Fundamentals of Science &

Engineering
-Thermal Energy-
Grace Chai, Kok-Geng Lim

1
Learning Outcome
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• differentiate the temperature scales (°C) & thermodynamic scale (K).
• comprehend that the thermal energy transfer requires temperature difference.
• Apply the methods of thermal energy transfer.
• define specific heat capacity (Q = mcΔT ), latent heat of fusion & latent heat of
vaporisation (Q = ml).
• describe solids, liquids & gases.
• explain simple kinetic model for solids, liquids & gases.
• define pressure & use the kinetic model to explain the pressure exerted by
gases.
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Heat
• Heat is a transfer of energy from one object to another because of a
difference in temperature.
• The unit to measure heat is kcal/ kJ.
• 1 kcal/ kJ is defined as the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
by 1 °C.

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Internal Energy
• Internal energy refers to the total energy of all the molecules within the
object.
• The direction of heat flow between two objects depends on their temperatures,
not on how much internal energy each has.

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Temperature scale
• Temperature tells us about the direction in which energy flows between two
objects.
• When two objects of the same temperature are in contact, there is no heat
transfer between them. We call this thermal equilibrium.
• Temperature scales, °C, takes two fixed points, the melting point of pure ice &
the boiling point of water, and divides the range between them into 100 equal
intervals.
• It changes if the pressure or the water impurity changes.

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Thermodynamic scale
• also know as Kelvin (K) scale.
• it is based on a single point (absolute zero) which is given a value of 0 K. This
is the temperature where all the substances have the minimum internal energy.
• from there, the scale increases by degrees that are the same size as °C. A
change in temperature of 1 K is equal to a change in temperature of 1 °C.
• it is a scale that is based on energy content, rather than on arbitrary temperature
(based on water). Water freezes at the value 273.15 K & boils at 373.15 K.
• it is not possible to have temperature lower than 0 K.

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Thermodynamic scale
• Different symbols are used to represent temperatures on these two scales:
– 𝜃𝜃 for the Celcius scale
– T for the thermodynamic (Kelvin) scale.
𝜃𝜃 ℃ = 𝑇𝑇 K − 273.15
𝑇𝑇 K = 𝜃𝜃 ℃ +273.15

• For practical purpose, we round off the conversion factor to 273.

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The measurement of temperature
• A thermometer is an instrument that measures temperature. Narrow
-bore
glass
• It uses any material property which changes with temperature: tube

Scal
– thermal expansion. e

– electrical resistance Bulb

containing
liquid
• For example:
– Liquid in glass thermometers
– Electrical Resistance Thermometers
– etc

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Thermometers
• Liquid in glass thermometers:
– ∆𝑙𝑙 = 𝑐𝑐∆𝑇𝑇
– Where ∆l and ∆T are the changes in length of the liquid and temperature
respectively, c is a constant.
• Electrical Resistance Thermometers:
– ∆𝑅𝑅 = 𝑘𝑘∆𝑇𝑇
– Where ∆R and ∆T are the changes in electrical resistance and temperature
respectively and k is a constant.

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Measuring Temperature
• Put the sensor in melting ice and record the measured value as X0 at the ice
point (0 ℃) on the scale.

• Then, put the sensor in boiling water and record the measured value as X100 at
the steam point (100 ℃) on the scale.

• Divide the difference between the two values (X0 and X100) into 100 equal
divisions.
Measuring Temperature

X100
Xθ
X0

0℃ θ 100 ℃
• At another temperature θ (unknown), if the value of the
property measured is Xθ, then the temperature θ is given
by

𝑋𝑋𝜃𝜃 − 𝑋𝑋0
𝜃𝜃 = × 100 ℃
𝑋𝑋100 − 𝑋𝑋0
Example 1
In an alcohol in glass thermometer, the alcohol column has a length of 11.82 cm at
0.0 °C and a length of 22.85 cm at a 100.0 °C. What is the temperature if the
column of alcohol has a length of 16.70 cm

X0 = 11.82 cm, X100 = 22.85 cm, Xθ = 16.70 cm

𝑋𝑋𝜃𝜃 − 𝑋𝑋0 16.7 − 11.82

𝜃𝜃 = × 100 ℃ = × 100 ℃ = 44.2 ℃
𝑋𝑋100 − 𝑋𝑋0 22.85 − 11.82
Specific heat capacity, c
• When heat energy is transferred to an object, its temperature increase depends
upon the:
– the mass of the object
– the substance the object is made from
– the amount energy transferred to the object.

