, as it is always represented as being of the female
sex and having wings. It appears to have been adopted
as the personification of malignity and mystery. She is

credited with the practice of propounding riddles to

those who visited her, and of tearing in pieces those
who failed to solve them. Apart from symbolism, the
gracefulness of the creature's form caused it to be
employed in an aesthetic way, and it was a favourite
ornamental element, frequently used in. mural decoration,
and for the adornment of bronze tripods, etc. It was
used in a similar way and for similar purposes in Roman
art, subject to modifications (see Fig. 3). At Fig. 4 is

shown a combination of half man and half horse, called

a Centaur, a creature which appears to have been the
symbolic representation of a race of warriors who were
celebrated for their great skill in horsemanship. It is

said that their skill was so great that rider and horse
appeared as one, hence the symbol. Fig. 5 is a similar
combination of half woman and half deer, a mythical
denizen of the forest. Fig. 6, a Siren, is a beautiful
female with bird-like lower limbs, terminated by power-
ful talons. Wings are attached to the shoulders. Some
Plate XLIII.

N 2
180 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

writers regard this creature as symbolising the unseen

dangers belonging to rock-bound coasts. Sirens are
said to have possessed wonderful voices, and with their

sweet songs to have lured mariners on to their de-

struction. By others it is thought that they typify the
delusive nature of human pleasures. Figures of sirens
holding lyres were often chosen for the decoration of
Attic graves, and would thus appear as mourners or
wailers. Fig. 9 shows the form of a Harpy, composed
of the head of a fair-haired maiden and the body of a
vulture. Harpies were credited with wonderful rapidity
of flight, greater than that of any known bird, and were
considered to be the personification of sudden events.
If a mortal suddenly disappeared, the harpies were
supposed to have carried him off. If a sudden tempest
arose they were regarded as its authors. Fig. 8 repre-
sents Triton, the attendant and trumpeter of Poseidon
(Neptune), usually depicted as being half man and fish,

having a shell which he used as a trumpet, and carrying

a rudder in one hand. Fig. 13 shows an infant triton.

Fig. 10, the head of Medusa, is an emblem of terror and

extreme fear. Medusa was the most celebrated of the
Gorgon Sisters, originally a priestess of Athene ; but,

having broken her vow of celibacy by listening to the

wooing of Poseidon, and ultimately marrying him, was
fearfully punished by the goddess ; each of her beautiful
 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 181

wavy locks of hair became a venomous serpent, and

her person assumed a horrible aspect. Fig. n is

another fabulous creature of the sea —a more peaceful

form of siren, called a Mermaid. Fig. 12 is a man-
headed serpent, used to symbolise subtlety guided by
intelligence.
 CHAPTER X.

THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS— CUPS, VASES, ETC.

WHATEVER may be thought of evolution in

regard to biology, there can be no doubt as to

its being an important factor in the development of art,

whether we regard the progress of a picture from its first

rudimentary conception, or the gradual completion of

useful objects based upon some primeval model rudely
designed to immediately serve some special purpose.
The history of industrial art exhibits the evolution of
forms, by the endeavour to fully fit them to the varied

necessities of mankind, and to meet the growing wants

pertaining to the progress of civilisation. Did space allow,
it could be shown how all the familiar and elaborate forms
in furniture, jewellery, etc., were evolved out of very
elementary beginnings, and how the changes were wrought
 —

THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 183

for reasons of convenience and in accordance with the

altering conditions of society. While it is not possible to
undertake so comprehensive a task, the purposes of such
an inquiry will be served by directing attention to the
class of objects named at the head of this chapter
namely, to the consideration of cups, vases, and other
hollow vessels, showing their origin and development,
and their artistic composition and decorative value as
ornamental elements. The origin of these vessels is to
be found in the wants of man in his early condition, who
required some vessels of capacity, in which to collect

water for drinking and other purposes. Doubtless, the

cups or bowls were natural ones, such as the hard .rinds
of nuts, gourds, shells, and horns of animals (see natural
types, Plate XLIV.). These ready-to-hand vessels were
found to answer in a rough way the several necessities,

and satisfied man's varied requirements, until his faculties

were more fully awakened. When, however, a more

cultured period in history was reached, we find that
objects for similar purposes were fashioned out of plastic
materials, and vessels more suited to special needs were
made. The natural forms w hich had been used
T
in-

