POLITICAL SCIENCE

Ideas and Institutions in

Indian Political Thought
B.A. (Hons.) Pol. Sci. Semester 1st
Important Questions
with Answer

NOTES
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Ideas and Institutions in Indian Political Thought

Contents
Unit-1 Statecraft in Ancient India

Unit-2 Dharma, Dhamma, Danda

Unit-3 Nyaya, Niti

Unit-4 Sabha and Samiti

Unit-5 Rajya and Rashtra

Unit-6 Varna, Jati

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Question 1 - Describe the Saptang principle of Kautilya's state.

Answer - Introduction

The word "Saptang" indicates seven limbs, constituents or elements. Together, they

constitute the State as an organism, “like a chariot composed of seven parts fitted and

subservient to one another". To an extent the Saptanga theory of State finds elaboration
in the Ancient Greek Political Philosophy.

For instance: while comparing the State with the human body, Plato had argued that just
as a cut in the finger causes pain in the body, similarly injury of one organ creates

problems for the other organs of the body politic. Seven Angas, Prakriti’s, or elements

were enumerated and elucidated by Kautilya for describing "the nature of the State" in its

totality.

As laid down in the first chapter of Arthashastra's Sixth Book, entitled Mandala
Yonih, these are:

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Kautilya: - Saptanga theory of state

1. Swami (The Sovereign King)

Subscribing to monarchy as the ideal form of state, Kautilya has accorded to the king "the

highest place in the body-politic". The Swami is the chief executive head of the state

and, is, thus "the consummation of all other elements". The word Swami is derived from
the word swayam which refers to self-determining. The Swami, therefore, becomes a living

and animate embodiment, which is subjected to be ruled by none, does not follow any

external rulings and is liable only to self-imposed restrictions. He is, thus, the symbol of

legal and political authority and power.

Kautilya gives a comprehensive list of four broad categories of qualities which

constitute the ideals of a Swami:

(i) Qualities of an inviting nature

(ii) Qualities of intellect and intuition

(iii) Qualities of enthusiasm and

(iv) Qualities of self- restraint and spirit. This categorization of qualities supplements the

usual notion of kingship being characterized by coercion and subordination of people.

The king was, thus, not to be a despot, exercising power through sheer military force, but

was to rule his subjects through affection.

Accordingly, the duties and functions that he is called upon to perform are of two

types:

(i) Protective Functions- The king being the natural guardian and saviour of his people,

Kautilya expects him to perform the following protective functions that he should put

down violence and maintain law and order, he should avert dangers and command the

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army, to redress people's grievances, to punish the wrong- doers and to administer justice

impartially and in accordance with the sacred law, evidence, history and enacted law.

(ii) Promotive Functions- On the other hand, his promotive functions include the

following that he should promote the moral and material happiness and welfare of his
people, as in their happiness lies his happiness and in their welfare his welfare, to enable

them to pursue freely their independent efforts in life, to maintain unity and solidarity, to

reward virtue, to promote agriculture, industry and arts, to regulate the means of

livelihood, especially of the laborers and artisans and to encourage education and help
students. In the exercise of these functions, Kautilya's king was all-powerful. The limits of

his authority were imposed by the social and religious customs of his state.

2. Amatya (The Minister)- In its narrow sense, the term Amatya or Mantrin is used for

the minister of the high grade.

Kautilya describes an elaborate system of recruitment of the Amatyas and other officials

who were to be morally and ethically pure, honest in financial matters and of good

character. The Amatyas were expected to be natural born citizens, persons of noble origin,
free from all vices, men of infallible memory, friendly nature, wisdom, patience and

endurance. The king was expected to appoint only wise men to these offices as they were

to be his trusted advisers. These ministers were not only to advise the king whenever their

advice was sought; they were also to maintain the secrecy of their deliberations.

3. Janapada (The People and The Territory)- This unique element of Saptanga is the
symbol of State, which stands for a "territorial society". Here, 'Jana' denotes people and

'Pada' is a symbol of territory where these inhabitants permanently reside. D.R.

Bhandarkar and R.S. Sharma are of the view that Kautilya's Janapada includes not only

territory but also population.

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Kautilya prescribes the following requisites of a prosperous Janapada in terms of

territory:

(i) accommodate and support people

(ii) defend the state against enemies

(iii) find occupation of people

(iv) have manageable neighbours

(v) provide pastures

(vi) have arable land, mines, forest and

(vii) provide good internal communication, i.e., rivers, roads, and outlet to sea.

4. Durga (Fortification)- Kautilya regarded fortification as essential for the defense and

protection of the state.

He wanted the state to fortify the territories from all sides. He has described four types of

fortification which include Audak, Paarvat, Dhannvana and Vana. Of these categories, the

first two are used for the protection of the territory and the remaining two are used for

the protection of the farmers. These fortifications, thus, would not only protect the people
and the capital, but would also be suitable for fighting purposes, i.e., for both defensive

and offensive purposes.

5. Kosha (The Treasury)- The flourishing economy is essential for the existence of the

State in all times and circumstances. That is probably why the philosophers of Ancient

India looked at treasury as an essential element of the State. Though Kautilya wanted a
prosperous treasury, he specifically directed the king to earn the wealth of nation only by

legitimate and righteous means and in no way by unfair and immoral means. For the

collection of revenues, Kautilya suggested the following legitimate sources:

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(i) various forms of land tax

(ii) duty levied on the sale of commodities in the market

(iii) tax on imports and exports and

(iv) miscellaneous taxes.

6. Danda (The Army or The Force)- Kautilya accepted a strong and hereditary Kshatriya

army, as the most important requisite of the state. He insisted on the hereditary army, as

it would not only be skilled, well- contended and obedient to the king's will, but also be

free from duplicity. Such an army would serve both the defensive and offensive purposes
of the king. Hence, it was obvious for Kautilya to pay great attention to the maintenance

and organization of the army. For instance, in Arthashastra, we find him mentioning as

many as half a dozen heads of departments namely the in charge of the armoury, naval

forces, cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry.

7. Mitra (The Allies)- Having realized that "political isolation means death", Kautilya
proceeded to consider the Mitra or the ally as a vital factor. Kautilya recognizes two kinds

of allies, namely Sahaja and Kritrima. The Sahaja or natural ally is the one whose friendship

is derived from the times of King's father and grandfather and who is situated close to the

territory of the immediately neighboring enemy. On the other hand, the Kritrima or the

acquired ally is the one whose friendship is specially resorted to for the protection of
wealth and life. Kautilya, however, preferred an ally who is traditional, permanent,

disciplined, and enthusiastic and from whom the possibility of opposition or rebellion is

minimum.

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Evolution

 Saptanga theory as given by Kautilya was almost universally accepted as the

standard definition to know the nature of the ancient India.

 Saptanga doctrine represents a scheme of categorisation of the various elements of

the kingdom and importance of the different elements of state. It has been

generally recognized that the modern constituents of the state such as sovereignty,

government, territory and population are covered by the elements of Swami,

amatya and Janapada in the saptang theory of the state.

 The objective of theory to bringing about welfare of the people.

Conclusion

Kautilya's concept of 'State' is, however, vividly reflected in his description of angas or
elements of the state. He did not specifically define the term 'State', as he was essentially

a man of action, and not a theorist. His concern for and emphasis on the internal and

external security of state was to save humanity from a sort of Hobbesian state of nature.

The Saptang theory is a vivid manifestation of Kautilya's deeper understanding of not only

the political nature of man, but also the functioning of his political institutions, especially
the state.

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Question 2 - Briefly explain the nature and historical development of political

institutions in ancient India.

