AQA Computer Science AS-Level
3.1.1 Programming
Concise Notes
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Specification:
3.1.1.1 Data types:
Understand the concept of a data type.
Understand and use the following appropriately:
● integer
● real/float
● Boolean
● character
● string
● date/time
● pointer/reference
● records (or equivalent)
● arrays (or equivalent)
Define and use user-defined data types based on language-defined
(built-in) data types.
3.1.1.2 Programming concepts:
Use, understand and know how the following statement types can be
combined in programs:
● variable declaration
● constant declaration
● assignment
● iteration
● selection
● subroutine (procedure / function)
Use definite and indefinite iteration, including indefinite iteration with the
condition(s) at the start or the end of the iterative structure. A theoretical
understanding of condition(s) at either end of an iterative structure is required,
regardless of whether they are supported by the language being used.
Use nested selection and nested iteration structures.
Use meaningful identifier names and know why it is important to use
them
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3.1.1.3 Arithmetic operations
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● addition
● subtraction
● multiplication
● real/float division
● integer division, including remainders
● exponentiation
● rounding
● truncation
3.1.1.4 Relational operations in a programming language
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● equal to
● not equal to
● less than
● greater than
● less than or equal to
● greater than or equal to
3.1.1.5 Boolean operations in a programming language
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● NOT
● AND
● OR
● XOR
3.1.1.6 Constants and variables in a programming language
Be able to explain the differences between a variable and a constant.
Be able to explain the advantages of using named constants.
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3.1.1.7 String-handling operations in a programming language
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● length
● position
● substring
● concatenation
● character → character code
● character code → character
● string conversion operations
3.1.1.8 Random number generation in a programming language
Be familiar with, and be able to use, random number generation.
3.1.1.9 Exception handling
Be familiar with the concept of exception handling.
Know how to use exception handling in a programming language with
which students are familiar.
3.1.1.10 Subroutines (procedures/functions)
Be familiar with subroutines and their uses.
Know that a subroutine is a named ‘out of line’ block of code that may
be executed (called) by simply writing its name in a program statement.
Be able to explain the advantages of using subroutines in programs.
3.1.1.11 Parameters of subroutines
Be able to describe the use of parameters to pass data within
programs.
Be able to use subroutines with interfaces.
3.1.1.12 Returning a value/values from a subroutine
Be able to use subroutines that return values to the calling routine.
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3.1.1.13 Local variables in subroutines
Know that subroutines may declare their own variables, called local
variables, and that local variables:
● exist only while the subroutine is executing
● are accessible only within the subroutine
Be able to use local variables and explain why it is good practice to do
so.
3.1.1.14 Global variables in a programming language
Be able to contrast local variables with global variables.
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Data Types
● A data type is defined by:
○ The values it can take
○ The operations which can be performed on it
● It is sometimes possible to store one piece of data using different data types
Data type Description
Integer A whole number, positive or negative, including zero.
Real / Float A positive or negative number which can have a fractional
part.
Boolean A value which is either true or false.
Character A single number, letter or symbol.
String A collection of characters.
Data / Time A way of storing a point in time, many different formats are
used.
Pointer / Reference A way of storing memory addresses.
Records A collection of fields, each of which could have a different
data type.
Arrays A finite, indexed set of related elements each of which has
the same data type.
User-defined data types
● Derived from existing data types
● Ensures that a solution is as memory efficient as
possible
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Programming Concepts
Statement type Description
Variable declaration Creating a variable for the first time, giving it a name
and sometimes a data type.
Constant declaration The same as variable declaration, but when creating a
constant.
Assignment Giving a constant or variable a value.
Iteration Repeating an instruction.
Selection Comparing values and choosing an action based on
those values.
Subroutine A named block of code containing a set of instructions
designed to perform a frequently used operation.