fluenced, more or less, the artificial productions. In

early pottery, while some forms were copied from
natural types, other shapes were purely inventive,

specially designed to meet the increasing wants of

184 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

an advancing civilisation. When a natural cup fulfilled

its useful purpose, its reproduction showed but little

departure from the original model, but when it was

felt that certain requirements were but imperfectly met,
modifications took place. When new wants arose, and
no natural form answered to his necessities, man's
inventive powers were stimulated into action, and this
activity resulted in the creation of new vessels, suitable

to the particular needs of his improving condition. But

while these inventive shapes answered his purpose in
some degree, they were necessarily incomplete, as most
first conceptions are, and, consequently, we find they were
subject to, and modified by, developments in the direc-

tion of fitness. Let us take an example by way of illus-

tration. The first notion of forming a vessel for catching

water from a spring would be a wide-mouthed bowl,
with the addition of handles for carrying :

Now, although well designed for receiving

the water, it was not so well adapted for the

after process of conveyance from the spring, because

the motion imparted to the large surface of water at
the orifice of the vessel, by the act of carrying, would
cause it to be easily spilled. For carrying purposes a
narrow-mouthed vessel was the better. The two con-
ditions, however, of receiving and carrying had to be
provided for, and so we find the form has been modified
 ::

THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 185

by a consideration of the double use, thus

Here, while the wide mouth is retained, the

underpart is narrowed in order to present

a smaller oscillating surface ; consequently reducing
the chances of accidentally spilling the contents. For
similar reasons we find at the present day that in

country places, where water is often carried for some

distance in open buckets suspended from a yoke, a
float is commonly used, composed of two pieces of
wood nailed together crosswise, thus dividing the sur-
face of the liquid into narrow sections
Now turn for a moment to the consideration

of one of the simplest of the primitive forms

of drinking cup, the one, perhaps, suggested
by a section of an animal's horn, as Fig. 1, Plate XLIV.,
a form similar to the modern glass tumbler. This form,
as we shall see, is the parent of the modern vase, and
has been developed through the successive stages of
the beaker and hanap to the fully constituted vase with
its multiplicity of parts.

Throughout the ages mankind has never been wholly

contented with merely satisfying his utilitarian require-
ments. However well a useful object may have served
its special purpose, it has never been allowed long to
remain in its bare and simple condition. There has
always been a tendency to elaboration, riot only by the
1 86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

addition of decoration, but by the enrichment or re-

finement of the contour of the object itself. This form

of elaboration is often the result of a finer perception
of the law of fitness, as well as of the desire for beauty
and variety of form. The progress of art has always
been from the severely simple to the ornate and
complex.
The use of this horn shape in various materials
shows it to be a fairly serviceable one ; but to some
minds it has appeared that it would be further improved
by provision being made to prevent its slipping from the
hand, and also from being so easily overturned. The
tendency to slip while holding has been counteracted
in two ways : first, by alteration of the outline (see

Fig. 3) ; secondly, by the addition of a moulding or

mouldings (Fig. 4). Stability has been given by ex-
tending the area of support, as in Figs. 2, 3, and 4.

(In the modern glass tumbler stability is secured by

the additional weight of material at the base.) Other
changes came about from aesthetic reasons, and were
added without interfering with the usefulness of the
object ; for instance, after the addition of the foot,

greater variety was given to the form by turning in

the lower part of the body and introducing a short stem

(see Fig. 5). The change in the outline necessitated
the addition of a moulding which also marked a further
 Plate XLTV.

3 Bo&y

CAUX
TOOT

rifcii

T=K>lS
1 88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

division of parts, giving us in a rudimentary way all the

members of a developed beaker, which may be enu-
merated thus : lip, body, calix, stem, and foot (see

Fig. 5). Amongst the early forms of beakers we

have four varieties : the straight, the convex, the con-
cave, and ogee (see Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 8). The process
of development which led to the varieties now given did
not stop here ; further changes are to be noticed which
resulted from the application of a different principle,
to which allusion has not yet been made — namely,
the principle of partial development, as (1) the develop-
ment of the calix (Figs. 7 and 10); (2) the frieze and
lip (Figs. 7 and 18); and so on. For the purpose of
keeping out the dust, covers were subsequently added
(see Figs. 11 and 14).

On Plate XL IV. are shown various forms of

beakers, including the examples already referred to.

