FLUID MECHANICS

REVIEW
1

By: AMANUEL TESFAYE

Jimma University
Jimma Institute of Technology
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

MEng3171 - Fluid Mechanics 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
2

Introduction and Basic Concepts

― A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a
fluid.
 What is exactly a Fluid?
 “A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under
the application of a shearing stress no matter how small”

 Fluid mechanics is the science that deals with the

behavior of fluids at rest or in motion and the interaction
of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
3

 Classification of Fluid Flows

 The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface is external flow,
and the flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces.
 A fluid flow is classified as being compressible or
incompressible, depending on the density variation of the fluid
during flow. The densities of liquids are essentially constant,
and thus the flow of liquids is typically incompressible.
 The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of
steady is unsteady.
 The term uniform implies no change with location over a
specified region.
 A flow is said to be one-dimensional when the properties or
variables change in one dimension only.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
4

 No-slip condition
 A fluid in direct contact with a solid surface sticks to the
surface and there is no slip. This is known as the no-slip
condition, which leads to the formation of boundary layers
along solid surfaces.
 System & Control Volume
 A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, and a
system that involves mass transfer across its boundaries is
called an open system or control volume.
 Engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a
system and are therefore modeled as control volumes.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
5

Properties of fluids
 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
 Intensive, Extensive & Specific properties
 The state of a system is described by its properties.
 The state of a simple compressible system is completely
specified by two independent, intensive properties.
 Density & Specific gravity (relative density)
 Specific Weight (Weight density)
 Density of Ideal Gases
 Equation of state
 Vapor pressure & Cavitation
 Saturation temperature & Saturation pressure
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
6

 Energy & Specific heat

 Microscopic (sensible, latent forms of
internal energy - heat) & Macroscopic
Energy (kinetic, potential energy)
 The total energy of a simple
compressible system consists of three
parts: internal, kinetic, and potential
energies. On a unit-mass basis, it is
expressed as e = u + ke + pe.
 The fluid entering or leaving a control
volume possesses an additional form
of energy—the flow energy P/𝜌. Then
the total energy of a flowing fluid
on a unit-mass basis becomes

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
7

 The internal energy and enthalpy of an ideal

gas can be expressed in terms of the specific
heats
 Coefficient of compressibility κ (also called
the bulk modulus of compressibility or bulk
modulus of elasticity)
 Coefficient of volume expansion (or volume
expansivity) 𝛽
 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
 If Ma is less than about 1/3, the flow may be
approximated as incompressible since the effects of
compressibility become significant only when the
Mach number exceeds this value.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
8

 The Mach number depends on the speed of sound, which

depends on the state of the fluid.
 Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow
Mach number. The flow is called sonic when Ma = 1,
subsonic when Ma < 1, supersonic when Ma > 1,
hypersonic when Ma >> 1

 Viscosity
 a property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the “fluidity”
 The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction
is called the drag force, and the magnitude of this force
depends, in part, on viscosity

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
9

 Fluids for which the rate of deformation is linearly

proportional to the shear stress are called Newtonian fluids
 water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids.
 Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian
fluids (not linear).

 Density and viscosity are two of the most fundamental

properties of fluids

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
10
Pressure & Fluid Statics
 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit
area.
 The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute
pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure)
 Gage vs Vacuum pressure
 The pressure at a point in a fluid has the same magnitude in all
directions. This result is applicable to fluids in motion as well as
fluids at rest since pressure is a scalar
 Pressure in a static fluid increases linearly with depth.
 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross
section of the container. It changes with the vertical distance,
but remains constant in horizontal direction.
 Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied to a confined fluid
increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
11

 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer;

thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric
pressure.
 Fluid statics
 Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
 In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers, and thus there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid
trying to deform it.
 Fluid statics is used to determine the forces acting on floating or
submerged bodies and the forces developed by devices like hydraulic
presses and car jacks. The design of many engineering systems such as
water dams and liquid storage tanks requires the determination of the
forces acting on their surfaces using fluid statics.
 The resultant hydrostatic force acting on a submerged surface requires
the determination of the magnitude, the direction, and the line of
action of the force.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
12

 Center of pressure - the point of intersection of the line of action

of the resultant hydrostatic force and the surface
 Buoyancy and Stability
 Force that tends to lift the body is called the buoyant force
 The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with
depth in a fluid.
 The buoyant force acting on a body of uniform density immersed
in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body,
and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
This is known as Archimedes’ principle
 The buoyant force is proportional to the density of the fluid
 The body immersed in a fluid
 Remains at rest at any location in the fluid where its average
density is equal to the density of the fluid,
 Sinks to the bottom when its average density is greater than the
density of the fluid, and
 Rises to the surface of the fluid and floats when the average density
of the body is less than the density of the fluid

