Knowledge of Results

Aim

To assess the effect of knowledge of results on individual performance.

Introduction

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience or

practice. Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviours,
skills, values, attitudes and preferences. The nature and processes involve d in learning are
studied in many fields including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental
psychology.

Factors affecting the learning process are: (1) Motivation; If the learner has no motivation to
learn, any amount of force will be futile. More the motivation better will be the learning. In
addition to motivation, the learner should have a definite goal. It will direct the individual
appropriately and help him to achieve the goal. (2) Readiness and will power; This is just like
motivation. If the learner is ready to learn, he will develop motivation to learn. Along with
readiness a strong willpower is also essential to overcome hurdles and problems. Readiness
will help to develop a positive attitude in learner. (3) Ability of the learner; This refers to the
level of intelligence, creativity, aptitude and such other abilities necessary for learning.
Intelligence enables the learner to learn better and understand things and relationship between
them. It includes both general and specific intelligence related to specific area of learning. (4)
Attention; Learner must learn to concentrate his attention on learning. Attentiveness helps to
grasp learning material. Distraction of attention affects learning. (5) Maturation of the
learner; Maturation and learning go hand in hand. We learn things only according to maturity
of our body. For example, a child of 6 months cannot learn to ride a bicycle even after
vigorous training, because it requires muscular or physical maturity. (6) Level of aspiration
and achievement; Learning depends upon the level of aspiration to achieve. If the aspiration
level is high, the learner will work hard and achieve more. However, the aspiration level
should be in accordance with the ability of the learner.

Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. It is
what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book
to gain knowledge. Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive
forces that activate behaviour. In everyday usage, the term ‘motivation’ is frequently used to
describe why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions.

Types of Motivation:

(1) Extrinsic motivations: Extrinsic motivation is when we are motivated to perform a

behaviour or engage in an activity because we want to earn a reward or avoid punishment.
You will engage in behaviour not because you enjoy it or because you find it satisfying, but
because you expect to get something in return or avoid something unpleasant.

(2) Intrinsic Motivations: This motivation is when you engage in a behaviour because you
find it rewarding. You are performing an activity for its own sake rather than from the desire
for some external reward. The behaviour itself is its own reward.

Knowledge of result is knowledge about achieving the goal of the performance or externally
presented information about the outcome of performing a skill. In some situations, KR
describes something about the performance outcome. Sometimes, KR does not describe the
performance outcome, but simply tells the performer whether he or she has achieved the goal
of the performance.

Knowledge of Result is beneficial for skill learning for at least four reasons:

(a) Learners often use Knowledge of Result to confirm their own assessment of the task
intrinsic feedback, even though it may be redundant with task intrinsic feedback.

(b) Learners may need Knowledge of Result because they cannot determine the outcome of
performing a skill on the basis of the available task intrinsic feedback.

(c) Learners often use Knowledge of Result to motivate themselves to continue practicing.

(d) In certain situations, in order to establish a discovery learning practice environment, the
practitioner may want to provide only Knowledge of Result.
Knowledge of performance is the second category of augmented feedback. It is information
about the movement characteristics that lead to the performance outcome. Knowledge of
Performance can be given verbally and there are various non-verbal means of providing.
Knowledge of Performance can be especially beneficial when:

(a) Skills must be performed according to specified movement characteristics, such as in

gymnastics stunts, or springboard dives.

(b) A specific movement component of skills that requires complex coordination must be
improved or corrected.

(c) The goal of the action is a kinematic, kinetic, or specific muscle activity.

(d) Knowledge of Result is redundant in the task intrinsic feedback.

Review Of Literature

According to Baker( 1963), knowledge of results (KR) facilitates vigilance performance by

enhancing the generation of accurate expectations regarding the time of appearance of critical
signals. The implications of this notion were assessed by comparing effects of true and false
(noncontingent) KR within the context of temporally regular and irregular signal schedule.

A consistent finding in vigilance experiments is that knowledge of results (KR) enhances

overall performance efficiency and tends to slow the rate at which performance declines with
time on task (Davies & Tune, 1969).
In a study by Fujii S (2016), it was stated that feedbacks are of two kinds; intrinsic feedback,
which includes information provided by internal sources during or after the movement, and
extrinsic feedback, which provides information by an external source.
According to Guadagnoli MA(2001), Detecting the error can be useful in several ways. If the
learner identifies the errors in the initial trials and tries to correct them, he/she can act more
accurately in subsequent trials and have a better performance in delayed retention tests.
 Hypothesis

The mean error in judgement will be less when knowledge of results is provided.

Method

Subject Preliminaries

Name: R B.

Age: 22

Gender: Female

Education Qualification: B.C.A. Graduate

Material Required

Paper, Pencil, White Sheets, Foot Rule.