Figs. 1-10 are designed to show the different forms

developed in early times. The rest of the illustrations

are taken from various sources. Fig. 1 1 is a Flemish

form of the seventeenth century, Fig. 12 a German
Renaissance example, Fig. 13 is modern English, Fig.

14 is an old Venetian shape, and Fig. 15 is taken

from Flemish stone-ware. Fig. 16 is from a drawing
by Holbein, a very graceful composition. Fig. 17 is

a -sketch from a German glass hanap in South

 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 189

Kensington Museum. Fig. 18 is Japanese, and Fig.

19 from Venetian glass.
The word hanap now appears in connection with
these covered beakers ; but, while there is a show of
reason for so naming them — as the term hanap signifies

a covered vessel —yet it is usually applied to the next

stage of development under consideration. Covered

beakers came to be made of large size — so large that they
could not be handled without great inconvenience — and
this led to an alteration in construction. To make them
convenient for lifting, two courses were open, either to

elongate the stem so that it might be grasped, or to add

a side handle. The first, which immediately concerns us,

produced the hanap, the second developed the tankard.

With the elongation of the stem came the introduction
of another member, the knop (see Plate XLV., Fig. 8),
for the purpose of presenting a firmer grip, and to prevent
the vessel from slipping in the hand. The stem now
being extended, we find that the knob, or finial, of the

cover acquired increased importance, and this for artistic

reasons. But whether the height of the finial found in

some covered beakers called for a more lengthened stem,

and directed the choice between the two methods of
construction before alluded to, or whether the develop-
ment of the knop came in with the elongation of the
stem, is of little consequence, seeing that the aesthetic
TQo THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

result is the same. The various parts of a hanap as now

developed are illustrated at Fig. 8, Plate XLV. We
have now to see what further developments took place
in the process of elaboration. As luxury advanced,
these drinking vessels became enriched in every possible
way, and were ultimately regarded as articles for show
rather than as articles for use — as rich adornments for

rooms of state to be displayed on special occasions.

The possession of such articles often indicated wealth ;

and even the particular form of dtage upon which they

were placed indicated the rank of the owner. The
enrichment of these hanaps appears to have been
mainly effected by three modes of procedure, all of which
bear upon the contour : first, by adding variety to the
outline ; secondly, by developing parts ; and thirdly, by
sub- division. To these methods some allusion has
already been made in reference to beakers ; but their
full importance will be better appreciated when con-
sidered in relation to the more fully developed vessels.
One important alteration in the outline arose out of the
nature of material and the method of working. The
ductility of metal allows of its being wrought into cups
of great lightness, a quality requisite for a vessel to
be handled ; but, though a cup of this kind should be
light on this account, it is necessary that it should
also be strong to resist any damage to its surface by
Plate XLV.
192 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

indentation. So we find that one method employed

consisted of bulging or beating out the light material
into certain regular forms, and thus securing the two

important desiderata : lightness and strength :

This characteristic mode of working, while

answering its useful purpose, was soon adopted
as a decorative feature, and was often used on certain
parts of these objects for the sake of artistic balance
alone (Plate XLV., Figs, i, 4, 5, and 6). Another
source of enrichment, arising out of construction, was
found in the necessity of adding small cast metal
supports at different points of the stem, to give
strength and stiffness to the whole. These were in

the first place adopted to counteract any pressure that

might be brought to bear upon the vessel. The part

where undue strain and, therefore, injury was likely to

occur, was at the junction of the calix and stem (Figs.

3, 6, and 7). These supports, while they gave firmness

to the work, produced a pleasing effect, and doubtless

suggested to the mind of the worker extended applica-
tions. Hence their use soon became a matter of orna-
ment, and details of this kind were applied where they
were not actually requisite, but merely as contributing to
the aesthetic effect. Like all other ornaments arising

out of necessity, these have been abused, and, where

little or no restraint has been exercised in their use, they
 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 193

have degenerated into fussy and unmeaning adjuncts,

as in Fig. 11. It has been pointed out how some of
the variations in the general forms of beakers may-
have arisen, and examples have been given. These
changes were retained in the subsequently developed
hanaps, as will be seen in the collection of examples
on Plate XLV.
Figs. 1 and 2 are hanaps of the Gothic period, show-
ing rich decorative use of bulbous forms. Fig. 3 is from
a seventeenth century example of English goldsmiths'
work ; Fig. 4 belongs to the same period. Fig. 5 is an
illustration of the fanciful treatment of the bulbous forms,
originally beaten out to give strength to the metal, as

already explained, and adopted by many masters of the

sixteenth century. Figs. 6 and 9 are sketches of rich
hanaps taken from etchings by Virgil Solis. Fig. 7
was drawn from a small vase of the cinque -cento
period, in the South Kensington Museum. Fig. 8 is a
diagram showing all the various parts of a hanap to
which the reader's attention has already been called.