Answer – Introduction

The historical development of political institutions in ancient India can be traced back to

the Rigveda Samhita, Mahabharat, Political thought in the Manusmriti, Political philosophy
of Arthashastra and Political philosophy of Bhagwat Gita etc.

Nature and historical development of political institutions in ancient India.

1. Mahabharat

Vyasa is a mythical figure. He is popularly regarded as a compiler and arranger of great

epic Mahabharat. Vyasa in course of the compilation of the Mahabharat, described various

principles relating to the science of polity known as Rajadharma, Dandaniti (criminal

justice), origin of the State, Kingship, the authority and 0obligation of the rulers, principles

and policies of government, judicial administration, ministers, the treasury, defence etc.
Mahabharata is another important source of ancient Indian Political Thought. It gives the

following information about the Indian Polity.

 Discussion about the various theories of origin of State and Kingship.

 Discussion about the duties of the King.

 Discussion on the responsibilities of the ministers.

 Information about the method of war and rules of conducting the war.
 Information about the earlier political thinkers and their ideas.

2. Political thought in the Manusmriti

The epic period was succeeded by the period of the Smritis. The most important among
these Smrities in the Manusmriti. The Manusmriti provides valuable concepts of

Political Science like Justice, Law and Education.

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The fifth, sixth, seventh and eights Chapters of Manusmiriti are the most important. Manu,

in the seventh chapter, indulged in a suitable analysis of the various aspects of the state.

First of all, the duties of the King are elaborately discussed. Other Organs of the state like
ministers, diplomats or ambassadors, heads of villages etc. have been considered in

details. Manu has provided a very detailed picture of the various aspects a King's life and

duties. The eight chapter of Manusmriti provide, a detailed analysis of the system of

Justice.

3. Political philosophy of Arthashastra

Kautilya's Arthashastra is the most important text on ancient Indian Political Thought. It
provides a detailed analysis of every aspect of a Welfare State. Arthasashtra also regards

dharma as the foundation stone of the state as well as relations between states. Kautilya

has supported the theory of Divine origin of state.

4. Evolution from Puranas to Niti-shastras

Political ideas are to be found in the 18 Puranas between 5 to 10 A.D. These Puranas

are Agni Purana, Vayu Purana, Markendiya Purana, Mastsya Purana, Vrahnardiya Purana,

Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Narasingha Purana, Koorma Purana and Srimad Bhagvada.

5. Buddhist and Jain texts

Buddhist and Jain thinking clearly exhibits notable features of Indian Political Thought.

Jain and Buddhist scholars preached the equality of man in human society. Buddhist and
Jain thinkers revolted again discrimination and taught the principle of human equality

sutralankara, a Buddhist text provides a detailed account of the skills which a prince must

necessarily possess.

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6. Smritis

Manu was one of the great ancient Indian Political Philosophers. He is famous for his

monumental work "Manusmriti". He is regarded in one of the first and foremost thinkers

who gave ideas about structures, norms, standards and values of society, religion and
polity. His political ideas are still relevant for modern world. He laid the foundations of

social and political organizations of ancient Indian Civilization. Manu's Political ideas are

found in the realm of the Origin of State, the role and qualities of Kingship, Dandaniti,

diplomacy and other administrative aspects. Smrities (sacred traditions) are also a source
of ancient Indian Political Thought in the sense that we get an idea about the changing

position of the King and ethical basis of the State.

7. Kumundakiya Nitisara

Kumundakiya Nitisara, a treatise written in 500 A.D., in primarily a summary of Kautilya's

Arthasashtra. But it also provides information about the King and his family.

8. Compilations of Hindu lawyers

A number of Hindu Lawyers, in the period between 14th and 18th Centuries, complied

certain treatise which lay scattered in different sources, some of the most important

writers who produced such works are Nibandhakaras Chandesvara Mitra Mishra and Nil

kantha. The value of these works lies in the fact that they contain extracts from unknown
authorities.

9. Political philosophy of Bhagwat Gita

The most important teaching of Gita is the devotion to one's own duties in society and

performance of social service.

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10. Political philosophy of Mahabharata

Mahabharata, the great epic, can also be treated as ancient Indian Political

Literature. The most important parts, from the political view point, the Mahabharat is the

Shantiparva in which a theory of punishment is advanced as a political theory or the

service of government. Indian thinkers have regarded the power of punishment (Danda)

as the chief characteristic of the State. According to the Shantiparba in Mahabharata,

Vishnu first created a monumental text on life and adman and then established a king,

govt. and a state. Vishnu's text on political science mentioned in the Mahabharata gives
an account of the rules pertaining to governance by the state and rules governing

relations between states. In the Mahabharata, we find the following political ideas.

11. Vedas

The Vedas, a work on religious and philosophy, is also a source of information about the

political institutions. It provides, information about the various Kingdoms, and their

organization, duties of the Kings towards the subjects, International Journal of Political

Science and Governance natural calamities, army and friendly state. The ninth book talks
about internal and external dangers, enemies, traitors, strengths and weaknesses etc. The

tenth book discusses about War, infantry, Cavalry, elephants etc.

In the Eleventh book, there are topics like Punishment, causes of dissension, secret

punishment etc. The twelfth book discusses about battle of intrigue, duties of messengers,

destruction of stores, granaries etc. The thirteenth book deals with creating dissensions
in the enemy's army with the spies, peace on the occupied territories, etc. The fourteenth

book has discussion what ways and means of injuring army remedies against injuries etc.

The fifteenth book deals with the plan of Logical arrangement of the treatise. Arthasashtra

is the most authoritative source of the ancient Indian Political Thought. The following
information are the contribution of Arthasashtra.

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Conclusion

Mahabharat, Veda, Arthashastra, Manusmriti and buddha text played a very important

role in ancient history. The present work Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in

Ancient Indian discusses different views on the origin and nature of the state in ancient
India.

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Question 3 - Discuss the importance of Dharma, Dhamma, Dand in Indian political

thought.

Answer - Introduction

Dharma

Concept of Dharma in Vedic period

Ancient Indian political thought is an integral part of Indian philosophy. all the rules

and laws related to religion and society were contained in the 'Dharmashastra'. Dharma

means one's duty i.e., to adopt the path of virtue and truth. It is a moral and natural law.
It is a complete social system. In Vedic India, it is believed that one should lead one's life

according to Dharma, that is, follow the right path and perform one's duties.

In the Vedic period, the villages were self-supporting and everything they needed was

present within the villages. In this age, society was divided into four varnas Brahmins,

Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras based on karma and livelihood. Any person could
enter another varna by changing his karma, because of his knowledge, ability etc. For

example, the descendants of sage Bhrigu were carpenters who were skilled in making

chariots. During the Vedic period, Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya, Chandrama, Prithvi, Vishnu,

were praised and religious learnings and rules were expressed by the ‘Rit'. Varuna was

considered a peace- loving deity and the guardian of moral rules called Rit, which even
the gods had to follow.

Dhamma

 Dhamma was a way of life enshrined in a code of behaviour and a set of ideals that he

advised his subjects to follow to live in peace and prosperity.

 Dhamma policies included the following: Ahimsa (non-violence) and truthfulness

should be practiced. The masters' treatment of slaves and servants should be humane.
 Ashoka established the idea of paternal kingship.

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 He regarded all his subjects as his children and believed it the king’s duty to look after

the welfare of the subjects.

 Through his edicts, he said everybody should serve parents, revere teachers, and
practice ahimsa and truthfulness.

 He asked everyone to avoid animal slaughter and sacrifice.

 He expounded humane treatment of animals, servants and prisoners.

 He advocated tolerance towards all religions.

 He sought conquest through Dhamma and not war.

 He sent missions abroad to spread the word of the Buddha. Notably, he sent his son

Mahinda and daughter Sangha Mitra to Sri Lanka.