Definite and indefinite iteration
● Definite iteration
○ The number of repetitions required is known before the loop starts
● Indefinite iteration
○ The number of repetitions required is not known before the loop starts
Nested Structures
● Selection structures and iteration structures can be nested
● One structure is placed within another
● This can easily be identified by different levels of indentation in code
● Indentation makes the code easier for humans to understand
Meaningful Identifier Names
● Constants, variables and subroutines should be given sensible and meaningful
identifier names.
● This makes it easier for others to understand what the purpose of the named object
is.
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Arithmetic Operations
Operation Description
Addition Adding together two numbers.
Subtraction Taking one number away from another.
Multiplication Timesing two numbers together.
Real / Float Division Dividing one number by another.
Integer Division The same as real / float division, but just the whole number
part is given.
Modulo Returns the remainder of an integer division.
Exponentiation Raising one value to the power of another.
Rounding Limiting the degree of accuracy of a number.
Truncation Removing the decimal part of a number. Never round up.
Relational Operations
Operation Example
Equal to 12 = 12
Not equal to 16 <> 413
16 != 413
Less than 75 < 422
Greater than 19 > 18
Less than or equal to 6 >= 22
95 >= 95
Greater than or equal to 20 >= 126
44 >= 44
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Boolean Operations
Operation Description Example
NOT The opposite of a Boolean value NOT 1 = 0
AND The product of two Boolean values 1 AND 1 = 1
0 AND 1 = 0
OR The sum of two Boolean values 1 OR 0 = 1
1 OR 1 = 1
XOR True if strictly one of two values is true 1 XOR 1 = 0
1 XOR 0 = 1
Constants and Variables
● Data is usually stored by a program using constants or variables
● Variables can change their value during the execution of a program
● A constant’s value cannot change once assigned
● Constants can be used for storing data that doesn’t need to change
● Using constants allows values to be given identifier names
● This makes code easier for a human to understand
● Using a constant makes changing a value throughout code much easier as it only
needs to be updated in one place
String-handling operations
Function Description
Length Returns the number of characters in a specified string.
Position Returns the position of a specified character within a string.
Substring Given a starting position and a length, returns a portion of a
string.
Concatenation Joining two or more strings together to form a new, longer
string.
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String conversions
● Character to character code
● Character code to character
● String to integer
● String to float
● Integer to string
● Float to string
● Date / time to string
● String to date / time
Random number generation
● Most high level programming languages can generate random numbers
● A built-in function takes a seed value and uses a series of mathematical operations
to arrive at a number.
● A computer can never generate a truly random number
● As such, computer-generated random numbers are said to be pseudorandom
Exception handling
● Once an exception has been thrown, the computer has to handle the exception to
avoid crashing.
● It does this by:
○ Pausing execution of the program
○ Saving the current volatile state of the program on the system stack
○ Running a section of code called a catch block
● Once the exception has been handled, the program uses the system stack to
restore its previous state before resuming execution.
Subroutines
● A named block of code
● Containing a set of instructions designed to perform a frequently used operation
● Reduces repetition of code
● Makes code more compact and easier to read
● Can be called by writing their name in a program statement
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Functions and Procedures
● Both functions and procedures are types of subroutine
● Both functions and procedures can return a value
● Functions are required to return a value
● Procedures may not
Parameters of subroutines
● Parameters are used to pass data between subroutines
● They are specified within brackets after a subroutine call
● They hold pieces of information that the subroutine requires to run
● The actual value passed by a parameter is called an argument
Returning values from a subroutine
● A subroutine can return a value
● A subroutine that always returns a value is called a function
● Subroutines that return values can
○ Appear in expressions
○ Be assigned to a variable or parameter
Local variables in subroutines
● A local variable can only be accessed from the subroutine within which it is declared
● Local variables only exist in the computer’s memory when their parent subroutine is
executing
● Local variables are more memory efficient than global variables
Global variables
● Global variables can be accessed from any part of a program
● They exist in memory for the entire duration of the program’s execution
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