Fig. 10 is taken from an Italian example. Fig. 11 is

from a design by one of the " little masters of Germany."

The four diagrams on the lower part of the Plate are
given to show the probable lines of construction of some
of these vessels. The small arrows indicate the hanap
to which each belongs.
194 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

A change in the shape of the lip, which led to the

formation of the fully developed vase, has yet to be

noticed. The body of the vessel, instead of terminating
in an open lip, as in beakers and hanaps, was gradually
closed in, and a shoulder formed like an urn. The
object for this does not appear, but probably it came
about from following some different natural type, such as
a gourd. This turning-in of the lip necessitated, for

some purposes, the introduction of another member, a

"neck," the upper margin of which, turning outwards,
received the cover (see Plate XLVI., Figs, i and 2).

Here, then, we have all the parts of a complete vase.

Any further enrichment of contour was effected by the
sub-division of the various parts, rather than by the
addition of any new members (with the exception
of handles, which will presently be considered). The
sub-division into minor parts by the addition of

mouldings not only has the effect of enriching the

contour (see Figs. 13 and 14), but gives fineness of
character to the work ; and, what is of more im-
portance still, expresses the quality of strength. By
the introduction of mouldings at the
different changes of curvature, al-

most any outline, however weak, may

be made firm and strong (see Fig. ).

The rest of the examples on Plate XLVI. illustrate

 Plate XLVI.

9ueowiofro S&X
2

tTNIVERsiTir)
196 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

the various developments of vases. Figs. 3 and 4 are

Italian designs, given to show the different treatments of
the neck and lip, particularly the latter, which is rounded
inwards. Figs. 5 and 6 are Japanese variations of the
neck and lip (the covers are absent). In Fig. 5 the
neck is vertically developed and merged into the lip,

which is greatly expanded. In Fig. 6 the body and

neck are repressed, while there is an enormous expansion
of the lip. Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10 are given to illustrate

the development of bottle-like forms. Fig. 7 is a

Sardinian shape, Fig. 8 is Greek, Fig. 9 Japanese, and
Fig. 10 Indian. Fig. 11 is an Italian vase of the

fifteenth century, simple, and well balanced in form and

decoration. One illustration is given at Fig. 12 of a
carved vase, wherein the plan is angular instead of round,
from a design by Gibbs, an architect of the eighteenth
century. Fig. 15 is a rich and sumptuous two-handled
vase, in the Italian style of the latter end of the sixteenth
century.
From the vase a class of useful hollow vessels ap-
pears to have been developed, to

which carafes and various other

bottle shapes belong. These forms

result from an elongation of the neck
immediately above the shoulder, thus :

(see also Figs. 9 and 10), serving as a handle by

 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 197

which it might be lifted up. Some examples, however,

are often met with which seem to indicate that they
were primarily suggested by natural forms, like cala-

bashes or other gourds, and developed in like manner.

The development of the upper portion of these bottle-
like forms was accompanied by the gradual suppression
of the stem ; ending in its total disappearance owing
to its being no longer useful.
Another form of cup, the chalice, appears to have
been developed from the primitive bowl. In ancient
Greek art we have <£a^ ~3jgj& drinking bowls raised on
a short stem, thus : 3S These furnish examples
of the initial stages in the course of development. The
next step seems to have been the elonga-
tion of the stem and the suppression of the
side handles, which became unnecessary :

