◼ Sensation and perception are two distinct
phases of one process:
◼ Sensation - process by which information
about the world is registered by the senses
and transmitted to the brain.
◼ Perception is that part of the process by
which sensations are organized into a
meaningful pattern and concept.
Sensation & Perception
Processes
◼ Absolute threshold.
- It is the minimum intensity
of a stimulus that must be
present for it to be
detected. (Sight, Hearing,
Taste, Smell, Touch)
◼Terminal threshold.
- It is the maximum physical
energy, which can still be
detected by a sense organ, and
beyond which there will be no
more sensation, or a sensation of
a different modality.
◼Differential threshold.
- It is the smallest amount of
stimulus energy necessary to
recognize the difference between
two stimuli.
◼Sensory adaptation.
- It refers to the reduction in
sensitivity to stimulation as
stimulation persists through time,
and to increase in sensitivity with
lack of stimulation.
◼ Attention - readiness to perceive; a pre-
perceptive set of expectancy based on
ones interests and motivations, as well as
the nature of the stimuli which impinge
upon us.
Factors Influencing Perception
◼ External factors (stimuli)
◼ Internal factors (perceiver)
◼ 1. EXTERNAL FACTORS ( Stimuli)
a. intensity, size and color
b. contrast
c. repetition
d. movement
e. novelty or unusual
color
size
movement
Novelty or unusual
◼ 2. INTERNAL FACTORS (perceiver)
a. motives/interest
b. perceptual set
c. past experiences
d. physical characteristics
Physical Characteristics
◼ Does our perception of
objects around change if
objects get closer or farther
away, or if they are moving?
Modeled after a ppt slide created by Dr. Kevin Richardson in 1998 and made available through the American Psychological Society
VISUAL PERCEPTION
◼ CHARS. OF PERCEPTION
◼ 1. It is constant
◼ 2. Perception has organizing tendencies
which take several forms
◼ 3. Applying the Gestalt Law of grouping
1. Perception is constant (shape, size, location, color)
Size Constancy
Shape Constancy
◼ Even though these images cast shadows of
different shapes, we still see the quarter as
round
a. Figure and Ground Perception -
emphasized by the Gestalt psychologist;
they theorized that we perceived figures
and forms as whole patterns that are
more than the simple sum of individual
sensations.
A reversible figure-ground design. Do you see two faces in profile, or a
wineglass?
Gestalt Laws of Perceptual
Grouping
How do we group objects
perceptually?
◼ Several principles:
◼ Similarity
◼ Proximity
◼ Continuation
◼ Closure
Modeled after a ppt slide created by Dr. Kevin Richardson in 1998 and made available through the American Psychological Society
Similarity
Proximity
IIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIII
III III III
Closure
We see a square even though its
corners are missing
Closure
CONTINUITY
◼ Vision is not necessarily what we see but
how our brain interprets the world around
us, our own experiences can shape how
we perceive this world.
Watch the
black cross
to see the
green circle
Depth Perception
How Far Away Is It?
Depth Perception
◼ The ability to see objects in three
dimensions although the images that
strike the retina are two-dimensional,
allows us to judge distance
Distance and Depth Perception
◼ How do we judge distance and depth?
◼ We utilize a variety of cues!
Monocular cues:
- size
- linear perspective ─ (parallel lines)
- texture gradient ─ (farther = smoother)
- atmospheric perspective ─ (i.e., quality of discernment)
- overlap
- height ─ (in reference to horizon)
- motion parallax ─ (when moving, distant objects move
in the same direction while close objects move in the
opposite direction, or at least appear to do so)
Binocular cues:
- convergence ─ (eyes turn inward to see closer objects)
- retinal disparity ─ (stereovision)
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Depth Perception
*Monocular Depth
Cues
* Binocular Depth
Cues
Monocular Cues
◼ Depth cues that require the use of only
one eye
◼ Monocular depth cues include:
◼ relative size
◼ relative motion
◼ interposition
◼ relative height
◼ texture gradient
◼ relative clarity
◼ linear perspective.