 Most of his edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some are written in
the Kharosthi and Aramaic scripts also. There are some edicts written in Greek as well.

The language depends on the location of the pillar.

Dand

The term Danda is derived from the words Dam and Dand, which refer to tame,

subdue, to conquer or to restrain. This term also means a stick. Danda, in fact, is one of

the elements of a state. The main reason for the institution of Danda is to bring about

discipline in the lives of human beings who by nature are evil and corrupt. It is only the
king who can protect the entire mankind and for this protection, the king uses Danda as

a means or as an instrument.

Nature of dand

Dandaniti denotes the art of using force to control the errant elements in society. Danda,

i.e., the rod as a symbol of force or state power is mentioned in the old texts like

Manusmriti, the work of Ushnas and Mahabharata, but Kautilya has given elaborate
exposition of Dandaniti. Kautilya made a clear distinction between religion and politics

and nowhere does he evaluate political problems in terms of religious precepts.

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While recognizing the vital importance of religion in social life, he was bold enough to

assert that Dandaniti should form the basis of Purushartha (the effort to achieve the

principal objects of human life). He stressed the value of human endeavor in securing the
best in his life. He contended that history was no longer the result of the vengeance or

jealousy of superhuman powers but the expression of human ingenuity. He asserted that

things should not be allowed to be governed by chance.

Kautilya identified four purposes of Dandaniti:

(a) Acquisition of the unacquired

(b) Preservation of the acquired

(c) Augmentation of the preserved and

(d) Fair distribution of the augmented.

Only a strong and disciplined prince could fully achieve these purposes. Politically,

Kautilya was the supporter of a strong monarchy and stable imperialist state. His state

was to be paternal in character and benevolent in spirit. The main function of the state

was to foster the material and spiritual progress. It was to regulate all branches of human
life. It was to maintain the respective privileges of all and to protect them from the tyranny

of more powerful sections. Excessive use would distress the people and light usage of the

same will lose its importance. Through Dandaneethi, it becomes easier to bring about

proper progress and balanced system of social and economic needs. Kautilya regarded
monarchy as the best human institution and also as the custodian of the national

resources and public rights.

In exalting polity as the supreme social institution, Kautilya went to the extent of

claiming that of the four Purusharthas (principal objects of human life), Artha (material

prosperity which was fostered by the state) was the most important. He assigned the duty
of maintenance of Dharma (religious order) to the king himself.

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Kama (sensual enjoyments) could be attained only under a congenial atmosphere to be

maintained by the state. And finally, Moksha (final liberation of soul) could be achieved

only when the first three objects have been accomplished. Thus, achievement of all the
four principal objects of human life was dependent on the proper functioning of the state.

In a nutshell, Kautilya sought to replace the primacy of religion prevailing in his times by

advancing the claim of state sovereignty.

Conclusion

Thus, we can say the whole concept of Dharma is based on what a person should do or

should not do. Basically, it is the morality, harmony, and duties of an individual and it
includes every aspect of the life of a human being. It contains many concepts such as

legal, political, social, and moral.

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Question 4 - Briefly explain Kautilya's views on justice.

Answer - Introduction

Kautilya based his penal system on a complex interplay between monetary and physical

punishments. He subscribed to a theory of the maintenance of law and order by the

government by punishment, also called Dandaniti.

Kautilya's views on justice

Kautilya believed that for the prosperity of a state, the state must be devoid of internal

conflict and the King should be in control of the state. To maintain this internal peace, he
believed in a just and realistic rule of law. His definition of a state was one which had

power and wealth and hence he put property rights and protection of wealth as one of

the important themes in his jurisprudence. In fact, he advocated that one could get rid of

corporeal punishment by paying off fines.

Kautilya also attaches great importance to human rights on how the invaded ruler

and his ministers should be treated. He shows a deep understanding of criminal justice
and war justice. Surprisingly, for a harsh and realist man like Kautilya he shows mercy

towards the people defeated in a war and recommends humanity and justice towards

them. He thinks that this important to preserve the mandala structure of war and peace.

He advocates that defeated king shall be treated with respect and he should be made an
ally. He thinks that they key people advising the defeated king should be eliminated

through a silent war.

Kautilya believes that law should be in the hands of the King and punishments need

to be awarded to those who are guilty so that King can protect himself from the social

unrest and unhappiness. He believes that punishment is a means to an end and it needs
to prevent the commission of the crime. Kautilya also was a reformer where he though

punishments could reform a person and hence a society.

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His devotion to social structure was so strong that he thinks that Brahmins need to be

punished less by only exiling him and not torture him. This unequal social justice was in

itself injustice but so was his belief. He attaches great importance to Dandaniti which
includes, protecting property, acquiring property, augmenting them and distributing

them. He thinks that justice is an important constituent of sovereignty and it needs to be

preserved by the State and the ultimate responsibility lies with the King.

Kautilya’s view on crime and justice is very elaborate and goes on to differentiate

between various crimes. He advocates different punishments depending if they were

crimes committed while in public office, civil crimes, sexual crimes, religious crimes etc.

This shows that he had great grasp to customize the rule of law depending both on the

offence and the structure of the society. He believed that the structure and peace is

preserved in a society by effective jurisprudence. In today’s context some of his ideas

might be irrelevant but it shows that the ancient Hindu jurisprudence was codified and

actually more resembled the common law.

Kautilya’s understanding of justice, war, diplomacy and human rights makes him

unique in his times. In ancient India there is no one comparable who could have stood

the test for justice being a tool for statecraft. Kautilya believed that while it is as much

important for the state to wage a war and conquer, it is also important to maintain law
and order within the state in order to make it more powerful.

Essentials of a Justice System

Kautilya describes maintaining law and order as the essential duty of government. This

can be done in 2 ways, maintaining the social order as well as preventing and penalizing

criminal activities. There is a clear distinction between the administration of civil law and

criminal law. Book 4 of his omnibus includes the issues of criminal law and is titled
‘removal of thorns or removal of anti-social elements.

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For Kautilya, there were 4 bases of justice according to which any matter in dispute

must be judged –

1. Dharma, based on truth

2. Evidence, based on witnesses

3. Custom, traditions accepted by the people

4. Royal edicts, the law as promulgated

A judge was called a ‘Dharmastha’ or upholder of justice indicating that ultimately the

highest law of the land is Dharma. A bench of 3 Magistrates or Judges was responsible

for the containment of anti-social activities. The remedies available in the Kautilya State
varied, in most cases fines were an adequate remedy but there were also remedies of

incarceration, torture, and death available. He further discussed more pillars of a justice

system.

Firstly, that the rule of law had to be followed which suggests that, no one was above the

law. Checks and balances were clearly introduced for all public officials including extra

fines and punishment for malpractice in public duties. The doctrine of ‘Matsya Nyaya’ or
the weak get eaten by the strong was not to be followed in an administration. If proper

law was maintained by the king, the weak would not have to succumb to the fancies of

the powerful and thus it was the responsibility of the Kingdom to protect the weak and

follow the principles of justice.

Secondly, the laws must be clear and concise and properly codified to ensure their
remains no ambiguity or room for misinterpretation by judges and officials.

Thirdly, the effectiveness of law enforcement depended on 3 factors- honesty of the law
enforcer, proportionality of punishment and the importance of judicial fairness in the

sense that justice must not only be done but also be seen.

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Conclusion

Kautilya based his penal system on a complex interplay between monetary and physical

punishments. He subscribed to a theory of the maintenance of law and order by the

government by punishment, also called Dandaniti.

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Question 5 - What are Manu's views on justice and policy?