Design

A within subject design was used for this experiment. This required using the same
participants for each of the two conditions: Control Condition – Where in knowledge of result
was not provided and Experimental Condition – Where in knowledge of result was provided.
This allowed for the individual performance in both conditions to be compared. The subjects
were instructed to draw a line measuring 10cm without any feedback about their performance
in control condition, and thereafter were instructed to draw a line measuring 10cm while
providing feedback about their performance on each trial in the experimental condition. The
lengths of the lines drawn by the subject were noted, and their difference from 10cm was
calculated for each trial in both the conditions.
Variables

Independent Variable: Knowledge of Results

Dependent Variable: Mean error in Judgement

Rapport Formation

The subject was called inside the room and was asked to sit comfortably. The lightning and
the warmth of the room was checked and a small conversation with the subject was held. The
subject was made comfortable and a deep breathing exercise was conducted to reduce his/her
nervousness. The subject was assured about the confidentiality of the results of the
experiment.

Administration

Instructions

Control Conditions: “In this activity, you are required to draw a line measuring 10cm using
the pencil and the ruler. You will be given several attempts for drawing the line as accurately
as possible.”

Experimental Conditions: “In this activity, you are again required to draw a line measuring
10cm using the pencil and the ruler. But after every attempt I will tell you the actual length of
the line that you have drawn. You will be given several attempts to draw the line as
accurately as possible.”
Precautions

Before the conduction of the experiment, it was ensured that the lighting facility in the lab
was proper. Tasks were presented in a proper manner to avoid the chance of being fatigued
and repetitiveness. It was made sure that there was no background noise to avoid unwanted
distraction.

Procedure

This experiment begins by blindfolding the subject properly in a way that nothing is visible.
Prior to that we need to make the subject comfortable and set an understanding. He or she has
to draw lines of 10cm but being blindfolded. In the very first condition no feedback shall be
given to the subject but need to note down the readings. While drawing the line make sure
that you never give the edge of ruler, because by that they can guess or make an estimate. We
need to also give a big ruler, instead of small ruler. Let the subject draw 10 lines without any
kind of feedback. Once he or she is done remove the sheet and move onto set 2. In these
conditions we will give the exact measurement of line the subject has drawn in every trial.
After it is done, remove the blindfold. Note down all the readings properly.

Introspective Report

It was a really fun exercise. The interviewer was clear and loud with the numbers and hence I
found it easier to recall the numbers. Chunked numbers were easier to recall. However, I
could have performed better if the interviewer and I were in an empty space, not being
distracted by any disturbance.
Observational Report

The interviewee was comfortable and relaxed. She was calm and polite. She was trying to
focus and asked questions whenever required. She performed really well.

Result

Trials Conditioned condition Experimental condition

Line length Error in Line length Error in
(cm) Judgement (cm) Judgement
1. 11 1 8 2
2. 11.5 1.5 8.6 1.4
3. 12.5 2.5 10.7 0.7
4. 10.8 0.8 13 3
5. 12 2 9 1
6. 10.6 0.6 11 1
7. 10.2 0.2 11 1
8. 10.8 0.8 8.5 1.5
9. 6.9 3.1 9.8 0.2
10. 6.5 3.5 8.5 1.5

Mean of Error in Judgement

Controlled Condition 16/10 = 1.6
Experimental Condition 13.3/10 = 1.33
 Discussion

The aim was to assess the effect of knowledge of results on individuals ’performance. The
subject was blindfolded and was asked to draw 10cm lines in two different condition
controlled and experimental. The subject was given 10 trials in both the condition. In the
result table the results of the conduction done on the subject are given.

Firstly, in the controlled condition the subject did not receive any feedback while performing.
There were 10 trials. Longest line was 12.5 and shortest was 6.5. Trial 7 was very close as it
was 10.2. The error in judgement came was high as compared to the experimental condition.
In the experimental condition, there was constant motivation and feedbacks after each trial
and it impacted the results. We cannot see much difference between the lengths of line in
experimental condition. The error in judgement was less in each trial compared to controlled
condition.

According to Baker (1963), knowledge of results facilitates vigilance performance by

enhancing the generation of accurate expectations regarding the time of appearance of critical
signals. The implications of this notion were assessed by comparing effects of true and false
(noncontingent) KR within the context of temporally regular and irregular signal schedules.

Conclusion

The aim of the experiment is to assess the effect of knowledge of results on individuals’
performance. The hypothesis was to prove that the mean error in judgement will be less when
knowledge of result is provided. After viewing the results, we can conclude that our
hypothesis was proved as the mean of error in judgement was less as compared to the other
condition when subject was not aware of the length of the line.
 References

Baker, C. H. Further toward a theory of vigilance. In D. N. Buckner and J. J. McGrath (Eds.)

Vigilance: A symposium. New York: McGraw Hill. 1963, PP. 127-170.

Ciccarelli, S. K., White, J. N., & Ciccarelli, S. K. (2012). Psychology. Boston, Mass: Pearson
Learning Solutions.

Davies, D. R., Tune, G. S. Human vigilance performance. New York: American Elsevier.
1969.

Knowledge of results for motor learning: Relationship between error estimation and
knowledge of results frequency. Journal of Motor Behaviour. (2001); 33(2):217 24.

Lai, Q. Shea, C. H. ( The role of reduced frequency of knowledge of results during constant
practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70(1), 33-40.

More feedback is better than less: Learning a novel upper limb joint coordination pattern with
augmented auditory feedback. Frontiers in Neuroscience. (2016); 10:251.