K H Murali Log Periodic Antennas

Aperture Antennas:
An aperture antenna contains some sort of opening through which electromagnetic waves are
transmitted or received. In electromagnetics and antenna theory, the aperture of an antenna is
defined as "A surface, near or on an antenna, on which it is convenient to make assumptions
regarding the field values for the purpose of computing fields at external points. In other words,
Antenna apertures are used in reference to the area of the antenna. It is defined as the measure of the
ability of the antenna to effectively receive the power radiated towards it. As the term is associated
with the area of the antenna, thus, shows the power capturing characteristics of receiving antennas.
The aperture is often taken as that portion of a plane surface near the antenna, perpendicular
to the direction of maximum radiation, through which the major part of the radiation passes. The
aperture of the antenna is the area whose orientation is normal to the direction from where the
electromagnetic wave is coming. This is done in order to intercept the equivalent power from the
incoming wave as it can be produced by the antenna which is receiving it.
When an electromagnetic wave is transmitted by the transmitting antenna then the receiving
antenna present at the other end tries to capture the emitted radiation. The effective aperture of an
antenna is that region of the receiving antenna that effectively collects the electromagnetic energy
from the radiated wave out of the overall antenna region. This means greater the extracting region of
the antenna more efficient it is.
It is defined as the ratio of power received by the antenna to the average power density of the
incident wave. Thus, is given as:

The aperture is defined as the area, oriented perpendicular to the direction of an incoming
electromagnetic wave, which would intercept the same amount of power from that wave as is
produced by the antenna receiving it.
Examples of aperture antennas include slots, waveguides, horns, reflectors and lenses.
Aperture antennas are commonly used in aircraft or spacecraft applications.

Horn Antenna:
A Horn antenna is a type of aperture antenna which is specially designed for microwave
frequencies. The end of the antenna is widened or in the horn shape. Because of this structure, there is
larger directivity so that the emitted signal can be easily transmitted to long distances.
A horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna that consists of a flaring
metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct radio waves in a beam. To improve the radiation
efficiency and directivity of the beam, the wave guide should be provided with an extended aperture
to make the abrupt discontinuity of the wave into a gradual transformation. So that all the energy in
the forward direction gets radiated. This can be termed as Flaring. Now, this can be done using a horn
antenna.

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The operational frequency range of a horn antenna is around 300MHz to 30GHz. This antenna
works in UHF and SHF frequency ranges. The usable bandwidth of horn antennas is typically of the
order of 10:1, and can be up to 20:1 (for instance, operating from 1 GHz-20 GHz).
Horn Antenna Construction:
A Horn antenna may be considered as a flared out wave guide, by which the directivity is
improved and the diffraction is reduced. Here, the flared portion can be in any shape like square,
conical or rectangular. For proper working, this antenna should be in minimum size. If the
wavelength is very large or the horn size is very small then the antenna will not work properly.
A waveguide is a structure that guides waves by restricting the transmission of energy to one
direction. A waveguide is a special form of transmission line consisting of a hollow, metal tube. The
tube wall provides distributed inductance, while the empty space between the tube walls provides
distributed capacitance. It supports the propagation of transverse electric (TE) and transverse
magnetic (TM) modes, but not transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes.

Waveguides are practical only for signals of extremely high frequency, where the wavelength
approaches the cross-sectional dimensions of the waveguide. Below such frequencies, waveguides are
useless as electrical transmission lines. The fraction of incident energy can be radiated from the entry
of the waveguide and the rest of the energy will be reflected back from the same entry because of the
open entry, the poor impedance matching will exist in between the space & waveguide. Also, at the
edges of the waveguide, diffraction affects the poor radiating capacity of the waveguide. In other
words, open end of the waveguide radiates energy, but only a fraction of incident energy is radiated
by the waveguide and rest is reflected back by that open end. This is so because due to the open end,
there exist poor impedance matching between the waveguide and space. Also, diffraction at the edges
of the waveguide results in the poor radiating ability of the waveguide. And so, the radiation pattern
is non-directive in nature.
So to overcome the drawbacks of the waveguide, its end is opened in an electromagnetic horn
form. So that a smooth transition can be allowed in between the space & waveguide thus offering
better directivity toward the radio wave.