This form of drinking cup is the one that was most

generally adopted for religious purposes, and many of

the subsequent changes in its form were brought about

by considerations of structure, and of the nature of the
special functions which it had to serve. The knop
was added to the stem for the reason which led to

its adoption in the case of the hanap. The base,

however, was, for ritualistic reasons, greatly extended

beyond the dimensions assigned to similarly shaped

vessels; it often exceeded the diameter of the bowl
198 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

itself. This was done in order to minimise the danger

of upsetting the chalice and so spilling the precious
wine which it was designed to hold. An accident of
this kind was held by ecclesiastics to be a very
serious matter, and, therefore, it. was to be provided
against in every possible way. Hence the form became
as in Fig. i, Plate XLVII. Another change arising
out of special use was the alteration of the plan of the
base from the circular to a more complicated form. It

was the ancient practice to place the chalice, after use,

to drain into the paten. A circular base would render
the object liable to roll out of its position, and so, to

prevent this, the base was either indented, scolloped, or

angularised, as in Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7, and as shown in

the small plans, a, 6, c, and d. Here, then, we have the

main characteristics of the chalice : small bowl, tall stem,
knop, and wide non-circular base. The earliest form
of chalice differed but little from the old classic drinking

cup mounted on a stem ; but gradually departed from it.

In the earliest departure, the bowl became a plain half

globe, the stem tall and the base spreading. Subsequently
the bowl became deeper and straight-sided, the stem still

higher, and the base shaped. Coincidently with these

changes in general form, enrichment of the profile and
surfaces of these objects came in. The stem was en-
riched by sub-division as in other vessels. Certain parts
 Plate XLVII.

W&S.i;
2oo THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN,

appear to have received special attention, such as the

knop and the base ; the large surface presented by the
extended base offering a fine field for the decorative
artist. The fullest advantage was taken of it, and here
all the resources of art have been expended (see 6, 7, and
8, Plate XLVIL). The knop has also been subject to
artistic enrichment, but often it has been unwisely treated
(see k t
Plate XLVIL). The useful purpose which
originated this enrichment has been lost sight of by
the decorator, pointing a moral that decoration should
never interfere with usefulness, and that effect is not
the only consideration to be regarded in designing
ornament.
Further illustrations are given on the same Plate of
chalices belonging to different periods, exhibiting the
various changes, already alluded to, which have taken
place in their development. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
diagrams showing the alteration in stems and bowls.
Figs. 3 and 5 are thirteenth century examples. That of
a chalice discovered near Dolgelly, North Wales, 1890,
is from a sketch which appeared in The Illustrated
London News of that year. The other is taken from
Sir Digby Wyatt's book on " Metal Work." Figs.

6, 7, and 8, also from Wyatt's " Metal Work," are later

examples, as shown by the deepened bowls, and the
decoration of these and other parts of the vessels. The
 —
XXWIVJEHSIT

THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 201

remaining illustrations show the elaboration of the

chalice during the Renaissance period. Figs. 10 and 11
are sixteenth century examples, and respectively are of
Spanish and Italian workmanship. Fig. 9 is French
of the eighteenth century, while Fig. 12 is Italian, taken
from a drawing in the South Kensington Museum.
We will now pass on to the consideration of another
class of hollow vessels, the jug and ewer. These appear
to have been evolved by a different process from that
which generated the vessels already dealt with i.e., by
adding a side handle for lifting, instead of using the stem
for that purpose. Ewers may have been derived from
vases and beakers in this way, as an examination of
various historic examples suggests : by repressing the
stem, as its office is superseded by the addition of the
handle at the side ; and by cutting the lip obliquely
downwards, as at a and 3, the
e c
beak c formed by the process \ y^\ ^) ^T^v
a
being afterwards developed and \ %s^ [ <r §/
shaped to further facilitate the IgjT V M
deliverance of liquids. Some
forms of these are shown on Plate XLVIII., Figs, c,

d, and f, with sketches in plan at a, b, e, g.

The records of ancient Greek art will supply ex-
amples of objects, so developed, which have furnished
the moderns with models for imitation and elaboration
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

(see Plate XLVIIL, Figs, i, 2, 4, and 5). An important

consideration in the application of handles to pouring
vessels is their proper relation to the lips and spouts of
those objects, so that the weight of the vessel and its

contents may not be against the action of pouring. Too

often mistakes are made in this respect by either follow-

ing some antique model which was formed for another

purpose than that of pouring, or by treating the handles
as ornamental adjuncts, without regard to their full and
complete usefulness. Take any ewer with a tall handle,

and endeavour to ascertain by a few experiments which

part of the handle it is best to grasp for easy lifting,

reversing, and delivery of its contents ; and it will be

discovered that it will be at a point near to, and a little

above, the centre of gravity of the whole mass. This

shows that it is of the highest importance to determine the
central point, # in order that the handle may be placed in
right relation to it and in balance with the lip ; that the

* This may be sufficiently accomplished in the following way :

Cut out in cardboard the form of the proposed vessel, and regard
it as a section of a vertical plane passing through the middle of
it when in an upright position. Draw a vertical line through the
centre of the card, then suspend it from any convenient point in
its edge, and from that point let fall a vertical line crossing the
first. The intersection of the two lines will be the centre of gravity
required.
 Plate XLVIII.