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
13

 An important application of the buoyancy concept is the

assessment of the stability of immersed and floating bodies with
no external attachments.
 An immersed or floating body in static equilibrium, the weight
and the buoyant force acting on the body balance each other, and
such bodies are inherently stable in the vertical direction.
 For an immersed or floating body in static equilibrium, the
weight and the buoyant force acting on the body balance each
other, and such bodies are inherently stable in the vertical
direction.
 If an immersed neutrally buoyant body is raised or lowered to
a different depth in an incompressible fluid, the body will
remain in equilibrium at that location.
 If a floating body is raised or lowered somewhat by a vertical
force, the body will return to its original position as soon as
the external effect is removed.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
14

 Therefore, a floating body possesses vertical stability, while

an immersed neutrally buoyant body is neutrally stable
since it does not return to its original position after a
disturbance.
 The rotational stability of an immersed body depends on
the relative locations of the center of gravity G of the body
and the center of buoyancy B, which is the centroid of the
displaced volume.
 Bottom heavy – stable
 Restoring moment - stable
 A floating body is stable if
point M is above point G, and
thus GM is positive, and
unstable if point M is below
point G, and thus GM is
negative.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
15
Fluid kinematics
 In fluid dynamics, fluid kinematics deals with describing the
motion of fluids without necessarily considering the forces and
moments that cause the motion.
 The study of how fluids flow and how to describe fluid motion.
 Two fundamental descriptions of fluid motion:
 Lagrangian description of fluid flow (following a fluid particle),
and
 Eulerian description of fluid flow (pertaining to a flow field).
 Lagrangian analysis is analogous to the (closed) system
analysis. The equations of motion for fluid are readily apparent
in the Lagrangian description.
 Eulerian analysis a finite volume called a flow domain or control
volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out. We
define field variables collectively named flow field for a control
volume at any location and instant in time. Pressure field,
Velocity field, Acceleration field, Temperature field, …, etc.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
16

 The difference between these two descriptions is made

clearer by imagining a person standing beside a river,
measuring its properties.
 In the Lagrangian approach, he throws in a probe that moves
downstream with the water.
 In the Eulerian approach, he anchors the probe at a fixed
location in the water.
 Material Derivative
 The material derivative include total, particle, Lagrangian,
Eulerian, and substantial derivative.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
17

 Acceleration field is a material derivative of velocity field

 The local acceleration term and is non-zero only for unsteady

flows.
 The advective acceleration term (sometimes the convective
acceleration); this term can be nonzero even for steady flows.
 The material derivative can also be applied to other fluid
properties besides velocity, both scalars and vectors.
 For example, the material derivative of pressure is written as

 The time rate of change of pressure following a fluid particle as it

moves through the flow and contains both local (unsteady) and
advective (convective) components.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
18

 Flow Patterns and Flow Visualization

 A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the
instantaneous local velocity vector
 A streamtube consists of a bundle of streamlines
 A pathline is the actual path traveled by an individual fluid
particle over some time period.
 A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that have passed
sequentially through a prescribed point in the flow
 A timeline is a set of adjacent fluid particles that were
marked at the same (earlier) instant in time

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
19

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
20

 Plots of Fluid Flow Data

 A profile plot indicates how the value of a scalar property varies
along some desired direction in the flow field
 A vector plot is an array of arrows indicating the magnitude and
direction of a vector property at an instant in time
 A contour plot shows curves of constant values of a scalar
property (or magnitude of a vector property) at an instant in
time

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
21

 Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements

 Four fundamental types of motion or deformation, as illustrated
in two dimensions in
(a) Translation,
(b) Rotation,
(c) Linear strain, and
(d) Shear strain
 The rate of translation vector is described as the velocity vector
 The rate of rotation vector is equal to the angular velocity vector
 Linear strain rate is defined as the rate of increase in length per
unit length
 Shear strain rate at a point is defined as half of the rate of
decrease of the angle between two initially perpendicular lines
that intersect at the point.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
22

 Vorticity and Rotationality

 Vorticity is a measure of rotation of a fluid particle. Specifically,
Vorticity is equal to twice the angular velocity of a fluid particle.
 If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid
particle that happens to occupy that point in space is rotating;
the flow in that region is called rotational.
 Likewise, if the vorticity in a region of the flow is zero (or
negligibly small), fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow
in that region is called irrotational.
 Physically, fluid particles in a rotational region of flow rotate
end over end as they move along in the flow.
 For example, fluid particles within the viscous boundary layer
near a solid wall are rotational (and thus have nonzero vorticity),
while fluid particles outside the boundary layer are irrotational
(and their vorticity is zero).
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
23