By changing the waveguide like a horn structure, the existing discontinuity in between the
space & waveguide, 377 ohms impedance is eliminated. So this provides the incident energy to

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emitted in the forwarding direction by decreasing the diffraction on the edges. Therefore the
transmitting antenna’s directivity can be enhanced with superior gain.
The working of the horn antenna is as follows, once the waveguide’s one end is excited then
the field can be generated. In general, the fields within the waveguide & free space will transmit in a
similar way. But, in the case of propagation with the waveguide, the field can be controlled through
the waveguide walls so the field will not pass spherically as this is not the case through free-space
propagation. Once the traversing field arrives at the waveguide end then it transmits in the same way
as the free space. So, at the waveguide end, spherical wave fronts can be attained.

Basically, the region is said to be the transition region, where the guided propagation changes to free
space propagation. And as we know that the free space impedance is different from the impedance of
the waveguide thus flaring of the waveguide is done to reduce reflections. The flaring not only
offers impedance matching but also results in higher directivity and narrow beamwidth thus we
get the desired radiation pattern.
Design equation of Horn Antenna
One of the key properties of the horn antenna is the angle at which the horn flares out. This
affects many areas of the performance including the gain and directivity as described below.The
angle of flare is defined in the diagram below and there can be a different angle for both the E-plane
(E field) and the H-plane (H field. These are referred to as θE and θH.

The gain of the horn antenna will varies with frequency and also the angle of the flare of the
horn itself. Without delving deep into horn antenna theory and mathematics, it can be imagined that
there is an optimum flare angle. It is possible to gain an understanding of the operation of the horn by
looking at the two extremes where the angle of flare is 0° and 90° and at the case between the two
extremes.
 0° This form of horn might be considered a narrow horn. These antennas have small levels of gain
because the antenna appears like an open ended waveguide, and there is little conditioning of the
radiated beam as the horn antenna flares out.
 Increasing angles: As the flare angle is increased, the reflection at the mouth decreases rapidly
and as a result the gain of the horn antenna increases. Theory also states that the amount of
reflection at the point of the antenna where the sides start to flare drops, and this also results in an
increase in the level of gain.
 90° In contrast, for horn antennas with wide angles, it is found that most of the reflection occurs at
the area of the horn where the antenna sides flare out, but again the horn antenna gain is low

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because the throat approximates to an open ended waveguide. In view of this there is an optimum
horn flare for given requirements.

The waves of the signal will propagate down the horn antenna towards the aperture. The
waves travel down a horn as spherical wavefronts, with their origin at the apex of the horn, a point
called the phase center. The pattern of electric and magnetic fields at the aperture plane at the mouth
of the horn, which determines the radiation pattern, is a scaled-up reproduction of the fields in the
waveguide. Because the wavefronts are spherical, the phase increases smoothly from the edges of the
aperture plane to the center, because of the difference in length of the center point and the edge points
from the apex point. The difference in phase between the center point and the edges is called
the phase error(δ). This phase error, which increases with the flare angle, reduces the gain and
increases the beamwidth, giving horns wider beamwidths. The theory also shows that as the size of a
horn antenna increases in terms of its electrical size, i.e. the number of wavelengths for the various
dimensions, so the phase error increases. This has the effect of giving the horn antenna a wider beam
width.
In order to provide a narrow beam width a longer horn is required, i.e. having a smaller angle
of flare. Keeping the beamwidth narrow requires a longer horn (smaller flare angle) to keep the phase
error constant. The increasing phase error limits the aperture size of practical horns to about 15
wavelengths; larger apertures would require impractically long horns. This limits the gain of practical
horns to about 1000 (30 dBi) and the corresponding minimum beamwidth to about 5–10°.
The function of the electromagnetic horn is to produce a uniform phase front with a large
aperture in comparison to waveguide and thus the directivity is greater. The principle of equality of
path length is applicable to horn design.
From the geometry of the above figure