T(6

HANDLE
C3MPO&1NO
with B°oy &\
ri& ii
Lip
1V?<S.£
204 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

action of lifting and reversing, for discharging the contents,

may be accomplished with the least possible effort. This
adjustment of handles, according to the balancing centre
of vessels of capacity other than those for pouring,
applies with equal force to such as are used for carrying
by suspension or by support
On Plate XLVIII. are given examples of ewers
and jugs, illustrating the treatment and adjustment of
their handles. Figs, i, 2, 4, and 5 are Greek forms
of simple character, with handles more or less usefully

applied and pleasantly composed with their shapes.

Fig. 3 shows a richly decorated ewer, attributed to
Benvenuto Cellini. The handle is not well placed for
lifting and pouring ; but, although in this respect it is

not useful, the handle is of graceful form, and is well

composed with the vessel it adorns (see the dotted lines).

Fig. 6 is another ewer of the Italian Renaissance, the

handle of which, like that in the former example, is

placed too high for ease in handling. In this case,

however, the defect is somewhat atoned for by the
space between the lower attachment of the handle and
the " neck," thus allowing the handle to be grasped
at a more convenient place. Fig. 7 is an Italian shape,
on which a small winged figure is placed in front to
balance the fanciful handle. It would appear from this

that the designer was more careful to bring all parts of

 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 205

his design within a symmetrical outline than to make

a serviceable object. Fig. 8, an example of French
Renaissance, is of simple form, the stem and foot of
which are rectangular in plan. The handle is well
placed for fulfilling its purpose. Fig. 9 is an elaborately
ornamented ewer by an unknown artist of the sixteenth
century, and is another example of attaching a handle as
an ornament instead of for easy use. Figs. 10, 11, and 12
show the proper adjustment of handles with due regard
to composition, and the shapes to which they are
applied.

Besides jugs and ewers, we have other varieties of

hollow vessels with side handles, such as tankards and
flagons. The tankard used for drinking purposes was,
as before intimated, developed from the covered beaker.
The type upon which it was generally formed appears
to have been one having a wide-spreading base, as in

Plate XLIX., Fig. 1. Some historic examples are met

with which follow a type having a necking as in Fig. 4
on the same Plate. In addition to the handle, a dis-
tinctive mark of tankards is the attachment of the
cover to the top of the handle by a hinge, and a small
lever or thumb-piece for lifting it up.

This arrangement enabled the drinker,

while grasping the handle of the vessel
and conveying it to his mouth, to raise the lid by simply
206 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

pressing the lever with his thumb. The uncovering of

the tankard by this means did away with the necessity of
retaining the finial, which was essential for removing the
unattached cover of the beaker ; and so this feature was
either partly repressed or discarded altogether. When
used, how ever,
T
it is only for aesthetic reasons, as a matter
of composition, and to correct what to some may appear
to be a too abrupt termination of the object. Tankards
are mostly cylindrical in general form ; the varieties

which deviate from this shape are similar to those

beakers which they appear to follow. Later, however,
these vessels taper upwards. This alteration in form
led to the flagon, which is distinguished from the
tankard by increase of size and the narrowness of the
mouth; the latter being sometimes developed into a beak,
or spout. On Plate XL IX. are given various forms of
tankards and a flagon, to further illustrate the foregoing
remarks on these vessels. Figs, i, 2, 4, and 5 show
elementary forms of tankards, from the squat cylindrical
shape to the more elegant tapered form, which finally

resulted in the flagon. Figs. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11

are decorated examples, which in most cases appear

to follow the lines of the former, and which also illustrate

the repression of the finial, to which allusion has been

made.
Having now traced the development of a few of the
 Plate XLIX.

fig »/
Fl6 IS K*2
 :