 Comparison of two Circular Flows

 Not all flows with circular streamlines are rotational

Flow A is rotational

Flow B is irrotational

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
24
 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
 In thermodynamics and solid mechanics we often work
with a system (also called a closed system), defined as a
quantity of matter of fixed identity.
 In fluid dynamics, it is more common to work with a
control volume (also called an open system), defined as a
region in space chosen for study.
 The physical laws dealing with the time rates of change of
extensive properties are expressed for systems.
 In fluid mechanics, it is usually more convenient to work
with control volumes, and thus there is a need to relate the
changes in a control volume to the changes in a system.
 The relationship between the time rates of change of an
extensive property for a system and for a control volume is
expressed by the Reynolds transport theorem (RTT)
 RTT provides the link between the system and control
volume approaches.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
25

 RTT - the time rate of change of the property B of the

system is equal to the time rate of change of B of the
control volume plus the net flux of B out of the control
volume by mass crossing the control surface.
 For some extensive property B or its corresponding
intensive property b,

 In both equations, the total change of the property

following a fluid particle or following a system is
composed of two parts: a local (unsteady) part and an
advective (movement) part.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
26

 Relationship between Material Derivative and

RTT
 The Reynolds transport theorem for finite volumes
(integral analysis) is analogous to the material derivative
for infinitesimal volumes (differential analysis).
 In both cases, we transform from a Lagrangian or system
viewpoint to an Eulerian or control volume viewpoint.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
27

Bernoulli and Energy Equations

 The conservation laws (conservation of mass,

conservation of energy, and conservation of

momentum) are applied to a fixed quantity of matter
called a closed system or just a system, and then
extended to regions in space called control volumes.
 Mass and Volume Flow rates

 The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit

time is called the mass flow rate
 The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit
time is called the volume flow rate
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝐴𝑐 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑛 𝐴𝑐 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑄

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
28

 Conservation of Mass Principle

“The time rate of change of mass within the control volume
plus the net mass flow rate through the control surface is
equal to zero”

 Steady-Flow Processes
 Single-stream steady-flow
systems
 Steady, incompressible flow
(single-stream) systems

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
29

 Conservation of Energy Principle

“Energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can
only change forms”
 The energy of a closed system can be changed by two mechanisms:
heat transfer Q and work transfer W. Any heat or work transfer is positive
if to the system and negative if from
the system
𝑣2
 The total energy per unit mass, 𝑒 = 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
2
 The net rate of energy transfer into a CV by
heat and work transfer = The time rate of
change of the energy content of the CV + The
net flow rate of energy out of the control
surface by mass flow

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
30

 For steady flows - the net rate of energy transfer to a

control volume by heat and work transfers is equal to the
difference between the rates of outgoing and incoming
energy flows by mass flow

 The mass flow rate for such single-stream devices is the

same at the inlet and outlet

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
31

 If the flow is ideal with no irreversibilities such as friction,

the total mechanical energy must be conserved, and the
term in parentheses must equal zero.

 If the flow is steady, negligible viscous effects, no shaft

work, incompressible, negligible heat transfer
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
 This also known as Bernoulli's principle

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
32

 The Bernoulli equation

 an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible
flow where net frictional forces are negligible
 The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a
fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady
flow when compressibility and frictional effects are
negligible

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
33

 Multiplying the Bernoulli equation by density gives

𝜌𝑉 2
𝑝+ + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
 where 𝑝 is the static pressure, which represents the actual
𝜌𝑉 2
pressure of the fluid; is the dynamic pressure, which
2
represents the pressure rise when the fluid in motion is
brought to a stop isentropically; and 𝜌𝑔𝑧 is the hydrostatic
pressure, which accounts for the effects of fluid weight on
pressure. The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic
pressures is called the total pressure. The Bernoulli
equation states that the total pressure along a streamline
is constant.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
34
 The Bernoulli equation can also be represented in terms of
“heads” by dividing each term by g,
𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝐻 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑝
 where is the pressure head, which represents the height of a
𝜌𝑔
𝑉2
fluid column that produces the static pressure 𝑝; is the
2𝑔
velocity head, which represents the elevation needed for a fluid
to reach the velocity 𝑉 during frictionless free fall; and 𝑧 is the
elevation head, which represents the potential energy of the
fluid. Also, 𝐻 is the total head for the flow.
 The curve that represents the sum of the static pressure and the
𝑝
elevation heads, + 𝑧, is called the hydraulic grade line (HGL),
𝜌𝑔
𝑝
and the curve that represents the total head of the fluid, +
𝜌𝑔
𝑉2
+ 𝑧, is called the energy grade line (EGL).
2𝑔
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
35