Answer - Introduction

Manu was of the opinion that the king must pay more attention to the entire judicial

system. Manu, however, did not support equal treatment to all castes in the society, and,

in fact, greatly favored Brahmanas. He also linked justice to dharma and that justice must
be provided based on the righteousness.

Manu's views on justice and policy

Judicial system

As the judicial head of the state, it was the duty of king to examine the cases on daily
basis in the court, so that no one felt that justice was being denied to them. Also, king

must reach to any conclusion based only on the merits of the case supported by evidence.

He should not carryout justice in haste without examining the evidences in details. In

carrying out justice he should also consult brahmans in order to get the religious and

spiritual dimension.

The Concept of Punishment under Manu Smriti

Manu realised that maintenance of law and order would not be possible without an
effective force behind it. Of course, this is true with every law. In the modern jurisprudence

the sanction behind the law is the power of the state. Manu provides for a two-fold

sanction.

(i) To him beyond is not a myth but a reality. He seems to have been thoroughly

convinced that few people in this world act without expectation.

The whole human activity is based upon the self-interest. He states that those who

discharge their duties in the right manner reach the deathless state and even in this life
obtains the fulfilment of his desires. And even the person who commits a breach of his

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ordained duties can go to heaven provided he is subjected to punishment. In either case

the person acts in his own interest.

(ii) He provides for an authority in this world itself, with a duty to punish the persons

who have committed breaches of their duties. Thus, under Manu sanction consists of hope
and fear. Hope to get the reward in the world which he firmly believes to exist and fear

because there is somebody in this world to subject him to physical punishment. This

philosophy of two-fold sanction is so deep seated in his thinking, he identifies punishment

with law.

The Laws of Manu claim four sources of sacred law the Vedas, conduct of virtuous men
learned in the Vedas, conduct of holy men and self-satisfaction. It also claims that all the

social laws prescribed in it are in strict accordance with the Vedas.

Tracing the origin of law to the divine is a way to command obedience, and to claim

that the law stands above human scrutiny. Such a source also enables the dominant social

sections of society to claim that they are eternally entitled to respect, wealth and political

power. Because divinely ordained laws are unchanging and depend on the conduct of
those already in power, they seek to bolster their position privileged position. For instance,

historian K.P. Jayaswal explained that the divine origin theory of kingship was furthered

by Brahmin king Pusyamitra Sunga in order to make his family's claim to the throne

permanent, and to discredit the Buddhist theory of state which emphasized contract
amongst people to decide their ruler.

Social Laws

The preservation of social order the hierarchy of caste system coupled with the control
of women is the main concern of Manusmriti. That is why we saw that even the rajdharma

laid out by the text largely concerns itself with the King using the instrument of

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punishment to maintain this social order. However, special attention needs to be paid to

how the Manusmriti idealized the social system.

It advocated a social system where each caste stuck to its allotted profession, and

interaction between them was bare minimum. Therefore, its restricted marriages between
different castes, and saw mixed castes with contempt. This also required that additional

restrictions be placed on women.

Marriage

Marriage laws prescribed by Manusmriti adhere strictly to the caste ranking. It lays down

that a Brahmin's first marriage should necessarily take place to a woman of equal caste.

For his subsequent marriages he may take a woman from the three lower varnas as a wife.

But the text strongly advises against a Brahmin man marrying a Shudra woman, warning
that such a union will result in misfortune for the man.

Conclusions

The social laws enshrined in Manusmriti allow us to study ideas and practices on politics,

statecraft, social organization, religion and ethics which were prevalent in early India. As

a text, it is a valuable source to explore the history of early India. The fact that Manusmriti

is the culmination of hundreds of years of thought by Brahminical thinkers adds to its

value as a historical text.

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 24

Question 6 - Describe the development of nation and state.

Answer - Introduction

A nation is a territory where all the people are led by the same government. The word

“nation” can also refer to a group of people who share a history, traditions, culture and,

often, language even if the group does not have a country of its own. People within this
type of nation share a common identity, and think of themselves as belonging to the same

group.

A State is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern

the people in one or more societies, having internal and external sovereignty over a

definite territory.

Thinkers’ views

Aristotle views the state as natural. According to him, the state is a necessary condition

for all humans. Like Plato, he doesn't differentiate between state or society and, in a similar
fashion, considers it to be essential for a good life. Thus, in his view, the State is a necessary

condition of a good life.

Western thinker ‘Galner’ in his book “National and Nationalism” describes nationalism

from the perspective of modernity, defines the rise of nation as a necessity of industrial

society.

Development of nation and state

In ancient India, the use of the word 'rajya' in the Sanskrit texts, has been instead,

common, having in it the seven elements, i.e., saptanga. The controversy exists away the

scholars as to the use and meaning of the term 'rajya'. Ghothal (A History of Indian Political
Ideas) cautions against identifying the elements of rajya with the state; Anjaria (Nature

and Grounds of Political Obligation in the Hindu State), though uses the term 'state' for

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 25

'Rajya' hesitatingly for the 'rajya' does not imply anything about the relationship between

state and subjects, V.P. Verma (Studies in Hindu Political Thought and its Metaphysical

Foundations) while rejecting the word 'State', refers to 'rajya' as an extremely complicated
political structure and organised populations associated with it. R.P. Kangle ("Manu and

Kautilya" in Indian Antiquary 3rd session, 1964), prefers the term 'rule' to state.

In most parts of the ancient and medieval India, as also during the sixteenth-

seventeenth centuries in the West, the word "state came to be commonly understood

somewhat identical with the term’s "sovereign' or 'king' or 'raja' the Nitivakyamrita says'
"Raja is the activity of the ruler? Louis XIV says. "I am the State" Barker (Principles of Social

and Political Theory) referring to Louis XIV rightly says' "Was he not in his own view, as in

that of his subjects, the person who enjoyed the "State and position of being the supreme

political authority, and was he not, therefore, the state."

Buddhist texts

In Buddhist texts also, the words raja (state) and ratha (nation) have been used at

many times. Although the main basis of the Buddhist tradition was the Dhamma and the
Sangha, there is also a detailed mention of the nation and the state. Here nation and state

were used in the same sense, hence the word state has been used more and sometimes

the word nation is also mentioned. It is mentioned in one of the stories of the Jatak that

a deity got angry and rained fire at a place called Madhya Rashtra and made the entire
nation a nation. It is clear from the above fact that the word nation was taken in the

geographical context and it also symbolized the people's and cultural meanings inherent

in the nation. It has been written in a story of Suttanipat that whosoever enjoys the village

and the nation among humans, he should not be considered a Brahmin but a king.

Origin of state as per Shukra Niti: Though in Shukra Niti, there is not much description
with regard to the origin of state, yet through two references, it is seen that Shukra has

supported the divine principle of origin of a state.

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In one reference, Shukra says that, “Brahma created the king as a servant to the subject

who receives taxes from public as his salary. His existence is for the service of the people”.

In the second episode, Shukra says that, “When there was no king in the world, that is,
there was chaos everywhere and people began to run here and there in search of a

hideout, then God created a king for the safety of this world”. In the context of Shukra

Niti, there are only two references where from an outlook is drawn in respect of origin of

a state.

While propagating the principle of existence of a state, a state has been considered
as an important and natural institution in the scripture. While describing the state as the

basis of emergence of the world in the epic, its comparison has been made with the moon

and it has been said that as the moon is the base of growth of ocean, similarly, state is

the original basis for emergence of people. He described appointment of a king by

‘Brahma’ and also supported the divine principle with regard to origin of a state by

describing creation of a king by God, but by terming king as servant to his subject, he has

negated the divine rights of a king.