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Specific heat capacity, c
• The specific heat capacity of a substance is the energy required per unit mass of
the substance to raise the temperature by 1 K (or 1 °C).
• Eg: for water, it takes 1 calorie to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 °C.
So the specific heat for water is 1 cal/gram °C.
• Some materials are easier to heat than others.
• The amount of energy,
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇
where m is the mass of the substance, c is the specific heat capacity & ∆𝑇𝑇 is the change in temperature.
• The specific heat capacity of a material can be defined as:
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
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Specific heat for some common substance

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http://chemistryhungergames.weebly.com/district-8---thermochemistry.html
Example 2
1. When 26400 J of energy is supplied to a 2.0 kg block of aluminium, its
temperature rises from 20 °C to 35 °C. The block is well insulated so that there
is no energy loss to the surroundings. Determine the specific heat capacity of
aluminium.

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇
𝑄𝑄
𝑐𝑐 =
𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇

26400𝐽𝐽
𝑐𝑐 =
(2.0𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)(350 𝐶𝐶−200 𝐶𝐶)

𝑐𝑐 = 880 Jkg −1 ℃−1

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Example taken from Worked example 1, Pg 320 of Ref. 3
Determining specific heat capacity, c
• The specific heat capacity can be
determined by supplying a known
amount of energy to a known mass of
the material and measure the rise in its
temperature.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gHFa
L2990U. Calculate the specific capacity of
the cadmium metal.

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Latent heat
• When a substance changes from one state to another, latent heat is added or
released in the process.
• Latent heat is the energy required to change from one state to another at
constant temperature.

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Latent heat
• Consider the water substance: all three phases of water (vapor, ice, & liquid) can
be present at the same time in a thunderstorm, for example, water is changing
phases on a continual basis, therefore, latent heat is added or released on a
continual basis

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http://www.dailykos.com/story/2011/03/27/960683/-Finally-Using-Salts-to-trap-and-store-Solar-Energy-leveraging-the-Physics-of-Latent-Heat
Latent heat
• To calculate the amount of energy, 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 required to melt or vaporise a mass, m of
substance, we need to know the specific latent heat, L.
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

where L is measured in Jkg-1.

• There is no change in temperature in the melting/ boiling process.
• Latent heat is different for different materials.

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Determining latent heat, L
• Figure on the right shows an experimental
setup to measure the latent heat of
vaporisation of water.
• A calorimeter containing water is heated
using an electrical heating element. This
heating element is connected to a
wattmeter/ ammeter to determine the rate
at which energy is supplied to the heater.
• The water is heated at a steady rate and its
mass is recorded at equal intervals of time.
Its mass decreases as it boils.
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http://ramadan.50megs.com/IGC_Exp_2Y_HeatOfVaporization.htm
Determining latent heat, L
• To calculate the latent heat, you may use:
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

• A similar approach can be used to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of
ice.

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Example 3
How much heat energy is needed to change 5.0 kg of ice at 0 °C to water at 0 °C?
[latent heat of ice is 3.3 × 105 J/kg ]

𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = (5.0 kg)(3.3 × 105 J/kg)
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝐉𝐉

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Example 4
How much heat energy is needed to change 1.50 kg of water at 100 °C to steam at
100 °C? [latent heat of water steam is 2.3 × 106 J/kg ]

𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = (1.5 kg)( 2.3 × 106 J ⁄ kg )
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 3.45 × 106 J

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Example 5
How much heat does a refrigerator need to change 2.5 kg of water at 20.0 °C to ice
at 0 °C? [ the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 × 103 J ⁄ kg℃ ; latent heat of
ice is 3.3 × 105 J/kg ]

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇
𝑄𝑄 = (2.5 kg)(4.2 × 103 J/ kg℃)(20 ℃) Total energy heat a refrigerator needed,
𝑄𝑄 = 2.1𝑥𝑥105 J 𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 + 𝑄𝑄
𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝐉𝐉
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = (2.5 kg)(3.3 × 105 J/kg)
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 8.25 × 105 J 26
Kinetic model
•Heat changes the states of a matter
•There are 3 states of matter:
–Solid
–Liquid
–Gas
•Substances can change from one state to
another.
•Kinetic model can explain the change of
state by considering all matter (substances)
to be made of particles.