 Conservation of Momentum Principle

 The rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to
the net force acting on the body – Newtons 2nd Law
“The momentum of a system remains constant only when the
net force acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum of such
a system is conserved”
 In fluid mechanics, however, the net force acting on a
system is typically not zero, and we prefer to work with the
linear momentum equation rather than the conservation of
momentum principle.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
36

 The forces acting on a control volume consist of body

forces that act throughout the entire body of the control
volume (such as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and
surface forces that act on the control surface (such as
pressure and viscous forces and reaction forces at points
of contact).

 The sum of all external forces acting

on a CV = The time rate of change of
the linear momentum of the
contents of the CV + The net flow
rate of linear momentum out of the
control surface by mass flow
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
37
 Momentum flow rate across a uniform inlet or outlet
න 𝜌𝑉 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑚𝑉
ሶ 𝑛
𝐶𝑆
 For a fixed control volume with uniform flow over an inlet or
outlet
∑𝐹Ԧ = න 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 + න 𝜌𝑉 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
𝑑
= න 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 + ෍ 𝑚𝑉
ሶ 𝑎𝑣𝑔 − ෍ 𝑚𝑉
ሶ 𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
 Steady Flow with One Inlet and One Outlet - The mass flow rate
for such single-stream systems remains constant
∑𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚(𝑉
ሶ 2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑑 𝑑
 No External forces, ∑𝐹Ԧ = 0 and ‫= 𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝜌 ׬‬ 𝑚𝑉 𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑎Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉

𝐹Ԧ𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑎Ԧ = ෍ 𝑚𝑉
ሶ 𝑎𝑣𝑔 − ෍ 𝑚𝑉
ሶ 𝑎𝑣𝑔 Net thrust force of
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 acting on the body
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
38

 The Navier–Stokes Equations

viscous stress tensor

x-component of the incompressible

Navier–Stokes equation:

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
39

 The law of dimensional homogeneity

“Every additive term in an equation must have the same dimensions”
 A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity without numerical
values, while a unit is a way to assign a number to the dimension.
 For example, length is a dimension, but centimeter is a unit.

 All nonprimary dimensions can be formed by some combination of

the seven primary dimensions - Dimensions of force (𝐹) = 𝑀𝐿/𝑇 2
 Each term in a nondimensional equation is dimensionless
(dimensions of {1})

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
40

 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

 In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are
performed on a geometrically scaled model, rather than on the
full-scale prototype.
 There are three necessary conditions for complete similarity
between a model and a prototype.
 The first condition is geometric similarity (length-scale
equivalence) – the model must be the same shape as the
prototype, but may be scaled by some constant scale factor.
 The second condition is kinematic similarity (time-scale
equivalence), which means that the velocity at any point in the
model flow must be proportional (by a constant scale factor) to
the velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype flow.
 The third condition is dynamic similarity (force-scale
equivalence), which means that all forces in the model flow must
be proportional (by a constant scale factor) to corresponding
forces in the prototype flow.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
41
 In a general flow field, complete similarity between a model and
prototype is achieved only when there is geometric, kinematic, and
dynamic similarity

 Nondimensional parameters, most of which are named after a

notable scientist or engineer, these to be the same for the model
and the prototype.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
42

 Experimental Testing and Modeling

 One of the most useful applications of dimensional
analysis is in designing physical and/or numerical
experiments, and in reporting the results of such
experiments.
 Wind Tunnel Testing

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
43

 We then determine the functional form of the relationship

by performing a regression analysis on the data. If we
are lucky, the data may correlate linearly. If not, we can
try linear regression on log–linear or log– log coordinates,
polynomial curve fitting, etc., to establish an approximate
relationship between the two dimensionless parameters
 Plot the dependent dimensionless parameter as a function
of the independent dimensionless parameter.
 Extrapolate model test data to the full-scale prototype –
only for a complete similarity (when dependent
dimensionless parameter is independent of the other
dimensionless parameter).