Nature of state in Shukra Niti:

Shukra, while propagating the organic form of a state, describes its seven organs:

1. Raja (King) 2. Mantri (Minister) 3. Mitra (Allies) 4. Kosh (Treasury) 5. Rashtra (Boundary)

6. Durg (Fortress) 7. Sena (Army)

While drawing comparison of a state with human body, Shukra assumes the Raja (King)

as the head, minister as the eyes, allies as ears, treasure as mouth, sena (army) as mind,

durg (fortress) as both the hands and country as both the feet. In Shukra Niti scripture, a
state has been compared to a tree in another context by terming Raja as roots of a tree,

ministers as stem, army chief as branches, army as leaves, people as soil, the material

obtained from land as fruits and state’s land as seed.

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Shukra Niti has clarified the difference between a nation (rashtra) and a state (rajya).

Two elements are included in rashtra, with the first immovable element as land, hills,

natural wealth, etc. A community devoid of sovereign control is called ‘Rashtra’ and this
‘Rashtra’ is transformed into a ‘Rajya’ by way of sovereign control. That is, to say in precise

manner, that a public organisation living on a definite piece of land is a rashtra if it is

without sovereign control, and it is a rajya if it is with sovereign control.

The Ain-i-Akbari mentions four persons as the chief supports of the state. These are:

 An upright collector: he protects the husbandman, watches over the subjects,

develops the country and improves the revenues;

 A conscientious commander of the army; he is active and strict;

 A Chief justice: he is free from avarice and selfishness, who sits on the eminence of

circumspection and insight, and obtains his ends by putting various questions,

without exclusively relying on witnesses and oaths;

 An intelligencer: he transmits the events of the time without addition or diminution;

he always keeps to the thread of truth and penetration.

The Ain-i-Akbari states that a just king is one who makes himself acquainted with

the characters of men; should be the rapacious people who lay at one extreme, and should

be able to keep himself away from the vicious men, at the other extreme; he should listen

to the former, and improve, if not kill, the latter. A just king should know the people—
their rank and character, and then should regulate business accordingly.

Conclusion

nation and state tend to be used interchangeably in spite of their different difference due
to the belief in the right of each nation to have a state enforced by such concept as

nationalism and self-determinism. A nation-state is defined as a group of people who

share a sense of belonging to the state

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 28

Question 7 - Discuss the theory of origin of Varna system in India.

Answer – Introduction

The Varna meaning is defined and epitomized in Manusmriti and Vedic scriptures of

Yajur Veda. The distinction was made based on skin colours, origin, and occupation

across the society by the Aryans invading contemporary India. Aryans had lighter skin
tones whereas the indigenous people were dark-skinned.

The Varna System

The varna system is divided into four groups namely the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
and Shudras.

Brahmins: The Brahmins were known as the leading varnas and were given the highest

status. Brahmins were expected to learn and educate the Vedas. They were expected to
perform sacrifices and used to receive gifts for the sacrifices and rituals they perform.

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Kshatriyas: The Kshatriya varna stood at the second position including warriors, kings,

administrators. They were expected to fight battles and safeguard people. They were

also expected to perform sacrifices.

Vaishyas: The Vaishya varna stood at the third position including the farmers, herders,
and traders. They were also expected to perform sacrifices.

Shudras: The shudra stood at the last position of this hierarchy including workers,

laborers, artisans. They were expected to assist the other three varnas. Women were also

often considered as Shudras. The Shudras were not permitted to perform sacrifices and

even were not permitted to attend such ceremonies.

Communities that fall under one of the four varnas or classes are regarded as Savarna

whereas the communities which do not belong to one of the four varnas are known as
"avarna".

A person’s varna relies on his birth. It implies that the son of a Brahmin was always

a Brahmin. Similarly, the Shudras son would always remain a shudra. A shudra was not

permitted to do the work meant for other varnas. But some people did not agree with

this system. Even some kings did not favor the caste system. For example; in the north-
eastern part of India, the society was not as strictly divided. The priests did not enjoy
much power in this part of the country.

Theory of origin of Varna system

The Varna system is also known as Jati or Caste system in simple language. The word

“varna” holds a unique meaning: “colour.” The classification of people based on their

skin colour into four hierarchical levels is called varnas.

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1. Traditional Theory

According to this theory, the caste system is of divine origin. It says the caste system is

an extension of the varna system, where the 4 varnas originated from the body of

Bramha.

At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and
intellectuals and came from Brahma’s head. Kshatriyas, or the warriors and rulers, came

from his arms. Vaishyas, or the traders, were created from his thighs. At the bottom were

the Shudras, who came from Brahma’s feet. The mouth signifies its use for preaching,

learning etc., the arms – protections, thighs – to cultivate or business, feet – helps the
whole body, so the duty of the Shudras is to serve all the others. The sub-castes

emerged later due to intermarriages between the 4 varnas.

The proponents of this theory cite Purushasukta of Rigveda, Manusmriti etc, to support

their stand.

2. Racial Theory

The Sanskrit word for caste is varna which means colour. The caste stratification of the

Indian society had its origin in the chaturvarna system – Brahmins, Kashtriyas, Vaishyas

and Shudras. Indian sociologist D.N. Majumdar writes in his book, “Races and Culture in

India”, the caste system took its birth after the arrival of Aryans in India.

Rig Vedic literature stresses very significantly the differences between the Arya and non-
Aryans (Dasa), not only in their complexion but also in their speech, religious practices,

and physical features.

The Varna system prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on division of

labour and occupation. The three classes, Brahma, Kshatra and Vis are frequently

mentioned in the Rig Veda. Brahma and Kshatra represented the poet-priest and the
warrior-chief. Vis comprised all the common people.

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The name of the fourth class, the ‘Sudra’, occurs only once in the Rig Veda. The Sudra

class represented domestic servants.

3. Political Theory

According to this theory, the caste system is a clever device invented by the Brahmins in

order to place themselves on the highest ladder of social hierarchy.

Dr. Ghurye states, “Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo-Aryan culture cradled in the land of

the Ganges and then transferred to other parts of India.”

The Brahmins even added the concept of spiritual merit of the king, through the priest
or purohit in order to get the support of the ruler of the land.

4. Occupational Theory

Caste hierarchy is according to the occupation. Those professions which were regarded
as better and respectable made the persons who performed them superior to those who

were engaged in dirty professions.

According to Newfield, “Function and function alone is responsible for the origin of

caste structure in India.” With functional differentiation there came in occupational

differentiation and numerous sub-castes such as Lohar(blacksmith), Chamar(tanner),

Teli(oil-pressers).

5. Evolution Theory

According to this theory, the caste system did not come into existence all of a sudden or
at a particular date. It is the result of a long process of social evolution.

 Hereditary occupations;

 The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure;

 The lack of rigid unitary control of the state;

 The unwillingness of rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom

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 The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’ doctrines also explain the origin of caste system. Whereas

the Karma doctrine holds the view that a man is born in a particular caste because

of the result of his action in the previous incarnation, the doctrine of Dharma
explains that a man who accepts the caste system and the principles of the caste to

which he belongs, is living according to Dharma. Confirmation to one’s own dharma

also remits on one’s birth in the rich high caste and violation gives a birth in a lower

and poor caste.

 Ideas of exclusive family, ancestor worship, and the sacramental meal;

 Clash of antagonistic cultures particularly of the patriarchal and the matriarchal

systems;

 Clash of races, colour prejudices and conquest;

 Deliberate economic and administrative policies followed by various conquerors

 Geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula;

 Foreign invasions;

 Rural social structure.

Conclusion

The Varna system was a system of stratification of people based on their function, role

and skill in society. It was developed to bring order to society and give the people role
according to their skills. It helped in bringing stability to society.

