AQA Computer Science A-Level
4.1.1 Programming
Advanced Notes
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Specification:
4.1.1.1 Data types:
Understand the concept of a data type.
Understand and use the following appropriately:
● integer
● real/float
● Boolean
● character
● string
● date/time
● pointer/reference
● records (or equivalent)
● arrays (or equivalent)
Define and use user-defined data types based on language-defined
(built-in) data types.
4.1.1.2 Programming concepts:
Use, understand and know how the following statement types can be
combined in programs:
● variable declaration
● constant declaration
● assignment
● iteration
● selection
● subroutine (procedure / function)
Use definite and indefinite iteration, including indefinite iteration with the
condition(s) at the start or the end of the iterative structure. A theoretical
understanding of condition(s) at either end of an iterative structure is required,
regardless of whether they are supported by the language being used.
Use nested selection and nested iteration structures.
Use meaningful identifier names and know why it is important to use
them
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4.1.1.3 Arithmetic operations
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● addition
● subtraction
● multiplication
● real/float division
● integer division, including remainders
● exponentiation
● rounding
● truncation
4.1.1.4 Relational operations in a programming language
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● equal to
● not equal to
● less than
● greater than
● less than or equal to
● greater than or equal to
4.1.1.5 Boolean operations in a programming language
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● NOT
● AND
● OR
● XOR
4.1.1.6 Constants and variables in a programming language
Be able to explain the differences between a variable and a constant.
Be able to explain the advantages of using named constants.
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4.1.1.7 String-handling operations in a programming language
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● length
● position
● substring
● concatenation
● character → character code
● character code → character
● string conversion operations
4.1.1.8 Random number generation in a programming language
Be familiar with, and be able to use, random number generation.
4.1.1.9 Exception handling
Be familiar with the concept of exception handling.
Know how to use exception handling in a programming language with
which students are familiar.
4.1.1.10 Subroutines (procedures/functions)
Be familiar with subroutines and their uses.
Know that a subroutine is a named ‘out of line’ block of code that may
be executed (called) by simply writing its name in a program statement.
Be able to explain the advantages of using subroutines in programs.
4.1.1.11 Parameters of subroutines
Be able to describe the use of parameters to pass data within
programs.
Be able to use subroutines with interfaces.
4.1.1.12 Returning a value/values from a subroutine
Be able to use subroutines that return values to the calling routine.
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4.1.1.13 Local variables in subroutines
Know that subroutines may declare their own variables, called local
variables, and that local variables:
● exist only while the subroutine is executing
● are accessible only within the subroutine
Be able to use local variables and explain why it is good practice to do
so.
4.1.1.14 Global variables in a programming language
Be able to contrast local variables with global variables.
4.1.1.15 Role of stack frames in subroutine calls
Be able to explain how a stack frame is used with subroutine calls to
store:
● return addresses
● parameters
● local variables
4.1.1.16 Recursive techniques
Be familiar with the use of recursive techniques in programming
languages (general and base cases and the mechanism for implementation).
Be able to solve simple problems using recursion.
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Data Types
The way in which data is stored depends on what the data is. A data type is defined by the
values it can take or the operations which can be performed on it.
In some situations, it might be possible to store one piece of data using various different
data types. In this case, the programmer must decide which option is the best suited to
solving a particular problem or which is the most memory-efficient.
For example, if a programmer needs to store a user’s age in years, they could use a string
or an integer. In this situation, using an integer would be the best option, because a
person’s age is only ever going to contain numerical digits.
Data type Description
Integer A whole number, positive or negative, including zero.
Real / Float A positive or negative number which can have a
fractional part.
Boolean A value which is either true or false.
Character A single number, letter or symbol.
String A collection of characters.
Data / Time A way of storing a point in time, many different formats
are used.
Pointer / Reference A way of storing memory addresses.
Records A collection of fields, each of which could have a
different data type. You can think of a record as a row
from a table.
Arrays A finite, indexed set of related elements each of which
has the same data type.
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User-defined data types
User-defined data types are derived from existing data
types in order to create a customised data structure.
Creating and using user-defined data types allows a
programmer to ensure that a solution is as memory
efficient as possible.
For example, a shop might use a user-defined data
type called Customerto store information about their
customers. The user-defined data type might have
attributes like Forename
, Surnameand EmailAddress.
The way in which you use user-defined data types differs between programming
languages. It’s important that you know how to use them in your chosen language.