208 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

important hollow vessels, it will be well to offer a

few remarks upon handles generally. Handles may-

be broadly classified into: first, those which have a

vertical direction (see Figs. 1, 2, 3), and, secondly,

those which are horizontally disposed, as

They are attached to vessels designed
for various purposes. The particular
(ppf
purpose of any individual object determines the form
of handle to be used, whether of the first or second
kind. Vertical handles are appropriate for lifting and
pouring vessels, horizontal ones for vessels for carrying
and transporting liquids. Of the first class there are
varieties —namely : (a) those which are attached at one
point only, (b) others which touch at two points, while
others (c) are attached along the whole of their inner
surface. We have now to look at their ornamental
development. The extremities of handles where they
joined the body of the vessel to which they were applied
naturally widened out to give a large connective surface,

that the attachment might have the

fullest security. These parts were the S$
first to receive decorative attention,

and hence we find them elaborated ^ (I

as shown in sketches here given

Again, to the middle. part of the handle, attention was
directed to fit it more perfectly for its purpose. A
smooth handle of uniform thickness (see Fig. 1) would be
 —

THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 209

liable to slip in the hand, and so it widened out, either

gradually, or by adding distinct prominences according

to convenience {see Fig. 2). This also offered a field for

decoration of which advantage was taken, and at last the

ornamentation extended throughout its entire length
{see Fig. 3). Some vertical handles are often seen which
combine the horizontal principle in their construction

i.e., their extremities spread out laterally — and, while

being more decorative, appear to have a firmer hold of
the vessel to which they belong (Fig. 3). Handles,
having only one point of attachment, were subject to
different forms of development, arising from difference
of character and from the use to which they were put.
The upper part, being detached, terminated differently,
and often finished with a scroll turned inwards. This
served the purpose of checking any tendency to slip in

the hand, and consequently there was no necessity, as

in the preceding variety, to introduce anything in the
middle for the same object ; and so there was one point
less from which ornament could reasonably be developed.
For further illustrations of the treatment of vertical
handles the student is referred to Plate XLIX., where
he will find other examples, besides those applied to

tankards, at Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18.
The object in tracing the development of these

varieties of cups, etc., has been to show their inventive

and imitative origin, and to direct the attention of the
p
2io THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

student to the first principles which should guide him in

his endeavours to originate new forms. While he must

largely cultivate his inventive faculty, he must limit its

exercise by the particular necessities of the case. The

brief survey we have been able to give indicates that
some forms with which we are familiar were originally
suggested by natural objects. This source of inspiration
is always open to us, and many a valuable hint may be
culled from nature and utilised by the designer. He is

not to copy natural forms wholesale, and force them to

serve other purposes than those intended by Nature
herself ; but to adapt by his inventive powers any sug-
gestion which they may yield. For example, the form of
the acorn (a, Plate L.) may arrest our attention, and we
may desire to adapt it to a cup of the hanap type. We
first take the form, having regard to the subtlety of curve
and general proportion ; here our imitative work ends,
and our inventive power begins its function. To make it

serve the purpose of a covered cup, we cut it across and

put on a moulding to mark the division, and to provide

a fitting for the cover. We then add a knob for raising
the cover, and a stem for support, by which the whole
vessel can be lifted (see Fig. i, Plate L.).

To simply copy the form and raise it upon a

" rustic " stem with leaves, and, for fear of
disturbing the likeness to the original, to

conceal, as far as possible, the opening, thus :

 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 211

is a procedure which, while may

it please the thoughtless

and unskilful, cannot but make " the judicious grieve."

To look to nature for models for imitation is to narrow
our means ; to study nature for suggestions is to widen
our resources. Leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, and animal
forms will all yield to the diligent student ideas which
will stimulate his inventive powers. On the same Plate
are given other illustrations of the adaptation of sug-
gestive natural forms. Fig. 2 is a design for a jug,
based upon the acorn. Fig. 3 a vase, suggested by the
general form of a leaflet of the horse-chestnut sketched
at b. Fig. 4 shows a form derived from the outline of
the campion flower, as at c, and immediately below (Fig.
6) is another shape obtained from the same natural form
by utilising the space between two drawings
of it. From the human form, which of all

created things contains the most beautiful and

subtle lines, can be extracted many pleasing
shapes by simply repeating the contour of some
detail on either side of a vertical axis, thus :

or by filling in the space occurring between two profiles

symmetrically disposed, as shown on Plate L., Figs. 7,

8, and 9. Of course, in selecting a natural form for

the purpose of new shapes, it will be desirable to

consider its suitability to the particular case in hand,

whether for a useful or a purely decorative object.