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 33

Question 8 - Describing the main features of the caste system, explain its functions

in brief.

Or

What is the meaning of the word caste? Describe the development of caste system

in India.

Answer - Introduction

The word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese “casta”, means “race,

lineage, or breed”. Portuguese employed casta in the modern sense when they applied
it to hereditary Indian social groups called as ‘jati’ in India. ‘Jati’ originates from the root

word ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste is concerned with birth.

caste is a social group that includes people of the same economic status, occupation

or rank. In India, the rigid caste system divides people by social distinctions into

hereditary groups that have specific limitations and privileges, depending on where the
person is on the social strata. Although it is illegal in India today to discriminate based

on caste, the system traditionally prevented those in the lower castes from improving

their economic and social status.

The caste system is rooted in Hinduism, but there has also been Hindu opposition to

the barriers that castes present the most famous being the non-violent protest by

Mahatma Gandhi.

Definitions of caste

B. R. Ambedkar - “Ambedkar saw the caste system as an unequal mode of organization

of social relations, with the pure and the impure at either extreme.”

According to Herbert Kisley - "Class is a collection of families or group of families

bearing a common name which usually denotes or is associated with specific

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 34

occupation, claiming descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to

follow the same heredity callings & regarded by those who are competent to give an

opinion as forming a single homogenous community."

According to Charles Coole - "When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may

call it a caste."

According to Anderson and Parker -“Caste is that extreme form of social class

organization in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by

descent and birth.”

Features of Caste System

The caste system in India is mainly associated with Hinduism and has governed the

Hindu society for thousands of years. Some of the features of caste system in India

include the following:

Segmental Division of Society: The society is divided into various small social groups
called castes. Each of these castes is a well-developed social group, the membership of

which is determined by the consideration of birth.

Hierarchy: According to Louis Dumont, castes teach us a fundamental social principle of

hierarchy. At the top of this hierarchy is the Brahmin caste and at the bottom is the

untouchable caste. In between are the intermediate castes, the relative positions of

which are not always clear.

Endogamy: Endogamy is the chief characteristic of caste, i.e., the members of a caste or
sub-caste should marry within their own caste or sub-caste. The violation of the rule of

endogamy would mean ostracism and loss of caste. However, hypergamy (the practice

of women marrying someone who is wealthier or of higher caste or social status.) and

hypogamy (marriage with a person of lower social status) were also prevalent.

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 35

Gotra exogamy is also maintained in each caste. Every caste is subdivided into different

small units on the basis of gotra. The members of one gotra are believed to be

successors of a common ancestor-hence prohibition of marriage within the same gotra.

Hereditary status and occupation: Megasthenes, the Greek traveller to India in 300 B.
C., mentions hereditary occupation as one of the two features of caste system, the other

being endogamy.

Restriction on Food and Drink: Usually a caste would not accept cooked food from

any other caste that stands lower than itself in the social scale, due to the notion of

getting polluted. There were also variously associated taboos related to food. The
cooking taboo, which defines the persons who may cook the food. The eating taboo

which may lay down the ritual to be followed at meals. The commensal taboo which is

concerned with the person with whom one may take food. Finally, the taboo which has

to do with the nature of the vessel (whether made of earth, copper or brass) that one
may use for drinking or cooking. For eg: In North India Brahmin would accept pakka

food (cooked in ghee) only from some castes lower than his own. However, no

individual would accept kachcha (cooked in water) food prepared by an inferior caste.

Food prepared by Brahmin is acceptable to all, the reason for which domination of

Brahmins in the hotel industry for a long time. The beef was not allowed by any castes,
except harijans.

A Particular Name: Every caste has a particular name though which we can identify it.

Sometimes, an occupation is also associated with a particular caste.

The Concept of Purity and Pollution: The higher castes claimed to have ritual, spiritual

and racial purity which they maintained by keeping the lower castes away through the

notion of pollution. The idea of pollution means a touch of lower caste man would
pollute or defile a man of higher caste. Even his shadow is considered enough to pollute

a higher caste man.

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 36

Jati Panchayat: The status of each caste is carefully protected, not only by caste laws

but also by the conventions. These are openly enforced by the community through a

governing body or board called Jati Panchayat. These Panchayats in different regions
and castes are named in a particular fashion such as Kuldriya in Madhya Pradesh and

Jokhila in South Rajasthan.

Functions of Caste System:

All the functions of caste system can be categorized under two:

(a) From Individual Point of View

1. Caste Provides Social Recognition:

All the caste categories are based on the principle of purity and pollution. The pure

castes get high social status without any achievement. By ascription, a Brahmin gets

high status.

2. Provides Social Security:

If any individual faces the problem of getting security from the family, caste protects the

person. For example, if a child becomes orphan and nobody is there to look after the

child, then the caste/sub-caste takes the responsibility of child.

3. It Solves Economic Problem:

As each and every caste is attached with an occupation, and as it is hereditary in nature,

one can follow his traditional occupation. Through his specialized occupation one can
solve his economic problem.

4. It helps in Socialization:

Each caste has its own rules and regulations to control the behaviour of its members.
Through these, caste can guide the individual behaviour.

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 37

A caste introduces its members in the wider social circle. The pattern of taking food,

wearing dress, keeping relations with other castes etc. give the individual an identity in

the society.

5. Protects Individual from the Exploitation:

Caste acts as a trade union. It protects its members from the exploitation. In jajmani
system, the higher caste people cannot exploit the kameens (the service giving castes)

as these caste groups have their caste panchayats. Caste panchayat looks after the social

and economic security of the individual.

(b) From Social Point of View

1. Integrity of the Society:

Caste helps in the integrity of the society. It has the capacity to accommodate

individuals/groups from different races, religions, regions and forms a social whole. So,

caste system acts as a mechanism to maintain social integrity.

2. Preservation of the Culture:

Each society has its own way of acquiring knowledge, expression of behaviour, habits,

style of life etc. These cultural elements pass from one generation to another. Caste
helps in passing those cultural elements through the socialization process.

3. System of Division of Labour:

Caste is based on the unique system of division of Labour. All the activities necessary for
the society have been divided into various categories and allotted to different caste

groups. The main objective of this sort of division of Labour is smooth functioning of the

society.

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 38

4. Promotes Political Stability:

In the caste system the political power is given to one category, i.e. Kshatriyas. No other

caste is allowed to compete with Kshatriyas to have political power. So it avoids political

competition, conflict and violence. It creates a situation of political stability in the

society.

5. Maintains Racial Purity:

Caste system follows the strict rule of caste/sub-caste endogamy. Endogamy (marriage
within one’s own caste/sub-caste) helps in maintaining and preserving the purity of

blood.

Conclusion

Caste system in India is still prevalent; however, today the impact of caste has

diminished subsequently due to education and modernization of the society. People of

different castes live side-by-side and inter-caste marriages are encouraged and have
become a norm.

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 39

Question 9 - Comment on the following.

(i) Dhamma of Ashoka

(ii) Relationship between Sabha and Samiti

(iii) Monarchy mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari

(iv) Justice Theory of John Rawls.

Answer -

(i) Dhamma of Ashoka

Introduction

The legendary Maurya dynasty’s third emperor,

Ashoka, was one of the most powerful emperors of

the ancient Indian subcontinent. Between 268 and

232 BCE, he effectively ruled over a vast portion of

the country. His most notable achievements were his

renunciation of violence, the invention of the

concept of Dhamma (virtuous social behaviour), and

the promotion of Buddhism. He is believed to be the

only King in global history to give up conquest upon winning a war.