Programming Concepts
Programming languages support a variety of different statement types, some of which are
explained in the table below.
Statement type Description
Variable declaration Creating a variable for the first time, giving it a name
and sometimes a data type. This allocates a portion of
the computer’s memory to the variable.
Constant declaration The same as variable declaration, but when creating a
constant. The value of a constant does not change
while the program is running.
Assignment Giving a constant or variable a value.
Iteration Repeating an instruction, this could be definite or
indefinite (see below).
Selection Comparing values and choosing an action based on
those values.
Subroutine A named block of code containing a set of instructions
designed to perform a frequently used operation.
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Definite and indefinite iteration
Iteration is the process of repeating a block of code. Examples of iteration include for
loops and whileloops.
Definite iteration is a type of iteration in which the number of repetitions required is known
before the loop starts.
In contrast to definite iteration, indefinite iteration is used when the number of repetitions
required is not known before the loop starts.
FOR Count ← 0 TO 63 WHILE Temperature = 18
OUTPUT Count Temperature = GetTemp()
ENDFOR ENDWHILE
This is an example of definite iteration. The The whileloop above uses indefinite
forloop will run 64 times before finishing. iteration. The number of repetitions is not
known before the loop begins.
Nested Structures
Selection structures and iteration structures can be nested.
This means that one structure is placed within another and
can easily be identified by different levels of indentation in
code.
For example, the pseudocode below consists of an if
structure, containing further selection and iteration structures.
Whenever a new IF Colour = “RED” THEN
selection or iteration WHILE Colour = “RED”
structure begins, the Colour ← UpdateColour()
code moves to a ENDWHILE
higher level of ELSE
indentation, making IF Colour = “GREEN” THEN
the code easier for WHILE Colour = “GREEN”
humans to Colour ← UpdateColour()
understand. ENDWHILE
ELSE
Colour ← “RED”
ENDIF
ENDIF
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Meaningful Identifier Names
When declaring a constant, variable or subroutine, it’s
important to give it a sensible and meaningful identifier name.
This makes it easier for others to understand what the
purpose of the named object is within the program.
If a different programmer, who was unfamiliar with your
program, were to read the code, they should be able to work
out the purpose of a constant, variable or subroutine from its
name.
Arithmetic Operations
The following operations can be applied to operands by your programming language.
Different languages notate these operations differently, so ensure that you’re familiar with
your chosen language’s approach.
Operation Description Example
Addition When two values are added, the result is 128 + 42 = 170
the sum of the two values.
Subtraction When one value is subtracted from another, 34 - 13 = 21
the result is the difference between the two
numbers.
Multiplication The product of two numbers is returned 64 * 2 = 128
when multiplied.
Real / Float When one value is divided by another, both 12 / 8 = 1.5
Division a quotient and a remainder are returned.
Integer Division Integer division returns just the whole 12 \ 8 = 1
number part of a division. Or 12 DIV 8 = 1
Modulo Returns the remainder of an integer 12 MOD 8 = 4
division.
Exponentiation Raising one value to the power of another. 2 ^ 6 = 64
Rounding Limiting the degree of accuracy of a 3.14159 = 3.14
number, for example, to a set number of to 3 significant figures
significant figures.
Truncation Removing the decimal part of a number. 3.14159 truncated = 3
Truncation always returns the whole part of
the number and never rounds up.
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Relational Operations
You can make use of relational operators whenever you need to compare two values.
They are used in iterative and selection structures as well as for base cases in recursion.
Operation Example
Equal to 12 = 12
Not equal to 16 <> 413
16 != 413
Less than 75 < 422
Greater than 19 > 18
Less than or equal to 6 >= 22
95 >= 95
Greater than or equal to 20 >= 126
44 >= 44
Boolean Operations
As explained earlier in this document, a Boolean data type is one whose value can only
ever be true or false. There are a series of operations that can be performed on Boolean
values.
Operation Description Example
NOT The opposite of a NOT 1 = 0
Boolean value
AND The product of two 1 AND 1 = 1
Boolean values 0 AND 1 = 0
OR The sum of two Boolean 1 OR 0 = 1
values 1 OR 1 = 1
XOR True if strictly one of two 1 XOR 1 = 0
values is true 1 XOR 0 = 1
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Constants and Variables
When a program needs to store data, it usually does so using one of two types of data
item: constants or variables.
As their name suggests, variables can change their value during the execution of a
program, whereas a constant’s value cannot change once assigned.