Relative Size
◼ The larger the object appears, the
closer the object is to the viewer
◼ The smaller the object appears, the
farther away it is to the viewer.
Relative Motion (Motional Parallax)
◼ A person who is moving can determine
depth by focusing on a distant object.
◼ As we move, objects that are actually stable
may appear to move
◼ Objects further away than the object of
focus will appear to move slowly in the same
direction as the subject is moving.
◼ Objects closer than the object of focus will
appear to move quickly in the opposite
direction.
Relative Motion
In this example,
the passenger is
moving past a
stable world. If she
fixes her gaze on
the bridge, objects
behind it will
appear to move
forward. The
farther away the
object is, the more
slowly it will appear
to move. Objects in
front of the fixation
point appear to
move backward.
Interposition
◼ Method of determining depth by noting
that closer objects partially obstruct/block
the more distant objects
◼ Also called “overlap”
Relative Height
◼ Method of determining depth by noting that
distant objects appear higher in your field of
vision than do closer objects
◼ This reversed above the horizon where higher
objects seem closer.
You know that the trees
and houses are farther
away than the lake because
they are higher up in the
drawing than the lake is.
Texture Gradient
◼ Method of determining depth by noting
that distant objects have a smoother
texture than nearby objects
Individual flowers
are visible in the
foreground, but in
the distance they
look like a smooth
carpet.
Relative Clarity (Aerial Perspective)
◼ Method of determining depth by noting that
distant objects are less clear than nearby
objects
◼ Tends to work outdoors because light from
distant objects passes through more
atmosphere, we perceive hazy objects as
farther away than sharp, clear objects
The distant mountains
look blue & hazy
because of dust &
moisture in the
atmosphere.
Linear Perspective
◼ Method of determining depth by noting
that parallel lines appear to converge in
the distance
◼ The lines appears to eventually merge on
the horizon.
The sides of the road
seem to converge in
the distance.
Light and Shadow
◼ Nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes.
◼ Given two identical objects, the dimmer one
seems farther away.
◼ Brain assumes that light comes from above.
Watch as the
picture flips
upside down.
Depth Perception:
Binocular Depth
Cues
Binocular Cues
◼ Depth cues that require the use of both
eyes
◼ There are two types: Retinal Disparity &
Convergence
The eyes must converge, or turn in toward the nose, to focus close
objects.
Retinal Disparity
◼ A binocular depth cue resulting from slightly different images
produced by the separation of the retinas in the left and right
eye
◼ Because our eyes are about 2 ½ inches apart, the retina
receives slightly different images of the world.
◼ The greater the difference between the two images, the
closer the object is to the viewer.
◼ The more alike the two images, the further away the object
is perceived.
◼ Is most effective when the item is quite close to the person
◼ Example: hold a pencil just in front of your nose and close one
eye, then the other. The pencil should move showing the
disparity. Now focus on something far away and do the same.
It should not move very much showing less disparity.
Binocular Depth Cues: Finger
Sausage
Hold your two index
fingers about 5
inches in front of
your eyes, with
their tips half an
inch apart. Now
look beyond them
and note the weird
result. Move your
fingers out farther
and the retinal
disparity—and the
finger sausage—will
shrink.
Fooling the Eye
◼ The cats in (a) are the same size
◼ The diagonal lines in (b) are parallel
◼ You can create a “floating fingertip frankfurter” by
holding hands as shown, 5-10” in front of face.
Hearing
◼ loud, clear sounds seem to be nearby, and
weak or indistinct sounds usually seem to
be far away. But this is not always an
accurate way to judge distance. If an
object (a wall) comes between the source
of the sound and the receiver, the sound
source will seem to be farther away than if
there were no obstruction.