King Ashoka’s Religious Policy: Dhamma

King Ashoka declared Buddhism the state religion around 260 BC. He mandated the

practice of Dhamma, which became the foundation of his generous and tolerant
administration. Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the ten principles espoused by Lord

Buddha.

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These ten principles are:

1. To be liberal while avoiding egoism.

2. To uphold a high moral standard.

3. To be willing to put one’s own pleasure aside for the sake of the subjects’ well-
being.

4. To be truthful and uphold total integrity.

5. To be gentle and kind.

6. To live a humble life to inspire the subjects.

7. To be free of all forms of hatred.

8. To practice non-violence.

9. To develop patience.

10. Respect for the public’s viewpoint to create peace and concord.

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not a new religion. It was not a new form of political
philosophy either. Dharma is the Sanskrit word for “dhamma.” Dhamma was a way of life

enshrined in a code of behaviour and a set of ideals that he advised his subjects to

follow to live in peace and prosperity.

Dhamma policies included the following:

 Ahimsa (non-violence) and truthfulness should be practiced

 The masters’ treatment of slaves and servants should be humane

 All religious sects must be tolerated

 Instead of conflict, dharma conquest is preferred

 Parents must be obeyed and respected, and teachers must be revered

 Brahmanas and Buddhist monks should be respected

 Abolition of death sentences

 Animal sacrifices and the killing of birds are prohibited

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 Inappropriate rituals and superstitious practices are discouraged

 Building wells and rest houses, as well as planting trees

 Human and animal health care to be provided

 Provisions to help the poor and the elderly

He propagated these Ashoka’s Dhamma ideals through the issuance of 14 edicts. He

disseminated all of these edicts throughout his realm during his reign. Ashoka entrusted

Dhamma Mahamatras with the task of teaching the Dhamma to the masses. They were

even deployed to spread it in other countries.

Conclusion

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not a specific religious belief or practice, nor was it an arbitrarily

devised royal policy. Dharma is concerned with generalised social norms and practices.

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(ii) Relationship between Sabha and Samiti

Sabha

The term sabha occurred eight times in the Rig Veda and seventeen times in the Atharva

Veda. In one instance, sabha referred to a meeting hall. In other instances, sabha

referred to a “body of men shining together.”

 Sabha was a select body of elders. The head of the sabha was known as

‘Sabhapati’.
 The Sabha advised the king on administration. It discussed pastoral affairs and

performed judicial and administrative functions and exercised judicial authority. It

functioned as a court of law and tried the cases of criminals and punished them.

 The term Sabha denotes both the assembly (in early Rig-Vedic) and the assembly
hall (later Rig- Vedic).

 Women called Sabhavati also attended this assembly.

 It was basically a kin-based assembly and the practice of women attending it was

stopped in later-Vedic times.

 Rig-Veda speaks of the Sabha also as a dicing and gambling assembly, along with

a place for dancing, music, witchcraft, and magic.

 The Sabha, situated outside of settlement, was restricted to the Vratyas, bands of

roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in search of cattle, with a common woman

(pumscali) while the vidatha was the potlatch-like ritual distribution of bounty.

Samiti

The term samiti occurred nine times in the Rig Veda and thirteen times in the Atharva
Veda. The Rig Veda stated that one could not rule without a samiti. One Vedic reference

described a rajan‘s (ruler) presence in a samiti. Another reference described several

rulers sitting together in a samiti.

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 43

The Rig Veda reported people in a samiti discussing their cattle. One Rig Veda prayer

called for agreement and unity of thought in the samiti. The Atharva Veda included the

prayer of a Brahman priest on behalf of a samiti.

 The references to samiti come from the latest books of the Rig-Veda showing that
it assumed importance only towards the end of the Rig-Vedic period.

 Samiti was a folk assembly in which people of the tribe gathered for transacting

tribal business.

 It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned with religious ceremonies and
prayers.

 References suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.

Relationship Between Sabha AND Samiti

The term sabha occurred eight times in the Rig Veda and seventeen times in the

Atharva Veda. In one instance, sabha referred to a meeting hall. In other instances,

sabha referred to a "body of men shining together." The term sabha was often linked

with the term samiti (meeting together), both words referring to a gathering, assembly,
or council of people. The Atharva Veda identified sabha and samiti as two daughters of

the high Vedic god Prajapati. Whenever the terms appeared together, sabha preceded

samiti, leading some scholars to infer that sabha might have existed before samitis. No
ancient texts, however, have identified clear differences between sabha and samitis, their

sequence in appearance, or their relationships to each other.

According to the Rig Veda, people in the sabha called on the deity Indra to protect the

sabha and its members and to grant their words effectiveness in the sabha.

The term samiti occurred nine times in the Rig Veda and thirteen times in the Atharva

Veda. The Rig Veda stated that one could not rule without a samiti.

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 44

Difference between Sabha and Samiti

 In the beginning, there was no difference between the Sabha and the Samiti. Both

were called daughters of Prajapati.

 In the early Vedic Age, the Sabha and Samiti had a commendable role to play as
the political organisation of the Aryans.

 Both were mobile units led by chiefs who kept moving along with the forces.

 The only difference between Sabha and Samiti seems to be the fact that Sabha

performed judicial functions, which the Samiti did not. Later, the sabha became a
small aristocratic body and samiti ceased to exist.

Conclusion

The 'Sabha' and 'Samiti' were two different houses of assembly in the early Vedic period.
The older members of the society took part in the 'Sabha' while the 'Samiti' was

regarded as the common folk assembly. Women took part in the 'Sabha', but in 'Samiti.

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 45

(iii) Monarchy mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari

Introduction

Ain-i-Akbari

Ain-i-Akbari the third volume of the akbarnamah, written by Abul Fazl, the court

historian of Emperor Akbar (1556-1605 AD). While Akbarnamah is a book of history,

Ain-i-Akbari embodies aims or rules and regulations framed and put into effect for

proper administration by Akbar. It is regarded as an administrative manual and is like a

modern gazetteer.

The third volume of Akbarnamah, Ain-i-Akbari, contains information about the

government of Akbar, including its various departments, ranks, etc. The histories written

in India during the Muslim era were all chronicles that primarily followed the
chronological order of the events they described. Rarely are the common people

mentioned unless there are famines or other natural disasters with significant death

tolls. However, the Ain-i-Akbari is a book with a distinct nature. In this book, individuals

involved in various industries and professions are described alongside imperial

institutions, lords, and grandees of the empire.

Monarchy mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari

The Ain-i-Akbari deals with the administration of the Mughal Emperor Akbar. The
following principles of monarchy mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari -

Organisation of Government

The organization was divided into central and provincial governments. His system of the

central government was based on the structure of the Delhi Sultanate but the functions

of various departments were recognized carefully. Territories were classified into Jagir,

Inam, and Khalisa.

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 46

Central Administration

The emperor

Emperor was the main head of administration and controlled all military and judicial

powers and had the authority to appoint, promote and remove officials.

Wazir

Central Asian and Timurid traditions were of having an all-powerful wazir and were the

principal link between ruler and administration. Akbar took away the financial powers of

Wazir. The head of the revenue department continued to be Wazir but was no longer
the principal adviser to the ruler. He was given the title of Diwan, who was responsible

for all incomes and expenditures.

Provincial Administration

In 1580, Akbar divided the empire into 12 subs or provinces. These were broadly Bengal,

Bihar, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa, and Gujarat.

Later. Berar, Ahmednagar, and Khandesh were added. With the expansion, the number

of provinces rose to twenty.

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 47

Suba: Each suba was under the control of a Subedar, who was appointed directly by the

emperor and maintained law and order. The head of the revenue department in suba

was Diwan. Other officials were Mir Bakshi, Sadar, and Daroga-i-Dak,

Sarkar: The main officers of Sarkar were faujdar and amalguzar; who was responsible for
maintaining law and order, and assessment and collection of land revenue respectively.