Constants can be used for storing data that doesn’t need to
change such as a value for pi or the number of days in a
year. Using constants allows values to be given identifier
names which makes code easier for a human to understand.
Furthermore, should a constant value be required multiple
times throughout a program, using a constant makes
changing that value much easier as it only needs to be updated in one place.
Using hard-coded values Using constants
HoursWorked ← USERINPUT HourlyRate ← 14
PAY ← 14 * HoursWorked HoursWorked ← USERINPUT
OUTPUT PAY PAY ← HourlyRate * HoursWorked
OUTPUT PAY
The pseudocode examples above show two different approaches to the same problem.
One approach uses hard-coded values whereas the other uses constants.
The code which makes use of constants is easier to understand as it clearly specifies that
14refers to an hourly rate. In the example which uses hard-coded values, it’s difficult to
understand why HoursWorkedis being multiplied by 14.
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String-handling operations
As discussed earlier in this document, a string is a collection of characters. Thanks to their
composition, strings can have various functions applied to them.
Function Description
Length Returns the number of characters in a specified string.
Position Returns the position of a specified character within a string.
Substring Given a starting position and a length, returns a portion of a
string.
Concatenation Joining two or more strings together to form a new, longer
string.
Character to character Returning the character code which corresponds to a
code specified character.
Character code to Returning the character represented by a given character
character code.
String to integer Converting a string to an integer.
String to float Converting a string to a float.
Integer to string Converting an integer to a string.
Float to string Converting a float to a string.
Date / time to string Converting a date / time data type to a string.
String to date / time Converting a string to a date / time data type.
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Random number generation
Most high level programming languages have the ability to
generate random numbers.
A built-in function takes a seed value and uses a series of
mathematical operations to arrive at a number. However, a
computer can never generate a truly random number and as
such, computer-generated random numbers are said to be
pseudorandom.
It’s important that you make yourself familiar with random number generation in your
chosen programming language.
Exception handling
When an error occurs in program code, an “exception” is said to be thrown. This could be
caused by using the wrong data type, attempting to divide by zero or attempting to access
a non-existent element in an array to name a few examples.
Once an exception has been thrown, the computer has to
handle the exception to avoid crashing. It does this by
pausing execution of the program and saving the current
volatile state of the program on the system stack before
running a section of code called a catch block.
This code will prevent the program from crashing and might inform the user that an error
has occurred. Once the exception has been handled, the program uses the system stack
to restore its previous state before resuming execution.
Subroutines
A subroutine is a named block of code containing a set of
instructions designed to perform a frequently used operation.
Using subroutines reduces repetition of code and hence
makes code more compact and easier to read.
Both functions and procedures are types of subroutine and
can be called by writing their name in a program statement.
While both functions and procedures can return a value,
functions are required to whereas procedures may not.
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Parameters of subroutines
Parameters are used to pass data between subroutines within programs. Specified within
brackets after a subroutine call, parameters hold pieces of information that the subroutine
requires to run.
Length ← USERINPUT
Width ← USERINPUT
OUTPUT CalculateArea(Length, Width)
SUBROUTINE CalcualteArea(x, y)
RETURN x * y
ENDSUBROUTINE
The subroutine CalculareAreain the pseudocode above takes two parameters,
Lengthand Width . It then returns the product of the two values.
The actual value passed by a parameter is called an argument. If a rectangle with sides of
height 4 and width 6 was input into CalculateArea , the parameters Lengthand Width
would have arguments 4 and 6 respectively.
Returning values from a subroutine
A subroutine can return a value. One that always returns a value is called a function, but
don’t think that procedures can’t return a value, they can (but don’t always).
Subroutines that return values can appear in expressions and be assigned to a variable or
parameter.
Length ← USERINPUT
Width ← USERINPUT
Area ← CalculateArea(Length, Width)
OUTPUT Area
SUBROUTINE CalcualteArea(x, y)
RETURN x * y
ENDSUBROUTINE
For example, in the pseudocode above, the variable Areais assigned to the subroutine
CalculateArea . The value taken by the variable will be the value returned by the
subroutine.
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Local variables in subroutines
A local variable is a variable that can only be accessed from the subroutine within which it
is declared. They only exist in the computer’s memory when their parent subroutine is
executing. This makes local variables a more memory efficient way of storing data than
using global variables, which are discussed below.
Global variables
In contrast to local variables, global variables can be accessed from any part of a program
and exist in memory for the entire duration of the program’s execution.