Again, other means of developing varieties of form
 :

212 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

will be found in lateral and vertical expansion, partial

development^ and varying the angle of inclination.
In designing a vase or cup, the attention naturally centres
on the body first ; and, whether we start with a purely
inventive form, or one suggested by nature, the next
difficulty that presents itself to the student is the com-
position of a stem and foot suitable to the main part of
the vessel. A good method to aid the accomplishment
of this end is to continue the general line of the body
downwards in a simple and easy way, forming a pleasant
shape that will harmonise with the form above, and to
let that outline regulate the profile of stem and foot.

By this means it will be found that, whatever projections

may be made, will be in an agreeable and progressive
order. An extended application of this method to the

whole design is often desirable, either by way of testing

the various projecting parts, or for the purposes of
development. For instance, suppose that to a completed

design an outline of a simple form be applied, it may

then appear that a moulding or some other feature of
the composition could, with advantage, be extended or
repressed. By reversing the process, starting with a

simple controlling shape and developing the form within

it, the student will be more likely to secure those
qualities, so important in a design (see Plates XLV.
and XLVIII., where the controlling lines are indicated)

* See Chapter IV., " Lessons on Decorative Design."

Plate L.

TIO 14-
214 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

gradation and unity. Whatever methods may be

adopted in order to realise original and beautiful forms,
proportion and stability must be regarded, for, without
these, the composition would be defective. Good pro-
portion will depend largely upon the variety in th<

dimensions, both lateral and vertical. When these are

equal, or nearly so, the less satisfying will be the general

effect ; because there will be too much repetition, and, as

a consequence, a lack of interest and vivacity due to the
absence of variety and contrast (see Plate L., Figs. 10
and n). But while it is important that in the adjust-
ment of parts there should not be equality of quantities

or dimensions, neither should the other extreme prevail.

The differences should be such that, while they are
apparent enough to give pleasure to the eye, they
should not be so great as to interfere with the repose
and unity of the design. Excitement from too much
contrast is exhausting ; too much repetition is wearisome.
To secure agreeable proportion, therefore, in dividing
the height, there should be a leading or dominant
division, to which all others should be in pleasant
relation ; while simple controlling forms, imagined or

drawn, will regulate and limit the lateral projections

in harmonious proportion. It will be obvious that

what has been advanced as regards proportion in the

general shapes of vases, applies with equal force to
the laying out of the surfaces of plain forms for decora-
 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 215

tion, whether divided by vertical, horizontal, or oblique

lines. If horizontal, they should be graduated agreeably

to the outline ; if vertical, the spaces will naturally

graduate with the shape to which they are applied. To

ensure the necessary amount of uniformity, the spaces
will have to be repeated round the circumference in

regular order, and may be in equal or alternating

quantities. The necessity for unequal divisions in this

latter case is not so great as in the first, as it is not

possible to view circular vases, so divided, without
the- modifications of perspective. In Figs, e,
f, g, h are
shown four different ways of setting out surface decora-

tion on vases : by spotting, oblique, horizontal, and

vertical striping. Two or more of the methods may
be combined, or the whole surface may be covered
with a pattern. Stability is another condition which
should be observed ; every form that may be classed

with these under consideration, should not only be made

to stand firmly and well, but should have the look of
being well balanced. A vase may be constructed with

a narrow foot and be made quite secure by loading or

weighting the base ; but this will not make the work
satisfactory to the eye, for, notwithstanding the device,

it will always look insecure and unsafe. Apart from the

necessary width of the base, there is another way in

which the quality of stability is likely to be interfered with

— namely, in the use of animals and figures in place of a
216 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.

proper structural stem. A figure made to support a vase

or cup, and more particularly if in action, will convey to

the mind an idea of unsteadiness, no matter how well it

may be executed. Besides which, the use tf\rrrrm

of figures for direct support will always
be productive of painful impressions by
reason of constrained positions and im-
plied continuous action. To use them is

an offence against good taste, and there-

fore to be avoided. Carelessness in

design has much to do with errors of this

sort ; harm is often wrought by want of

thought. When figures have been used
in this faulty way, as in No. i, it is often

apparent that a similar effect might have

been obtained, with a more satisfactory
result, by using them in conjunction with
a more reasonable support, as in No. 2.

?G>

F. M. EVANS AND CO., LIMITED, PRINTERS, CRYSTAL PALACE, S.E.

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