Where δ is permissible phase angle variation expressed as fraction of 360°. From triangle
OBC (using Pythagorean Theorem)

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Although derivation of exact relation for beamwidth of horn antenna is possible yet approximate
formula for the half power beamwidth of optimum flare horn are given by

Types of Horn Antenna

Horn antennas are microwave antennas used for a wide range of applications, including
satellite communication, radar systems, and wireless communication. There are several types of horn
antennas, including:
Sectoral Horn Antenna
In this type of horn antenna flaring is performed only along one of the walls of the
waveguide. The Sectoral horn antenna is a type of pyramidal horn antenna that is designed to radiate
in a specific direction. It is commonly used for point-to-point communication, such as in microwave
links and cellular communication systems.

Sectional E-plane Horn Antenna

When one of the walls of the waveguide is flared along the direction of electric field vector is
known as E-plane sectoral horn antenna. If the flaring is the direction of the E-field vector then it is
known as a sectional or sectoral E-plane horn antenna. The E-plane horn antenna is a rectangular
waveguide that is flared out at one end to form a horn. It radiates energy in the electric field (E-plane)
direction and is commonly used for antenna testing and measurement applications.

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Sectional H-plane Horn Antenna
When the wall of the waveguide is flared along the direction of the magnetic field vector then
we call it H-plane Sectoral horn antenna. It is similar to an E-plane horn antenna. if the flaring is in
the direction of the H-field then it is known as a sectional or sectoral H-plane horn antenna. The H-
plane horn antenna is a rectangular waveguide that is flared out at one end to form a horn. It radiates
energy in the magnetic field (H-plane) direction and is commonly used for antenna testing and
measurement applications.

Pyramidal Horn Antenna

As the name suggests, this antenna is in a pyramid shape through a rectangular cross-section.
This antenna can be formed by flaring both the waveguide walls. In this antenna, a rectangular
waveguide is utilized & the flaring can be done within both the direction of magnetic and electric
field vectors. If flaring is done on both the E & H walls of a rectangular waveguide, then pyramidal
horn antenna is produced. These antennas are simply used to radiate linearly polarized radio waves
& used with rectangular waveguides.

Pyramidal horn antennas are widely used in various applications in the microwave range due
to its high gain, moderate bandwidth and low voltage standing wave ratio VSWR. Its construction is
relativity simple and they are often used as feeders of reflectors and currently in applications where
wide bandwidth is required, such as the technology WiMAX. Pyramidal horn antenna has extensively
been used as a feed element for radio astronomy, satellite communications and in the antenna test
bench as a reference antenna for last several decades due to its simplicity in construction, ease of
excitation, large gain and relatively better radiation characteristics at microwave frequencies.
Conical Horn Antenna
When an antenna horn is in a cone shape with a circular cross-section is known as a conical
horn antenna. These antennas are simply used through cylindrical waveguides. A conical antenna
formation is an effect of a circular waveguide flaring. A circular horn antenna can be either biconical
or conical within nature.

It is used to transmit radio waves from a circular waveguide (circular shape metal pipe to
carry RF waves) into space or capture the radio waves into the circular waveguide during the