Local variables can be given the same identifier name as global variables, although this is
generally considered bad practice. When the local variable’s value is changed, the global
variable’s value remains the same.
The role of stack frames in subroutine calls
Stack frames are used by computers to store return addresses, parameters and local
variables for each subroutine call that occurs during the execution of a program.
If one subroutine calls another, nesting is said to occur. Each subroutine call will be
pushed onto the computer’s call stack in the form of a stack frame before the subroutine’s
code begins to execute. When the nested subroutine finishes executing, the stack frame is
popped from the call stack and the computer uses the information to return to execution of
the previous subroutine.
1 Name ← USERINPUT
2 OUTPUT Greeting(Name)
3
4 SUBROUTINE Greeting(Name)
5 TimeOfDay ← GetTimeOfDay()
6 RETURN “Good “ + TimeOfDay + Name
7 ENDSUBROUTINE
8
9 SUBROUTINE GetTimeOfDay()
10 IF Time < 12:00 THEN
11 RETURN “morning”
12 ELSE
13 RETURN “afternoon”
14 ENDIF
15 ENDSUBROUTINE
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Stack Frame Example
When the pseudocode above is run, the subroutine GetTimeOfDayis called from within
the subroutine Greetingand nesting occurs.
The first stack frame to be pushed onto the call stack is for the subroutine Greeting
:
Call Stack
Subroutine Return Parameters Local
Name Address Variables
Greeting Line 2 Name = “Sarah” Null
When the subroutine GetTimeOfDayis called, another stack frame is pushed onto the
call stack and is placed on top of the frame representing Greeting:
Call Stack
Subroutine Return Parameters Local
Name Address Variables
GetTimeOfDay Line 5 Null Null
Subroutine Return Parameters Local
Name Address Variables
Greeting Line 2 Name = “Sarah” Null
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When the subroutine GetTimeOfDaycompletes, its corresponding stack frame is popped
from the call stack:
Call Stack
Subroutine Return Parameters Local
Name Address Variables
Greeting Line 2 Name = “Sarah” Null
The computer now takes the stack frame at the top of the stack and goes to the specified
return address. Any parameters and local variables are restored.
Once the subroutine Greetinghas completed, the final stack frame is popped from the
call stack, leaving it empty.
Call Stack
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Recursive techniques
A recursive subroutine is one which is defined in terms of itself. This means that
somewhere within the recursive subroutine, there is a call to the subroutine itself.
Any recursive subroutine must meet have a stopping
condition (called a base case) which must be met at some
point in the execution of the program.
If an algorithm calls itself, but doesn’t have a base case, it
will never terminate. This will cause a stack overflow as more
and more stack frames are pushed onto the call stack.
The pseudocode below is an example of a recursive
algorithm which can be used to calculate the factorial of a
number, passed to the subroutine as a parameter.
1 SUBROUTINE Factorial(Value)
2 IF Value = 0 THEN
3 RETURN 1
4 ELSE
5 RETURN Value * F actorial(Value - 1)
6 ENDIF
7 ENDSUBROUTINE
The algorithm can be called recursive because it calls itself on line 5 (shown in bold). The
algorithm’s base case is when Value = 0
. In this case, the algorithm doesn’t use
recursion to return a result.
When a problem can be solved recursively, it can often also be solved using iteration.
While iterative solutions are often easier to program, recursive solutions can be more
compact in code.
For example, the two pseudocode algorithms below
represent two possible approaches to the binary search
algorithm. The first approach uses iteration while the second
uses recursion.
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Iterative Binary Search Example
SUBROUTINE BinarySearch(Array, ToFind)
Low ← 0
High ← Length(Array)
Middle ← 0
WHILE Low <= High
Middle ← (Low + High) / 2
IF Array(Middle) > ToFind THEN
High ← Middle - 1
ELSEIF Array(Middle) < ToFind THEN
Low ← Middle + 1
ELSE
RETURN Middle
ENDIF
ENDWHILE
ENDSUBROUTINE
Recursive Binary Search Example
SUBROUTINE BinarySearch(Low, High, Array, ToFind)
Middle ← (Low + High) / 2
IF ToFind < Array(Middle) THEN
RETURN
BinarySearch(Low, Middle, Array, ToFind)
ELSEIF ToFind > Array(Middle) THEN
RETURN
BinarySearch(Middle, High, Array, ToFind)
ELSEIF ToFind = Array(Middle) THEN
Return Middle
ENDIF
ENDSUBROUTINE
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