Sound
◼ Sound waves require a medium; air or water
◼ Human ear is sensitive to sound waves with
frequencies of 20 to 20,000 cycles per second
Pitch and Loudness
◼ Pitch
◼ Frequency (# of cycles per second)
◼ Expressed in hertz (Hz)
◼ Pitch of women’s voice is higher than men’s
◼ Loudness
◼ Height (amplitude) of sound waves
◼ Expressed in decibels (dB)
Sound Waves of Various Frequencies
and Amplitudes
The Ear
◼ Shaped and structured to:
◼ capture sound waves
◼ vibrate in sympathy with them
◼ transmit auditory information to the brain
Locating Sounds
◼ Loudness and sequence in which sounds reach
the ear provide cues
◼ May turn head to clarify information
Perception of Loudness and Pitch
◼ Related to number of receptor neurons on the
organ of Corti
◼ Sounds are perceived as louder when more
sensory neurons fire
Deafness
◼ Conductive deafness
◼ Damage to middle ear
◼ Hearing aids can help
◼ Sensorineural deafness
◼ Damage to inner ear or auditory nerve
◼ Cochlear implants may help with damage to
inner ear, but not auditory nerve
◼ when people talk in your language, you
clearly perceive that they are uttering a
series of words. You can tell where one
word ends and where the next word
begins, you recognize the pattern. But
when you listen to an unfamiliar language,
the words seem jumbled together in a
hurried flow, and you perceive few distinct
separations.
The Chemical Senses:
Smell and Taste
Smell
◼ Odors trigger receptor neurons in olfactory
membrane
◼ Odors are sample molecules of substances in
the air
◼ Sensory information about odors is sent to the
brain through the olfactory nerve
◼ Odor contributes to flavor of foods
Taste
◼ Taste is sensed through taste cells
◼ Receptor neurons on taste buds
◼ Four primary taste qualities
◼ Sweet, sour, salty and bitter
◼ Umami (fifth basic taste) – savory
◼ Flavor of food depends on odor, texture,
temperature and taste
◼ Individuals have taste sensitivities
The Skin Senses
Touch and Pressure
◼ Skin sensory receptors fire when skin surface is
touched
◼ Active touching
◼ Some areas of the body are more sensitive
◼ Nerve endings are more densely packed
◼ More sensory cortex is devoted to perception
of sensations in those areas
Temperature
◼ Receptors are located just beneath the skin
◼ Skin temperature increases – receptors for
warmth fire
◼ Skin temperature decreases – receptors for
cold fire
◼ Sensations for temperature are relative
Pain
◼ Nociceptors in skin are stimulated
◼ Pain is usually sharpest where nerve endings
are densely packed
◼ Pain can be felt deep within body
◼ No nerve endings for pain in the brain
Pain
◼ Prostaglandins
◼ Facilitate transmission of pain message
◼ Heighten circulation to injured area
(inflammation)
◼ Pain-relieving drugs inhibit production of
prostaglandins
◼ Emotional response and response to stress
affect degree of pain
Gate Theory of Pain
◼ Nervous system can only process a limited
amount of stimulation
◼ Rubbing the pained area competes for neural
attention
◼ Closes the “gate” on pain messages to the
brain
◼ Association - you focus your attention on the
painful sensations, but attempting to study
them carefully and in a detached manner
rather than thinking of them as painful or
bothersome.
◼ Imagining that the affected part of your body
is numb and insensitive.
◼ Making positive self-statements to yourself.
Acupuncture
◼ Ancient Chinese method of pain control
◼ Research shows it stimulates nerves to the
hypothalamus releasing endorphins
◼ Endorphins are similar in structure and effect
to morphine
Kinesthesis and the
Vestibular Sense
Kinesthesis
◼ Sense that informs you about the position and
motion of your body
◼ Sensory information is sent to the brain from
sensory organs in joints, tendons and muscles
Vestibular System
◼ Housed mainly in semicircular canals in your ears
◼ Monitor your body’s motion and position in
relation to gravity
◼ perception of speed is relative, we do not
actually see speed but rather how fast
something is moving in relation to
something else.