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receiving mode. The shape of conical horn antenna provides a gradual transition structure to match
the impedance of the waveguide to the impedance of free space, enabling the waves from the
waveguide to radiate efficiently into space or receive radio waves efficiently from the space during
receiving mode.
This antenna can operate in wide frequency range above 300 MHz to GHz range and has high
directivity and gain. These antennas are ideal as feed antennas for larger antenna structures such as
parabolic antennas, used as directive antennas for radar guns, satellite & microwave communication,
electromagnetic interference measurement, and more.
Exponential Horn Antenna
Exponential horn antenna has a curved side and sometimes referred as scalar horn antenna. It
is called the exponential horn antenna because the separating distance between the sides rises
exponentially as a function of length. These antennas offer constant impedance up to a large
frequency thus there are less chances of internal reflections.
The exponential horn antenna is a type of horn antenna that has a flared exponential shape. It
is commonly used for high-frequency communication and radar systems, as it has a wide bandwidth
and low return loss.
They can be used as antennas or radiators to feed a reflector antenna such as a parabolic
antenna. The horn acts as a flared waveguide. Because exponential horn antennas have consistent
performance over a wide frequency range, they are often used for EMC or electromagnetic
compatibility measurement applications. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) testing is a must before
launching a product into the real wireless world. Exponential horn antennas have been used in ground
penetrating radar (GPR) systems and free-space time-domain measurement systems. The free space
method is indispensable to material evaluation in microwave, which can flexibly deal with a wide
range of applications such as permittivity/permeability measurement and oblique incident reflection
measurement.
Corrugated Horn Antenna
The corrugated horn antenna is a type of horn antenna that has a corrugated inner surface. In order to
increase the bandwidth of the horn antenna and reduce the main mode cutoff frequency and its
impedance characteristics, the ridge is usually used to improve the transmission characteristics of the
horn antenna. The corrugations are typically axial (that is, in the direction of the horn axis) or radial
(i.e., perpendicular to the axis). The depths of the corrugations usually vary between λ/4 and λ/2,
where λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic field at the design frequency.
It is commonly used for microwave imaging and satellite communication applications, as it
has a low level of cross-polarization and wide bandwidth. Corrugated horns have wider bandwidth
and smaller sidelobes and cross-polarization, and are widely used as feed horns for satellite
dishes and radio telescopes. Corrugated horns are typically used as feeds for reflector antennas where
low cross polarization is required. With a corrugated horn the low cross polarisation can also be
maintained over a very large frequency bandwidth.

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Advantages
The advantages of a horn antenna include the following.
 These antennas can operate over a wide bandwidth, wide range of frequencies since they don’t have
resonant elements.
 The beamwidth of the horn antenna is 10:1 ratio (1 GHz – 10 GHz) which is common and 20:1 is
possible.
 Designing is simple.
 They are also simple to connect to the waveguide & a coaxial feeder.
 These antennas have a low SWR (standing wave ratio that means they reduce standing waves.
 Good impedance matching.
 Its performance is stable for the entire range of frequencies.
 Small minor lobes can be formed.
 These antennas are used as feed horns for large parabolic antennas.
 Better directivity.
 Avoided standing waves.
 The nonexistence of a resonance element within the construction allows it to work over a wide bandwidth.
 It is extremely directional within nature thus providing higher directivity.
 It provides fewer reflections.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of horn antennae include the following.
 These antennas will radiate energy in spherical wavefront shape, thus this antenna does not provide a
directive or sharp beam.
 They have limited gain like 20 dB, so in order to enhance the antenna gain, the opening of the horn should
be made larger so that the length of the horn will become excessive.
 Flare angle design will decide the directivity.
 The length of the flare & Flare angle should not be extremely small.
 The antenna’s directivity depends on the flare angle.
 The flare dimensions must be adequately large otherwise it will make the antenna bulky sometimes.
Applications
The applications of horn antennae include the following.
 These are used mainly for astronomical studies.
 These are used in microwave-based applications.
 These can be used as feed elements.
 These are used in laboratories to measure different antenna parameters.
 At microwave frequencies, these are used wherever moderate gains are adequate.
 The horn dimensions must be high for high gain to use in moderate gain operations.
 These types of antennas are applicable in speed enforcement cameras to keep away from reflections that
interrupt the desired response.
 Parabolic reflectors can be excited by feeding elements like horn antennas. So the higher directivity
provided through this antenna permits it to light up the reflector.

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