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
44
 Internal Flows
 Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in
heating and cooling applications and fluid distribution
networks. The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow
by a fan or pump through a flow section. We pay particular
attention to friction (Major loss), which is directly related to the
pressure drop and head loss during flow through pipes and
ducts.
 Fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the friction factor
is a function of the Reynolds number only and is independent of the
roughness of the pipe surface

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
45

 Once the pressure loss (or head loss) is known, the

required pumping power to overcome the pressure loss is
determined from
𝑊ሶ 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝, 𝐿 = 𝑉Δ𝑃
ሶ 𝐿 = 𝑉ሶ 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ሶ 𝐿
 This can be demonstrated by re-writing the Bernoulli’s
equation, does not involve any work devices such as a
pump or a turbine.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
46

 The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow

depends on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness 𝜀
/D, which is the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the
pipe to the pipe diameter.
 Colebrook equation – empirical equation of friction factor for
transition & turbulent flows

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
47

 At very large Reynolds numbers, the friction factor curves

on the Moody chart are nearly horizontal, and thus the
friction factors are independent of the Reynolds number.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
48

 Minor Loss
 The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various
fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits,
expansions, and contractions in addition to the straight
sections of piping. These components interrupt the
smooth flow of the fluid and cause additional losses
because of the flow separation and mixing they induce.
 Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss
coefficient 𝐾𝐿 (also called the resistance coefficient),
defined as

where ℎ𝐿 is the additional irreversible head loss in the piping

system caused by insertion of the component, and is defined
as ℎ𝐿 = Δ𝑃𝐿 /𝜌𝑔.
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
49

 For example, imagine replacing the

valve with a section of constant
diameter pipe from location 1 to
location 2.
 Δ𝑃𝐿 is defined as the pressure drop
from 1 to 2 for the case with the
valve, (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) valve, minus the
pressure drop that would occur in
the imaginary straight pipe section
from 1 to 2 without the valve, (𝑃1 −
𝑃2 ) pipe at the same flow rate.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
50

 When the loss coefficient for a component is available, the

head loss for that component is determined from

 Once all the loss coefficients are available, the total head
loss in a piping system

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
51

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
52

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
53

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
54

 Series and Parallel Pipes

 When the pipes are connected in series, the flow rate through
the entire system remains constant regardless of the diameters
of the individual pipes in the system. The total head loss in this
case is equal to the sum of the head losses in individual pipes in
the system, including the minor losses.
 For a pipe that branches out into two (or more) parallel pipes
and then rejoins at a junction downstream, the total flow rate is
the sum of the flow rates in the individual pipes.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
55

 Flow rate and Velocity measurement

 Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes
 Obstruction Flowmeters: Orifice, Venturi, and Nozzle Meters
 Positive Displacement Flowmeters
 Turbine Flowmeters
 Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters)
 Ultrasonic Flowmeters
 Electromagnetic Flowmeters
 Vortex Flowmeters
 Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers
 Laser Doppler Velocimetry
 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
56

 External Flow
 Flow of fluids over immersed bodies with emphasis on the
resulting lift and drag forces.
 When a fluid moves over a solid body, it exerts pressure
forces normal to the surface and shear forces parallel to
the surface of the body.
 We are usually interested in the resultant of the pressure
and shear forces acting on the body rather than the details
of the distributions of these forces along the entire surface
of the body.
 The component of the resultant pressure and shear forces
that acts in the flow direction is called the drag force (or
just drag), and the component that acts normal to the flow
direction is called the lift force (or just lift).
Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023
 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
57

 The part of drag that is due directly

to wall shear stress 𝜏𝑤 is called the
skin friction drag since it is caused
by frictional effects, and the part
that is due directly to pressure 𝑃 is
called the pressure drag or form
drag because of its strong
dependence on the form or shape of
the body.
 The drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 and the lift
coefficient 𝐶𝐿 are dimensionless
numbers that represent the drag
and the lift characteristics of a body
and are defined as

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
58

 A body is said to be streamlined if a conscious effort is made to

align its shape with the anticipated streamlines in the flow in
order to reduce drag. Otherwise, a body (such as a building)
tends to block the flow and is said to be bluff.
 At sufficiently high velocities, the fluid stream detaches itself
from the surface of the body. This is called flow separation.
 When a fluid stream separates from the body, it forms a
separated region between the body and the fluid stream.
 Separation may also occur on a streamlined body such as an
airplane wing at a sufficiently large angle of attack, which is the
angle the incoming fluid stream makes with the chord (the line
that connects the nose and the end) of the body.
 Flow separation on the top surface of a wing reduces lift
drastically and may cause the airplane to stall.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
59

 This low-pressure region behind the body where

recirculating and backflows occur is called the separated
region. The larger the separated region, the larger the
pressure drag.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
60

 Drag coefficients of common geometries

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
61

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
62

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
63

 Flow over flat plate

 For external flow, the Reynolds number is expressed as

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
64

 The boundary layer thickness

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023

 FLUID MECHANICS REVIEW
65

 The phenomenon of producing lift by the rotation of a

solid body is called the Magnus effect.

Exit-Exam Tutorial Class 7/1/2023