Pargana: Shiqdar was executive officer at level of pargana. He assisted Amil in the

collection of revenue. Quanungo was in charge of land records of pargana and kotwals

for maintaining law and order.

Village: The village headman is called muqaddam and the patwari looked after revenue

records.

Land Revenue System

The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti. It was based on Sher Shah’s land

revenue system with certain changes; further improved by Raja Todar Mal and named
the Dahsala system. The revenue was fixed on an average yield of land assessed on basis

of the past 10 years and one-third of the average produce was state share and

payments were in cash. The land was classified into 4 types: Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, and

Banjar.

Jagirdari System

The Jagirdari system assigned revenue of a particular territory to nobles for services to

the state and it was a modified version of the iqta of the Delhi Sultanate and an integral
part of the mansabdari system. Classification of jagirs are as follows:

 Tankha jagirs
 Watan jagirs
 Mashrut jagirs
 Altamgha jagir

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 48

Zamindars had hereditary rights over the produce of the land and had a direct share of

10-25 percent of peasants’ produce. He assisted in the collection of revenue and also

rendered military services at times of need.

Mansabdari System

Akbar organized his nobility as well army by means of the mansabdari system. Every
officer was assigned a rank- mansab. The highest rank was 5000 for nobles and the

lowest was 10. Ranks were divided into two:

 Zat rank- Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person and also

salary due to him

 Sawar rank- It indicated the number of cavalrymen a person was required to

maintain.

The chehra and dagh systems were followed. Each noble had to bring a contingent for
periodic inspection before persons were appointed by the emperor for any position.

Provision was made that the contingent of nobles should be mixed and thus Akbar

weakened the forces of tribalism and parochialism.

Conclusion

One of the most skilled historians of Akbar's court, Abul Fazal's works "Akbarnamah"

and "Ain-e-Akbari" attest to his depth of knowledge and command of Persian prose.

The Ain-i-Akbari, popularly known as the "Constitution of Akbar."

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 49

(iv) Justice Theory of John Rawls.

Rawls’ theory

A Theory of Justice, John Rawls brings forth the argument in

favor of a principled reconciliation of liberty and equality, which is

meant to be the governing force behind the basic structure of an

orderly society. This argument is backed by inspiration taken from

David Hume. Additionally, John Rawls also believed in the concept

of justice as fairness. That means every person should be treated

with fairness and recommends equal basic liberties, equal

opportunities to similar individuals, and offering the highest

possible benefits to the less advantaged members of society.

This theory of justice, as believed by Rawls, helps in the functioning of a just society.

This section is crucial in the chapter of John Rawls Theory of Justice UPSC exam.

John Rawls also adds that the modern-day society should be structured well enough that

the people are able to enjoy the maximum possible liberty keeping in mind that an

individual’s liberty does not harm the liberty or wellbeing of other members of society.

Also, certain inequalities are to be allowed in society if their absence brings more harm

than good. Finally, if there are inequalities such as the aforementioned, less fortunate
members of society should not suffer solely for their absence of resources to deal with

them, and it must be made sure that it’s not hard for them to occupy a position of power.

Objective of the theory

The very purpose of Rawls introducing the theory of justice was to find a way to create a

well-ordered society. According to him, a well-ordered society should predominantly have

the following two elements:

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 50

 It should be designed to advance the good of its members and effectively regulated

by a public conception of justice;

 It should be a society wherein all people accept and know that all other people accept
the same principles of justice and that the basic social institutions satisfy those

principles.

A well-ordered society

As discussed earlier, Rawls’ theory of justice is inspired by the Social Contract Theory as

interpreted by the political philosopher Immanuel Kant. Rawls extended Kant’s theory by

taking the viewpoint of a hypothetical contract wherein the decision-makers come

together to formulate rules for defining the basic structure of a well-ordered society, using

set principles of justice. As per Rawls, this formulation is done by observing the following

conditions of the contract:

Objective circumstances

Objective circumstances refer to circumstances that give rise to a situation in which the

members of a society co-exist in some identifiable territory and are of some comparable

strengths and weaknesses so that no one has an edge over another.

Rawls opines that the most significant objective circumstance of justice is the one in

which the resources available to a society are moderately scarce. He stated that to achieve
justice, natural and other resources are not so abundant that schemes of cooperation are

superfluous, nor are conditions so plentiful that fruitful ventures must inevitably break

down. This is because if resources are abundantly and easily available for anyone to use

then nobody will need anybody’s help, making social cooperation unnecessary. Contrarily,
if the resources are too scarce, there will not be enough scope for social cooperation.

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Veil of Ignorance:

 It cannot be expected that everyone puts aside their personal interests and thinks of

the good of society, especially with keeping personal interest in mind of their future

generations. Such perspectives cannot form the base of a theory of justice for a
society

 Reaching a fair and just decision: John Rawls argues that the only way to arrive at it

is if we imagine ourselves to be in a situation in which we have to make opinions

about how society should be organised although we don’t know which position, we’d
ourselves occupy in that society

 Simply, we do not know in which family we would be born like an ‘upper’ caste or

‘lower’ caste family, rich or poor, privileged or disadvantaged. In this case, we will be

likely to support a decision about the rules and organisation of that future society
which would be fair for all the members

 Rawls describes this as supposing under a ‘veil of ignorance’

 Fairness:

 Rawls expects that in such a situation of complete ignorance about our possible
position and status in society, each person would decide in the way they generally

do, that is, in terms of their own interests

 But since no Nobody knows who he’d be, and what’s going to benefit him, each will

ideate the future society from the point of view of the worst-off
 It’ll be clear to a person who can reason and think for himself, that those who are

born privileged will enjoy some special opportunities

 Rational self: It would appear to be legit for every individual, acting to their own

advantage, to attempt to consider decisions of association that will guarantee

sensible freedoms to the weaker sections. The trial will subsist to witness those

important resources, like education, health, sheltered., are available to all

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 It’s of course not simple to erase our identities and to imagine oneself under a veil

of ignorance. But moreover, it’s equally tough for most people to be self- sacrificing

and share their good fortune with Unknowns

 Given these human faults and limitations, it’s better for us to think of a frame that

doesn’t demand extraordinary actions

 Wearing the conceived veil of ignorance is the initial step in getting through a system

of fair laws and policies

 Rawls consequently argues that intelligent thinking, not morality, could lead us to be

fair and judge impartially regarding how to sort the benefits and burdens of a society

 In his illustration, there are no aims or ethics of morality that are given to us in

advance and we abide free to decide what’s best for ourselves

 It’s this faith which makes Rawls’ theory an important and effective way to approach

the question of fairness and justice

Criticism

John Rawls’ Theory of Justice has received a lot of criticisms from fellow philosophers and

book reviewers. Various philosophers who are advocates of the theory of strict equality

criticized the book by saying that certain inequalities that are to be permitted in the eyes

of John Rawls are unacceptable even if they did benefit the least advantaged members of
society. They also argued that this approach of allowing certain inequalities upsets the

balance of a well-structured society that Rawls spoke about in his book. Lastly, as Rawls

primarily used utilitarianism as the main theory for comparing his own theory,

philosophers criticized the book for not portraying maximum utility.

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Conclusion

John Rawls’ theory of justice has had a profound role in defining justice in one of the

closest ways possible. Though it is near-impossible to come across a real-life circumstance

supporting the hypothetical situation illustrated by him, Rawls has succeeded in

elucidating the concept of justice as fairness to a great extent. Most importantly, his

theory sheds light on the rights and liberties of minorities, which utilitarianism failed to

do.

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