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Kinetic model
The model is based on the following assumptions:

1. matter is made up of tiny particles

2. these particles tend to attract one another

3. the particles tend to move about

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Kinetic model
The difference between the three states can be described by:
• the spacing of the particles
• the ordering of the particles
• the motion of the particles

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Kinetic model
Solid Liquid Gas
Spacing & ordering close together with close together in random far apart;
regular pattern order randomly arranged
Motion vibrate about a fixed move around each other move quickly in any
position direction
Diagram

Internal Energy roughly equal amounts of more K. E than P. E internal energy almost
K.E & P. E entirely K. E
They continually
transform from one to
another

Total internal energy is constant at a constant temperature 30

Melting, boiling & evaporation
Phase A: Heating/Cooling Curve of Solid

On the position of the curve, temperature of the

ice warms up from negative to 0 °C.
Specific heat of ice, Ci = 2090 J/kg°C
Thermal Energy (Heat), Q = miCi∆T

A plot of temperature versus thermal energy added

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Melting, boiling & evaporation
Phase B: Melting Point of Solid

When ice reaches 0.0 °C, the ice/water mixture

remains at this temperature, thermal energy
added to melt the ice to cold water.
Latent Heat of fusion, Lf = 3.33x105 J/kg
Thermal Energy (Heat), Q = mLLf
A plot of temperature versus thermal energy added

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Melting, boiling & evaporation
Phase C: Heating/Cooling Curve of Liquid

Between 0.0 °C and 100.0 °C, no phase change

occurs in the region.
Thermal energy added being used to increase
the temperature.
Specific heat of water, Cw = 4186 J/kg°C
Thermal Energy (Heat), Q = mwCw ∆ T A plot of temperature versus thermal energy added

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Melting, boiling & evaporation
Phase D: Boiling Point of Liquid

At 100.0 °C, phase changes as water boiled into

steam.
Thermal energy added to break the bond within
water molecules.
Latent Heat of vaporization, Lv = 2.26x106 J/kg
Thermal Energy (Heat), Q = mLv A plot of temperature versus thermal energy added

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Melting, boiling & evaporation
Phase E: Heating/Cooling of Gas

On this position of the curve, heat is added to

steam to increase the temperature and no
phase change occurs.
Specific heat of steam, Cs = 2010 J/kg°C
Thermal Energy (Heat), Q = msCs ∆ T

A plot of temperature versus thermal energy added

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Example 6
How much heat energy is needed to change 1 kg of ice at -25 °C to steam at 120
°C?

To heat up ice from –25 °C to 0 °C, Q = mCi∆T = 2090 × 25 = 5.23 × 104 J

To turn ice into water, Q = mLf = 3.33 × 105 J
To heat up water from 0 °C to 100 °C, Q = mCw∆T = 4186 × 100 = 4.19 × 105 J
To turn water into steam, Q = mLv = 2.26 × 106 J
To heat up steam from 100 °C to 120 °C, Q = mCs∆T = 2010 × 20 = 4.02 × 104 J

Total Heat Required = 3.104 × 106 J

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Summary
• Celsius scale : 𝜃𝜃 ℃ = 𝑇𝑇 K − 273.15
• Kelvin scale: 𝑇𝑇 K = 𝜃𝜃 ℃ +273.15
𝑋𝑋𝜃𝜃 −𝑋𝑋0
• 𝜃𝜃 = × 100 ℃
𝑋𝑋100 −𝑋𝑋0

• Latent Heat: 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

• Heat Capacity: 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇

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38
References
1. Giancoli, Douglas. Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics
(Fourth edition). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc, 2009. Print.

2. Knight, Randall. Physics with Modern Physics for Scientist and Engineers
(Third edition). Pearson Education, Inc, 2009. Print.

3. Sang, David; Jones, Graham. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics

coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012, 5th print.

4. Woodside, Richard; International As and A Level Physics Revision Guide.

London: Hodder Education , 2013, Print.

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